Getting to grips with useful grammar A crash course for using grammar as a tool to analyse language

Getting to grips with useful grammar A crash course for using grammar as a language analysis tool

Is grammar different from syntax? To start with, lets consider grammar more generally. Theres more to it than the absence of errors. Accuracy is still important.

Do you understand these words? bitten boy dog had left leg a his on the Word class or part of speech

Can you make meaning with this? 1.Left bitten the a on had leg dog boy his. Why not? You understand all the words. Is this better? 2.A dog had bitten the boy on his left leg.

What is grammar? Grammar: the underlying patterns in a language that need to be followed for meaning to effectively be made Grammar = syntax + morphology Syntax = word order Morphology = word form Sometimes also includes phonology & semantics

Public focus on grammar Over recent decades, the teaching of grammar, spelling, syntax and sentence construction has become an optional extra. The then federal Education Minister Julie Bishop quoted in The Australian 11 August 06 - Students failed by language system

Syntax: patterns of wordings A dog had bitten the boy on his left leg is English. Left bitten the a on had leg dog boy his is not English. Words need to be arranged according to particular grammatical patterns for texts to convey intelligible meanings.

Morphology: word forms A dog had bitten the boy on his left leg. A.dog vs dogs, boy vs boys, leg vs legs B.bitten: to bite, bite, bit, bites, biting C.his vs her What scope is there for variation in word form here? Nouns change for number: singular & plural Verb forms change for tense, person & number Gender: masculine & feminine

Morphology: word form A dog had bitten the boy on his left leg is English. A dogs have biting the boy on her left legs is not English. Within accepted grammatical patterns, the appropriate forms of words need to be used.

How language works English has little inflectional morphology. But what it lacks in morphology, it more than makes up for in syntax. David Crystal, Penguin, 2006, Page 239.

Consider this paragraph Cool was I and logical. Keen, calculating, perspicacious, acute, and astute - I was all of these. My brain was as powerful as a dynamo, as precise as a chemist's scales, as penetrating as a scalpel. And - think of it - I was only eighteen. From Love is a fallacy by Max Schulman

The effect of structure Cool was I and logical. Keen, calculating, perspicacious, acute, and astute - I was all of these. My brain was as powerful as a dynamo, as precise as a chemist's scales, as penetrating as a scalpel. And - think of it - I was only eighteen. I was cool and logical. From Love is a fallacy by Max Schulman Whats placed first Whats the usual pattern

Whats placed first ? 1.Her lover was shot down on the highway. 2.In 1722, a highwayman named Will Steele started operating in the area. 3.Give me your money and nobody will get hurt. Each of these clauses begins with a different type of language element. Examples of language based on Alfred Noyes poem The Highwayman

Her lover was shot down on the highway ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place

Her lover was shot down on the highway ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place LabelFunction Grammatical item Clause elements how language represents the world Process Whats going on Verb group

Her lover was shot down on the highway ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place LabelFunction Grammatical item Clause elements how language represents the world Process Whats going on Verb group Participant/s Who/what are involved Noun groups

Her lover was shot down on the highway ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place LabelFunction Grammatical item Clause elements how language represents the world Process Whats going on Verb group Participant/s Who/what are involved Noun groups Circumstance/s Where When Why how Adverbial group, or Prepositional phrase

Her lover was shot down on the highway ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place In 1722 a highwayman named Will Steele started operating in the area Circumstance Time ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place

Her lover was shot down on the highway ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place In 1722 a highwayman named Will Steele started operating in the area Circumstance Time ParticipantProcess Circumstance Place Givemeyour money ProcessParticipant

Theme position in clauses 1.Her lover was shot down on the highway. Participant as Theme 2.In 1722, a highwayman named Will Steele started operating in the area. Circumstance as Theme 3.Give me your money ll and nobody will get hurt. Process as Theme

Theme-Rheme analysis Her loverwas shot down on the highway ThemeRheme In 1722a highwayman named Will Steele started operating in the area ThemeRheme Giveme your money ThemeRheme

What sort of text is this? An important factor enabling highwaymen to succeed was their use of the flintlock pistol. This type of pistol was easier to fire and more reliable than earlier types. Flintlock pistols became available in England in the early 1600's. During the 1640's, the army of King Charles I was defeated in the Civil War. As a result, many young horsemen were outlawed and became highwaymen. By the mid-1700's, new police organizations had developed, and highwaymen were no longer successful.

In sentences 1.An important factor enabling highwaymen to succeed was their use of the flintlock pistol. 2.This type of pistol was easier to fire and more reliable than earlier types. 3.Flintlock pistols became available in England in the early 1600's. 4.During the 1640's, the army of King Charles I was defeated in the Civil War. 5.As a result, many young horsemen were outlawed and became highwaymen. 6.By the mid-1700's, new police organizations had developed, and highwaymen were no longer successful.

Themes ? 1.An important factor enabling highwaymen to succeed was their use of the flintlock pistol. 2.This type of pistol was easier to fire and more reliable than earlier types. 3.Flintlock pistols became available in England in the early 1600's. 4.During the 1640's, the army of King Charles I was defeated in the Civil War. 5.As a result, many young horsemen were outlawed and became highwaymen. 6.By the mid-1700's, new police organizations had developed, and highwaymen were no longer successful.

Themes 1.An important factor enabling highwaymen to succeed was their use of the flintlock pistol. 2.This type of pistol was easier to fire and more reliable than earlier types. 3.Flintlock pistols became available in England in the early 1600's. 4.During the 1640's, the army of King Charles I was defeated in the Civil War. 5.As a result, many young horsemen were outlawed and became highwaymen. 6.By the mid-1700's, new police organizations had developed, and highwaymen were no longer successful.

Theme-Rheme patterns 1.An important factor enabling highwaymen to succeed was their use of the flintlock pistol. 2.This type of pistol was easier to fire and more reliable than earlier types. 3.Flintlock pistols became available in England in the early 1600's. 4.During the 1640's, the army of King Charles I was defeated in the Civil War. 5.As a result, many young horsemen were outlawed and became highwaymen. 6.By the mid-1700's, new police organizations had developed, and highwaymen were no longer successful.

Bess Bound They had tied her up to attention, with many a sniggering jest: They had bound a musket beside her, with the barrel beneath her breast.

She twisted her hands behind her

The tip of one finger touched it

The Flintlock Musket - Parts muzzle barrel lock & flint stock butt pan breech ramrod trigger

Loading Sequence - 1 1.Open the pan ready to receive the priming powder. 2.Pull the lock holding the flint to the safe half cock position so that the weapon will not discharge should the trigger accidentally be knocked during loading. 3.Take a greased paper cartridge from the cartridge box and bite off the top. 4.Tip a small quantity of powder into the pan and close it.

Loading Sequence - 2 5.Pour the rest of the powder into the barrel, followed by the paper cartridge containing the ball. 6.Remove the ramrod from beneath the barrel. 7.Reverse the ramrod and use the wider end to ram home the charge. If the powder charge is not firmly compressed it will merely flare rather than explode, resulting in a loss of range. 8.Replace the ramrod beneath the barrel. 9.Pull the lock back to the full cock position.

The Grammar of Instructions Open the pan ready to receive the priming powder. Pull the lock holding the flint to the safe half cock position so that that the weapon will not discharge should the trigger accidentally be knocked. Take a greased paper cartridge from the cartridge box and bite off the top. Tip a small quantity of powder into the pan and close it. Pour the rest of the powder into the barrel, followed by the paper cartridge containing the ball. Processes in Theme position

Theme is just the technical way of saying a particular element comes first. There is more detail but thats the Theme- Rheme system in outline. Whats chosen as Theme is given emphasis. Theme with a capital letter has a technical meaning.

What was wrong with the old meaning of theme? Itll probably depend on the type of text. The topical Theme may be preceded by textual and/or interpersonal Themes.

Textual & interpersonal Themes 1.Her lover was shot down on the highway. Sadly, her lover was shot down on the highway. 2.In 1722, a highwayman named Will Steele started operating in the area. However, in 1722, a highwayman named Will Steele started operating in the area.

Theme-Rheme analysis Sadlyher loverwas shot down on the highway InterpersonalTopical Rheme Theme Howeverin 1722 a highwayman named Will Steele stated operating in the area TextualTopical Rheme Theme

Theme in sentences When she got therethe cupboard was bare ThemeRheme In a clause complex (sentence), the first clause can be considered as Theme.

Dependent clause as Theme 1.Because he was always masked, the highwayman could not be easily identified. 2.Informed by Tim the ostler, the redcoats planned a deadly ambush for Besss lover.

Ellipsed Theme The highwayman held up the London coach and galloped off to his hideout in the hills. The highwayman held up the London coach ll and galloped off to his hideout in the hills. The highwayman held up the London coach ll and (he) galloped off to his hideout in the hills.

Ellipsed Theme The highwayman held up the London coach and galloped off to his hideout in the hills. Textual Theme Topical ThemeRheme The highwayman held up the London coach and(he) galloped off to his hideout in the hills The verb group in the 2 nd clause is not the topical Theme

Theme Patterns 1 Nikolai Poliakoff was born in Russia and from an early age was fascinated with the circus. He loved the antics of the clowns and at the age of seven began an apprenticeship with a small circus troupe. By his eleventh birthday, Nikolai was a full performer in the Russian circus. During his early career he faced many hardships but later joined a circus in England and became the famous Coco. D&H Text 4.1 Page 106

Themes in Clauses 1.Nikolai Poliakoff was born in Russia 2.and from an early age was fascinated with the circus. 3.He loved the antics of the clowns 4.and at the age of seven began an apprenticeship with a small circus troupe. 5.By his eleventh birthday, Nikolai was a full performer in the Russian circus. 6.During his early career he faced many hardships 7.but later joined a circus in England 8.and became the famous Coco. D&H Text 4.1 Page 106

Theme Patterns 2 The most common type of clay is earthenware. Earthenware clay needs firing to temperatures of between 1000 1800C. These high temperatures result in a smooth, hard surface. This surface is perfect for painted designs or mosaic finishes. From D&H Table 4.3 Page 124

Themes in Clauses 1.The most common type of clay is earthenware. 2.Earthenware clay needs firing to temperatures of between 1000 1800C. 3.These high temperatures result in a smooth, hard surface. 4.This surface is perfect for painted designs or mosaic finishes. From D&H Table 4.3 Page 124

Theme Rheme Pattern 1.The most common type of clay is earthenware. 2.Earthenware clay needs firing to temperatures of between 1000 1800C. 3.These high temperatures result in a smooth, hard surface. 4.This surface is perfect for painted designs or mosaic finishes. From D&H Table 4.3 Page 124

Theme Rheme Pattern Theme 1Rheme 1 Theme 2Rheme 2 Theme 3Rheme 3 Theme 4Rheme 4 From D&H Table 4.3 Page 124

Theme Patterns 3 There are four basic types of clowns. Whiteface clowns cover their faces with white make-up and do a lot of physical stunts like leaping and tumbling. Auguste clowns wear colourful, ill-fitting clothing and oversized shoes. They also have bulbous noses and brightly coloured wigs. Character clowns make fun of the human condition and they may impersonate a variety of characters. The more recent New Vaudeville clowns involve the audience in the performance. D&H Text 4.2 Page 106

Themes in Clauses 1.There are four basic types of clowns. 2.Whiteface clowns cover their faces with white make- up 3.and do a lot of physical stunts like leaping and tumbling. 4.Auguste clowns wear colourful, ill-fitting clothing and oversized shoes. 5.They also have bulbous noses and brightly coloured wigs. 6.Character clowns make fun of the human condition 7.and they may impersonate a variety of characters. 8.The more recent New Vaudeville clowns involve the audience in the performance. D&H Text 4.2 Page 106

Theme Rheme Pattern 1.There are four basic types of clowns. 2.Whiteface clowns cover their faces with white make-up 3.and do a lot of physical stunts like leaping and tumbling. 4.Auguste clowns wear colourful, ill-fitting clothing and oversized shoes. 5.They also have bulbous noses and brightly coloured wigs. 6.Character clowns make fun of the human condition 7.and they may impersonate a variety of characters. 8.The more recent New Vaudeville clowns involve the audience in the performance. D&H Text 4.2 Page 106

What sort of text is this? Surprisingly, Browns new stage production has opened to full houses. However in my opinion, this long awaited musical comedy is gutless. I much preferred the film version. Obviously, the naked painted bodies of the dancers appeal to theatre- goers and the popular press. Unfortunately, the dancers cant act. D&H Text 4.6 Page 111

Theme Pattern 1.Surprisingly, Browns new stage production has opened to full houses. 2.However in my opinion, this long awaited musical comedy is gutless. 3.I much preferred the film version. 4.Obviously, the naked painted bodies of the dancers appeal to theatre-goers and the popular press. 5.Unfortunately, the dancers cant act. D&H Text 4.6 Page 111

From My Last Duchess The Count your masters known munificence Is ample warrant that no just pretence Of mine for dowry will be disallowed; Though his fair daughters self, as I avowed At starting, is my object. Notice Neptune, though, Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity, Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.

4 Types of Conjunctions Mnemonic - TACL T ime (eg: then, when, while) A ddition (eg: and, in addition) + C ontrast (eg: but, however, although) L ogic (eg: because, if, therefore) Borrowed from Geoff Bishop, Cairns-based educational consultant

Add additional clauses The highwayman was captured... 1.while attempting to rob the London coach. 2.and was hanged a week later. 3.but managed to escape. 4.because he had become overconfident.

Varying sentence structure ThemeRheme The highwayman was captured while attempting to rob the London coach While attempting to rob the London coach the highwayman was captured by a troop of redcoats

Varying sentence structure ThemeRheme The highwayman was captured while attempting to rob the London coach While attempting to rob the London coach the highwayman was captured by a troop of redcoats The highwayman was captured because he had become overconfident Because he had become overconfident the highwayman was easily captured

Theme-Rheme - So what? A simple but powerful idea Management of Theme-Rheme patterns a major contributor to effective cohesion Makes explicit the effect of different choices in clause & sentence structure not just a matter of right & wrong

Where were we? Lets come back to this notion of nominalisation

66 Remember these sentences. 1.People who drink too much alcohol, and then drive their cars, often cause accidents. 2.If you drink too much alcohol before driving your car you are likely to have an accident. 3.Motor vehicle drivers often have accidents because they have been drinking too much alcohol. 4.Excessive consumption of alcohol is a major cause of motor vehicle accidents. Adapted from Butt et al, Using Functional Grammar: An Explorers Guide

Spoken vs Written Language Best seen as the ends of a continuum rather than as two discrete categories Most spoken Most written Its not just a matter of the mode of delivery.

Spoken vs Written Language Linguistic differences involve more than mode of delivery a formal prepared speech is really written language read aloud

Spoken vs Written Language Linguistic differences involve more than mode of delivery a formal prepared speech is really written language read aloud the transcript of a casual conversation is spoken language written down

Spoken vs Written Language Linguistic differences involve more than mode of delivery a formal prepared speech is really written language read aloud the transcript of a casual conversation is spoken language written down 2 ends of a continuum rather than 2 discrete categories

Consider these sentences 1.Many people have been held up and robbed by highwaymen while travelling on the public roads. 2.Citizens are disturbed that travel is not safe. 3.It is outrageous that such crimes occur. 4.The government has focused on the problem.

Now this one The government has focused on the numerous disturbing criminal outrages that have made travel unsafe.

Nominal (Noun) Group Structure Once nominalised, info/ideas can be readily: measured, described, classified & elaborated Dei.Num. EpithetClass.THINGQualifier thenumerousdisturbingcriminaloutrages that have made travel unsafe

Nominalisation = turning other words into nouns

Nominalisation = turning other words into nouns concreteabstract

Nominalisation = turning other words into nouns concreteabstract everydaytechnical

Nominalisation = turning other words into nouns concreteabstract everydaytechnical sparse informationcondensed info

Nominalisation = turning other words into nouns concreteabstract everydaytechnical sparse informationcondensed info A major difference between spoken & written language

Nominalize & link the 2 sentences 1.A troop of redcoats was deployed to the district. 2.A notorious highwayman was soon captured.

One sentence with verbs nominalized 1.A troop of redcoats was deployed to the district. 2.A notorious highwayman was soon captured. 3.The deployment of a troop of redcoats to the district soon led to the capture of a notorious highwayman.

