Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran

Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Organizational Behavior:Organizational Behavior:

CommunicationCommunication


Learning Objectives

• After studying this chapter, you should be able to:• Identify the main functions of communication.• Describe the communication process and distinguish between formal and

informal communication.• Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication with examples.• Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.• Compare and contrast formal communication networks and the grapevine.• Analyze the advantages and challenges of electronic communication.• Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communication

channel.• Identify common barriers to effective communication.• Show how to overcome the potential problems in cross-cultural

communication.


Control Motivation

EmotionalExpression

Information

Functions of Communication


A Perceptual Model of Communication

NoiseSender

Receiverdecodes

Receivercreates

meaning

Transmittedon medium

MessageEncoding

EncodingMessageTransmittedon medium

Sourcedecodes

TransmitMessage

TransmitFeedback


Paper Exercise

Same Message observed and absorbed differently

• “If What We were saying could be heard as it is, the world would have been a paradise” ( Kennedy )



This is what happened


This is How the Italians Saw it


This is how the French Saw it


This is how the Japanese saw it


Face-to-face

TelephonePersonalwritten

Formal numeric

OversimplifiedZone

OverloadedZone

Routine/Clear

Nonroutine/Ambiguous

Rich

Lean

MediaRichness

Situation

Hierarchy of Media Richness

Formalwritten


Episodes of information

overload

Employee’s information processing capacity

Time

Information Load

Information Overload


Reduce Information Load

• Buffering

• Summarizing

• Omitting.


DownwardDownwardUpwardUpward LateralLateral

Direction ofCommunication

Direction ofCommunication


Sources of Distortion in Upward Communication

Situational AntecedentsPatterns of Distortion in Upward

Communication

1. Supervisor’s upward influence

Low High Increased distortion because employees send more favorable information and withhold useful information.

Low High2. Supervisor’s

powerIncreased distortion because employees screen out information detrimental to their welfare.

Low High3. Subordinate’s

aspiration for upward mobility

Less accuracy because employees tend to pass along information that helps their cause.

Low High4. Subordinate’s trust

in the supervisorConsiderable distortion because employees do not pass up all information they receive.


Chain Wheel All-Channel

Three Common Small-Group Networks


Metacommunication

• Communication is more than just verbal…• Communicating about one’s communication

style/barriers to communication, etc.• Nonverbal communication

• Verbal (words)• Vocal (tone of voice)• Visual (body language)


Nonverbal Communication

• Body Movement, Gestures and Posture

• Touch

• Facial expressions and Personal Appearance.

• Eye Contact.• Interpersonal Distance• Voice Quality

























• Transmits most information in face-to-face meetings

• Influences meaning of verbal and written symbols

• Less rule bound than verbal communication

• Important part of emotional labor


Skills and Best Practices: Advice to Improve Nonverbal

Communication Skills

• Maintain eye contact.

• Nod your head to convey that you are listening or that you agree.

• Smile and show interest.

• Lean forward to show the speaker you are interested.

• Use a tone of voice that matches your message

Positive Nonverbal Actions Include:


Skills and Best Practices: Advice to Improve Nonverbal

Communication Skills

• Avoiding eye contact and looking away from the speaker.

• Closing your eyes or tensing your facial muscles.

• Excessive yawning.

• Using body language that conveys indecisiveness or lack of confidence (e.g., slumped shoulders, head down, flat tones, inaudible voice)

• Speaking too fast or too slow.

Negative Nonverbal Actions Include:


Organizational Grapevine

• Early Research Findings– Transmits information rapidly in all directions– Follows a cluster chain pattern– More active in homogeneous groups– Transmits some degree of truth

• Changes Due to Internet– E-mail etc. becoming main grapevine medium– Social networks are now global


Grapevine: Positives and Negatives

• Benefits– Supplements information– Strengthens corporate culture– Relieves anxiety– Signals that problems exist

• Problem– Distortions might escalate anxiety


Reducing Rumors

1. Announce timetables for making important decisions

2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may appear inconsistent or secretive

3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and future plans

4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities—they are almost never as anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy

Source: Adapted from L. Hirschhorn, “Managing Rumors,” in L. Hirschhorn (ed.), Cutting Back (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), pp. 54–56. With permission.Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Cross-Cultural Communication

• Assume differences until similarity is proved

• Emphasize description over interpretation and

evaluation

• Cultivate the art of being empathetic

• Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis


Men Women

Gender Communication Differences

1. Rapport talk2. Gives advice indirectly

and reluctantly3. Language of connection

and intimacy4. Frequently asks for

information5. More sensitive to

nonverbal cues6. Want empathy, not

solutions7. Are more likely to

compliment8. Emphasize politeness9. More conciliatory

1. Report talk2. Gives advice quickly and

directly, Are more directive in conversation

3. Language of status, power; 4. Talk as a means to preserve

independence by displaying knowledge and skill

5. Avoids asking for information6. Less sensitive to nonverbal cues7. Are more intimidating8. Call attention to their

accomplishments9. Tend to dominate discussions

during meetings


Interpersonal Communication Styles

Assertive Pushing hard without attacking; permits others to influence outcome; expressive and self-enhancing without intruding on others.

Good eye contact; Comfortable but firm posture; Strong, steady and audible voice; Facial expressions matched to message; Appropriately serious tone; Selective interruptions to ensure understanding.

Direct and unambiguous language; No attributions or evaluations of others’ behavior; Use of “I” statements and cooperative “we” statements.

