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Nanotechnology andApplications in Food SafetyBita Farhang

Contents

I. Introduction 402II. Potential Food Applications 403

II.A. Food packaging 403II.B. Detection of foodborne pathogens and their toxins 406II.C. Detection of chemicals and contaminants 407II.D. Nanodevices for identity preservation and tracking 407

III. Regulation 408IV. Conclusion 408References 409

Abstract

Nanotechnology involves research and technology development at theatomic, molecular, and macromolecular levels, aimed at creating andusing structures, devices, and systems with novel properties andfunctions based on their small size. It is strategically a very importantresearch field with considerable industrial potential.

Over the past few years nanotechnology has rapidly becomea significant component in the food industry, applications ranging fromsmart packaging to interactive foods. Major food producers are presentlyusing nanotechnology to improve food quality but the future belongs tonew products and processes and customization of such products, as thenanofood market worldwide is expected to increase monetarily to over$20.4 billion in 2010.

Indeed, nanotechnology could provide innovative answers to currentproblems concerning food safety. Recent developments show manyapplications of nanotechnology that improve the quality and safety offood products; for example, nanosensors to detect pathogens andcontaminants and nanodevices to identify preservation and tracking. Infood packaging, nanomaterials are being developed with enhancedmechanical and thermal properties to improve protection of foodsagainst exterior mechanical, thermal, chemical, or microbiological effects.Some potential uses in food packaging include modifying permeationbehavior of foils, increasing barrier properties, improving mechanical andheat-resistance properties, developing active antimicrobial and antifungal

rld Congress Book: Global Issues in Food Science and Technology ISBN 9780123741240

vier Inc. All rights reserved.

401

402 Bita Farhang

surfaces, and sensing and signaling microbiological and biochemicalchanges.

Given the importance of this novel technology in making food safe toeat, this chapter will provide insights into the potential benefits ofnanotechnology in food safety.

I. INTRODUCTION

Recent trends in global food production, processing, distribution, and

preparation are creating an increasing demand for food safety research to

ensure a safer global food supply. Food safety is therefore an increasingly

important public health issue and governments all over the world are

intensifying their efforts to improve food safety procedures. These efforts are

also in response to an increasing number of food safety problems and rising

consumer concerns (WHO, 2006).

One of the new technologies to improve food safety is nanotechnology,

which is the manipulation or self-assembly of individual atoms, molecules,

or molecular clusters into structures, the purpose of which is to create

materials and devices with new or vastly different properties (Joseph and

Morrison, 2006).

This new technology deals with controlling the properties of matter

with dimensions between 1 and 100 nanometers. One nanometer is equal

to one billionth of a meter, and is about the size of a small molecule

(ElAmin, 2005). Therefore it can be said that nanotechnology focuses on

the characterization, fabrication, and manipulation of biological and non-

biological structures smaller than 100 nanometers. Structures on this scale

have been shown to have unique and novel functional properties (Weiss

et al., 2006).

Nanotechnology will enable the manufacture of high-quality products at

a very low cost and fast pace. It is commonly referred to as a generic

technology that offers better-built, safer, longer-lasting, cheaper, and

smarter non-food products with wide applications in consumer households,

the communications industry, and medicine field, however there is even

more potential in the agriculture and food industry (Warad and Dutta,

2006).

According to a recent report by the consulting company, Cientifica, the

value of nanotechnologies in the food industry reached $410 million in

2006, with applications restricted primarily to food packaging for improved

gas barrier protection and improved nutraceutical delivery systems. Today

more than 200 companies around the world are active in research and

development. The United States is the leader followed by Japan and China.

The Asian market, comprising more than 50% of the world’s population,

Nanotechnology and Applications in Food Safety 403

will be the biggest market for nanofood by 2010 with China leading

(Moraru et al., 2003).

Nanotechnology can be used in food processing and storage as nano-

composites for plastic film coatings in food packaging, as antimicrobial

nanoemulsions for decontamination of food equipment, in packaging, and

as food nanotechnology-based antigens to detect biosensors for identifica-

tion of pathogen contamination (Salamanca-Buentello et al., 2005).

II. POTENTIAL FOOD APPLICATIONS

The application of nanotechnology and nanoparticles in food processing is

emerging rapidly (ElAmin, 2006). According to reports, five out of ten of

the world’s largest food and beverage companies are currently investing in

nanotechnology research and development (R&D) (Nanotechwire report,

2005).

Nanotechnology has the potential to impact many aspects of the world’s

food and agricultural systems. Some examples of the important links that

nanotechnology has to the science and engineering of these agricultural and

food systems are (Weiss et al., 2006):

� Food security

� Disease treatment delivery methods

� New tools for molecular and cellular biology

� New materials for pathogen detection

� Protection of the environment.

According to a study by Mallika et al. (2005), uses for nanotechnology in

the food industry, in addition to food security, include design of new food

products, nutrient and flavor encapsulation, microbiological food safety,

food biotechnology, beverage filtration, nano biosensors, restoring cellular

damage in foods, and food packaging. Thus, nanotechnology has the

potential to improve food quality and safety significantly. There are many

new applications of this novel technology for improving food safety in

particular (to be discussed in this chapter) such as:

� Food packaging

� Detection of foodborne pathogens and their toxins

� Detection of chemicals and contaminants

� Identity preservation and tracking.

II.A. Food packaging

Packaging is a critical key to ensuring the safety of food products. Nano-

technology can improve packaging material and its functionality and

404 Bita Farhang

consequently ensure food safety and consumer protection. Today, food

packaging and monitoring of products are a major focus of food-industry-

related nanotechnology R&D. Packaging that incorporates nanomaterials

can be ‘smart,’ which means it can respond to environmental conditions or

repair itself, or even alert a consumer about contamination and/or the

presence of pathogens. According to an industry analyst the current U.S.

market for active, controlled, smart packaging of foods and beverages is an

estimated $38 billion, and will surpass $54 billion by 2008 (ETC Group

Report, 2004). Nanotechnology makes food packaging intelligent, smart

and long-lasting, providing better safety against bacteria and microorganisms

than traditional market packaging methods. It is predicted that nanotech-

nology will change 25% of the worldwide food-packaging business in the

next decade, which means over $30 billion annually in the market

(Nanotechwire report, 2005).

Developing smart packaging to optimize product shelf life has been the

goal of many companies. Such packaging systems would be able to repair

small holes/tears, respond to environmental conditions (e.g. temperature

and moisture changes), and alert the customer if the food is contaminated.

For example, nanomaterials, which are materials with a microstructure of

characteristic length on the order of a few, typically 1–100 nanometers,

could be developed to modify the permeation behavior of foils, increase

barrier properties (mechanical, thermal, chemical, and microbial), improve

mechanical and heat-resistance properties, develop active antimicrobial and

antifungal surfaces, and sense and signal microbiological and biochemical

changes (De Jong, 2005; Joseph and Morrison, 2006).

Plastics are increasingly being used in food packaging, but there are

concerns about their ability to allow the exchange of oxygen, carbon

dioxide, water, and aroma components, which could compromise the

quality and safety of packaged foods. However nanocomposites, which are

high-barrier materials, are a potential solution to this problem (Lagaron,

2006). High-barrier materials are good barriers against oxygen, water

vapor, and aromas and also offer good barrier properties under different

packing, handling, shipping, and storage conditions.

For instance the polymer–clay nanocomposite has emerged as a novel

food-packaging material due to several benefits, such as its enhanced

mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties (Ray et al., 2006). Its use has

improved plastic packaging of food products. For example, the Bayer

Company produces a transparent plastic film containing nanoparticles of clay.

The nanoparticles are dispersed throughout the plastic and are able to block

oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture from reaching fresh meats or other

foods. The nanoclay also makes the plastic lighter, stronger, and more heat-

resistant (Brody, 2006). According to Avella et al. (2005), biodegradable

Nanotechnology and Applications in Food Safety 405

starch/clay nanocomposite films can also be used for food packaging while in

a similar study Lagaron et al. (2006) showed that nanocomposites can improve

the quality and safety of packaged food.

As mentioned, researchers are even experimenting with materials that

will change their properties to address outside environmental factors such as

temperature or humidity. For instance, imagine an ice cream carton that

would tighten its existing molecular structure to prevent heat from affecting

the contents if left in the back of an automobile on a hot summer day (ETC

Group Report, 2004).

Zinc oxide and magnesium oxide nanoparticles, two in a range of nano

ingredients produced by advanced nanotechnology, could also have anti-

microbial properties. Nanotechnology researchers in the UK reported that

both zinc oxide and magnesium oxide are effective in killing microor-

ganisms (Patton, 2006). According to another research group in the UK

(University of Leeds), nanoparticles of magnesium oxide and zinc oxide

are indeed highly effective at destroying microorganisms and therefore

could have applications in food packaging (Food Production Daily

Report, 2005).

With different nanostructures, plastics can achieve various levels of gas/

water vapor permeability to fit the requirements of preserving fruits, veg-

etables, beverages, and other foods. By adding nanoparticles, food processors

can also produce bottles and packages that are more resistant to light, have

stronger mechanical and thermal performance, and are less gas absorptive.

These properties can significantly increase the shelf life, efficiently preserve

flavor and color, and facilitate transportation and usage. Further,

nanostructured film can effectively protect the food from invasion of bacteria

and microorganisms and ensure food safety. With embedded nanosensors in

the packaging, consumers will be able to ‘read’ the condition of the food

inside (Asadi and Mousavi, 2006).

Meanwhile, scientists at the University of Strathclyde (Glasgow) have

developed ‘intelligent ink’ by using light-sensitive nanoparticles that only

detect oxygen. The patented ink could be used for labels on any food, and

because it is inexpensive, it is suitable for use in large numbers. The ink

could also be used to indicate if the original modified atmosphere inside

a package has changed (Dunn, 2004).

At Kraft foods Inc, as well as at Rutgers University in the U.S., scientists

are developing an electronic tongue for inclusion in packaging. This consists

of an array of nanosensors that are extremely sensitive to gases released by

food as it spoils, causing the sensor strip to change color as a result, giving

a clear visible signal of whether the food is fresh or not ( Joseph and

Morrison, 2006).

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II.B. Detection of foodborne pathogens and their toxins

Foodborne diseases are a widespread and growing public health problem,

both in developed and developing countries. In industrialized countries, the

percentage of people suffering from foodborne diseases each year has been

reported to be up to 30%. In the U.S., for example, there are around 76

million cases of foodborne diseases estimated to occur each year, resulting in

325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths (WHO report, 2006).

The presence of microorganisms in food is a natural and unavoidable

occurrence. Researchers are continuously searching for sensitive tools that

are fast, accurate, and ultrasensitive. In recent years, there has been much

research activity in the area of sensor development for detecting pathogenic

microorganisms (Bhunia and Lathrop, 2003). The more exciting of nano-

technology applications is the development of nanosensors that can be

placed in food production and food distribution facilities, and in the

packaging itself to detect the presence of everything from E. coli and Listeria

to Campylobacter and Salmonella (Russell, 2005; Sage, 2007).

The ever-present need for rapid and sensitive assay methods to detect

foodborne pathogens, particularly Salmonella, has led to increased

incorporation of biosensor technology into microarray and other platforms.

The use of mimetics and aptamers has been added to these procedures.

Incorporating nanoparticles, particularly fluorophores and quantum dots in

various procedures, has decreased the size of instrumentation while increasing

automation, sensitivity, and rapidity of results (Goldschmidt, 2006).

This exciting possibility of combining biology and nanoscale technology

into sensors not only holds the potential of increased sensitivity, it signifi-

cantly reduces the response-time to sense potential problems. A bioanalytical

nanosensor would be able to detect a single virus particle long before the virus

multiplied and long before symptoms are evident in plants or animals. Some

examples of potential applications for bioanalytical nanosensors are detection

of pathogens, contaminants, environmental characteristics (light/dark,

hot/cold, wet/dry), heavy metals, and particulates or allergens (Scott and

Chen, 2003).

Nanocantilevers, which look like tiny diving boards made of silicon, are

one of the types of nanoscale materials being studied as part of general

nanotechnology research. Cantilever structures are the simplest of micro-

electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and can be easily micro-machined and

mass produced. The ability to detect extremely small displacements makes the

cantilever beams an ideal device for detection of extremely small forces and

stresses (Datskos et al., 2004). Nanocantilevers could be used as future

detectors because they vibrate at different frequencies when contaminants

stick to them, revealing the presence of dangerous substances. Nanocantilevers

Nanotechnology and Applications in Food Safety 407

coated with antibodies to detect certain viruses attract different densities – or

a quantity of antibodies per area – depending on the size of the cantilever. The

nanocantilever devices are immersed into liquid containing antibodies to

allow the proteins to stick to the nanocantilever surface (ElAmin, 2006). Also,

a nanocantilever device developed using DNA biochips, to detect pathogens

in different food products, has been applied successfully (Sage, 2007).

II.C. Detection of chemicals and contaminants

The contamination of food due to chemical hazards is a worldwide public

health concern and a leading cause of trade problems internationally.

Contamination may occur through environmental pollution of the air,

water, and soil, as in the case of toxic metals, dioxins, or the intentional use

of various chemicals, such as pesticides, animal drugs, and other

agrochemicals. Also, there are some naturally occurring toxins such as

mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, and cyanogenic glycosides that can

contaminate food (WHO, 2006). Therefore the detection of these chem-

icals in foods is critical, whereupon nanotechnology can provide a rapid

means to detecting such materials through biosensors (Hanna, 2006).

II.D. Nanodevices for identity preservation and tracking

Identity preservation (IP) is a system that creates increased value by

providing customers with information about the practices and activities used

to produce a particular crop or other agricultural product. Quality assurance

of agricultural products’ safety and security could be significantly improved

through IP at the nanoscale. Nanoscale IP holds the possibility of contin-

uous tracking and recording of history that a particular agricultural product

experiences and, further, can improve identity preservation of food and

agricultural products (Scott and Chen, 2003).

In another study by Lachance (2004), use of traceability systems for

ensuring safety and quality of nutraceutical foods and pharmaceutical

products is discussed. A composite safety system, termed intelligent product

delivery system (IPDS), is proposed for preventing introduction of chemical

and/or microbiological hazards into these products by bioterrorism. IPDS is

based on the integration of three existing technologies:

1. Global positioning systems for location of crop field or place of

manufacture

2. Bar codes

3. HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point).

It is further suggested that the IPDS can be coupled by developing rapid

nanotechnology marker assays for ensuring traceability throughout the

processing and packaging process.

408 Bita Farhang

III. REGULATION

The safety of nanoproducts has become the focus of increasing attention.

Despite the rapid commercialization of nanotechnology, no nano-specific

regulations exist anywhere in the world. Most regulatory agencies remain in

an information-gathering mode, lacking the legal and scientific tools,

information, and resources they need to adequately oversee exponential

nanotechnology market growth (Azonano report, 2008). The U.S. Food and

Drug Administration (FDA) claims that it regulates ‘products, not technol-

ogies.’ Nevertheless, the FDA expects that many products of nanotechnology

will come under the jurisdiction of many of its centers; thus, the Office of

Combination Products will likely absorb any relevant responsibilities (Tarver,

2007). The FDA regulates a wide range of products, including foods, cos-

metics, drugs, devices, and veterinary products, some of which are produced

utilizing nanotechnology or contain nanomaterials. Acting Commissioner of

the FDA initiated the Nanotechnology Task Force (Task Force) in 2006 to

help address the questions regarding adequacy and application of regulatory

authorities (FDA Nanotechnology Task Force, 2007).

On the other hand, the European Commission aims at reinforcing

nanotechnology and, at the same time, boosting support for collaborative

R&D on the potential impact of nanotechnology on human health and the

environment via toxicological and ecotoxicological studies. The Commis-

sion is performing a regulatory inventory, covering EU regulatory

frameworks that are applicable to nanomaterials (chemicals, worker

protection, environmental legislation, product specific legislation, etc.). The

purpose of this inventory is to examine and, where appropriate, propose

adaptations of EU regulations in relevant sectors (Cordis, 2008).

IV. CONCLUSION

Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most innovative technologies to

occur in decades and has the potential to improve food quality and safety.

Currently a lot of research has been done on nanotechnology application in

the areas of food packaging, and the detection of pathogens and contami-

nants. Nanotechnology will change the packaging industry by modifying

the structure of packaging materials at the molecular level. As mentioned,

the most beneficial application of nanotechnology is in food packaging.

A self-cleaning coating at the nanoscale and an antimicrobial packaging

coating has already been applied successfully as well as a polymer

nanocomposite for barrier protection. For food manufacturers, using

nanotechnology can mean gaining a more competitive position. While in

the long term, consumers may benefit from advances in nanotechnology as

Nanotechnology and Applications in Food Safety 409

new methods for improving the safety and quality of food products are

developed and applied, the products still need to be regulated to ensure

safety and consumer protection.

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