Nominalize to turn 2 clauses into 1 A.Steele was very clever and so the redcoats could not capture him. 1.Steele was very clever 2.and so the redcoats could not capture him.

Nominalize to turn 2 clauses into 1 A.Steele was very clever and so the redcoats could not capture him. 1.Steele was very clever 2.and so the redcoats could not capture him. B.Steeles cleverness enabled him to evade capture by the redcoats. Here it is an adjective that is nominalized

Lets reconsider this sentence A.An important factor enabling highwaymen to succeed was their use of the flintlock pistol. 1 clause, nominalized Participants, a being verb B.Highwaymen succeeded as thieves because they used flintlock pistols. 2 clauses, simple Participants, action verbs

Noun (Nominal) Group Structure Pre-modification Head Word Post- mod which one how many what quality what type Main noun further info animportant factor enabling highwaymen to succeed Embedded clause

Noun (Nominal) Group Structure Pre-modification Head Word Post- modification which one how many what quality what type Main noun further info animportant factor enabling highwaymen to succeed their use of the flintlock pistol Prepositional phrase

Nominalisation 1.I handed my essay in late because my kids got sick. 2.The reason for the late submission of my essay was the illness of my children. From Eggins, An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics

Nominalisation 1.I handed my essay in late ll because my kids got sick. 2.The reason for the late submission of my essay was the illness of my children. From Eggins, An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics

Nominalisation I handed my essay in late because my kids got sick. The reason for the late submission of my essay was the illness of my children 2 clauses1 clause From Eggins, An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics

Nominalisation I handed my essay in late because my kids got sick. The reason for the late submission of my essay was the illness of my children 2 clauses Human participants 1 clause Abstract participants From Eggins, An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics

Nominalisation I handed my essay in late because my kids got sick. The reason for the late submission of my essay was the illness of my children 2 clauses Human participants Action processes 1 clause Abstract participants a being process From Eggins, An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics

Noun (Nominal) Group Structure Dei Num EpithetClassifierTHINGQualifier thereason for the late submission of my essay the completely legitimate reason for the late submission of my essay

Noun (Nominal) Group Structure Dei Num EpithetClassifierTHINGQualifier theillness of my children the unexpected but quite serious respiratoryillness of my under- privileged, fatherless children

Nominalization - So what? A key aspect of academically- prized writing This secret should be made explicit Again, this aspect of grammar is about the effects of language choices rather than notions of correct & incorrect grammar

At last Yes, it is OK to begin a sentence with a conjunction Participants Process Singular verb agrees with singular Subject. A simple noun group A simple sentence containing a single independent clause An additive conjunction in Theme position provides a link to previous text Presentation is a nominalization

The clause is the basic message structure in any language. Now lets consider the structure of clauses in relation to how they represent the world A clause must have a verb group. I know that Participant is not a new term for noun.

Clause structure The numerous reasons for the teams failure during the season have been carefully considered by the committee

How the clause represents the world The numerous reasons for the teams failure during the season have been carefully considered by the committee The numerous reasons for the teams failure during the season have been carefully considered by the committee

How the clause represents the world The numerous reasons for the teams failure during the season have been carefully considered by the committee The numerous reasons for the teams failure during the season have been carefully considered by the committee Participant Circum- stance Participant Process What sort of process/verb is consider?: doing, saying, thinking, feeling, being

How the clause represents the world The numerous reasons for the teams failure during the season have been carefully considered by the committee The numerous reasons for the teams failure during the season have been carefully considered by the committee Participant Circum- stance Participant Process Nominal (noun) group verb Adverbial group group Prepositional phrase

The Value of Terminology To fully understand whats going on in texts like this, and to make it clear to students, we need a shared set of ideas and terms. This shared set of ideas and terms about language is an explicit knowledge of grammar. Different text types (genres) deploy particular kinds of grammar.

Functional grammar assumes most common grammar terms. Need there be a real divide between traditional and functional grammar? New terms are fine if theyre useful. Students need to see the patterns in effective texts.

Documents

Getting to grips with useful grammar A crash course for using grammar as a tool to analyse language