Communication Nonverbal Behavior Verbal Behavior

Style Description Pattern Pattern


Interpersonal Communication Styles (continued)


Style Description Pattern PatternAggressive Taking advantage of

others; Expressive and self-enhancing at others’ expense.

Glaring eye contact; Moving or leaning too close; Threatening gestures (pointing finger; clenched fist); Loud Voice; Frequent interruptions.

Swear words and abusive language; Attributions and evaluations of others’ behavior; Sexist or racists terms; Explicit threats or put-downs.


Interpersonal Communication Styles (continued)


Style Description Pattern PatternNonassertiv

e

Encouraging others to take advantage of us; Inhibited; Self-denying.

Little eye contact; Downward glances; Slumped postures; Constantly shifting weight; Wringing hands; Weak or whiny voice.

Qualifiers (“maybe,” “kind of” ); Fillers (“uh,” “you know,” “well”); Negaters (“it’s really not that important,” “I’m not sure”).


Listening Styles

Results-style: Interested in the bottom line or result of a message.

Reasons-style: Interested in hearing the rationale behind a message.

Process-style: Likes to discuss issues in detail.


Managers Should Be Active Listeners

• Make eye contact

• Avoid distractions

• Ask questions

• Exhibit appropriate expressions

• Paraphrase

• Avoid interrupting

• Don’t talk too much

• Combine speaking and listening


Active Listening Process and Strategies

ACTIVELISTENING

SENSING• Postpone evaluation• Avoid interruptions• Maintain interest

EVALUATING

• Empathize• Organize information

RESPONDING

• Show interest• Clarify the message


The Keys to Effective Listening

Keys to Effective Listening The Bad Listener The Good Listener

1. Capitalize on thought speed

Tends to daydream Stays with the speaker, mentally summarizes the speaker, weighs evidence, and listens between the lines

2. Listen for ideas Listens for facts Listens for central or overall ideas

3. Find an area of interest Tunes out dry speakers or subjects

Listens for any useful information

4. Judge content, not delivery

Tunes out dry monotone speakers

Assesses content by listening to entire message before making judgments

5. Hold your fire Gets too emotional or worked up by something said by the speaker and enters into an argument

Withholds judgment until comprehension is complete


The Keys to Effective Listening (cont)

Keys to Effective Listening The Bad Listener The Good Listener

6. Work at listening Does not expend energy on listening

Gives the speaker full attention

7. Resist Distractions Is easily distracted Fights distractions and concentrates on the speaker

8. Hear what is said Shuts our or denies unfavorable information

Listens to both favorable and unfavorable information

9. Challenge yourself Resists listening to presentations of difficult subject manner

Treats complex presentations as exercises for the mind

10. Use handouts, overheads, or other visual aids

Does not take notes or pay attention to visual aids

Takes notes as required and uses visual aids to enhance understanding of the presentation


E-Communication

• Internet/Intranet/Extranet

• Electronic Mail

• Videoconferencing

• Collaborative Computing

• Telecommuting


Electronic Communications: E-mail

• E-mail– Advantages: Quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for

distribution– Disadvantages:

• Messages are easily and commonly misinterpreted• Not appropriate for sending negative messages• Overused and overloading readers• Removes inhibitions and can cause emotional responses and

flaming• Difficult to “get” emotional state understood – emoticons• Non-private: e-mail is often monitored and may be

forwarded to anyone


Emoticons: Showing Emotion in E-Mail

Electronic mail needn’t be emotion free. Over the years, a set of symbols

(emoticons) has evolved that e-mail users have developed for expressing

emotions. For instance, the use of all caps (i.e., THIS PROJECT NEEDS

YOUR IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!) is the e-mail equivalent of

shouting. The following highlights some emoticons:


Electronic Comms: Instant/Text Messaging

Forms of “real time” communication of short messages that often use portable communication devices

– Explosive growth in business use– Fast and inexpensive means of communication– Can be intrusive and distracting– Easily “hacked” with weak security – Can be seen as too informal

•Instant Messaging– Immediate e-mail sent to receiver’s desktop or device

•Text Messages– Short messages typically sent to cell phones or other handheld devices


Electronic Comms: Networking Software

• Linked systems organically spread throughout the nation and world that can be accessed by a PC

• Includes:– Social networks like MySpace® and Facebook®

– Professional networks like Zoominfo® and Ziggs®

– Corporate networks such as IBM’s BluePages®

• Key Points:– These are public spaces – anyone can see what you post– Can be used for job application screening– Avoid “over stimulating” your contacts


Electronic Comms: Blogs and Videoconferencing

• Blogs: websites about a single person (or entity) that are typically updated daily– A popular but potentially dangerous activity:

• Employees may post harmful information • Such comments may be cause for dismissal• No First Amendment rights protection• Can be against company policy to post in the blog during

company time and on company equipment/connections

• Videoconferencing: uses live audio and video Internet streaming to create virtual meetings– Now uses inexpensive webcams and laptops in place of formal

videoconferencing rooms


Communication Barriers and Cultural Context

High-Context Cultures

Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues to communication.

Low-Context Cultures

Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.


High- vs. Low-Context Cultures


Barriers to Effective Communication

1. Cultural;

2. Selective Perception;

3. Filtering;

4. Informational overload;

5. Semantic Barriers: Language, Jargon;

6. Defensiveness;

7. Gender.


Documents

Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran