Willy Brandt

This article is about the German politician. For peoplewith similar name, see William Brandt (disambiguation).

Willy Brandt (German pronunciation: [ˈvɪli ˈbʁant]; bornHerbert Ernst Karl Frahm; 18 December 1913 – 8October 1992) was a German statesman and politician,leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)from 1964 to 1987 and chancellor of the Federal Repub-lic of Germany from 1969 to 1974. He was awarded theNobel Peace Prize in 1971 for his efforts to strengthencooperation in western Europe through the EEC and toachieve reconciliation between West Germany and thecountries of Eastern Europe.[1] He was the first SocialDemocrat chancellor since 1930.Fleeing to Norway and then Sweden during the Naziregime and working as a leftist journalist, he took thename Willy Brandt as a pseudonym to avoid detectionby Nazi agents, and then formally adopted the name in1948. Brandt was originally considered one of the lead-ers of the right wing of the SPD, and earned initial fameas GoverningMayor ofWest Berlin. He served as ForeignMinister and Vice Chancellor in Kurt Georg Kiesinger'scabinet, and became Chancellor in 1969. As chancellor,he maintained West Germany’s close alignment with theUnited States and focused on strengthening European in-tegration in western Europe, while launching the new pol-icy of Ostpolitik aimed at improving relations with East-ern Europe. Brandt was controversial on both the rightwing, for his Ostpolitik, and on the left wing, for his sup-port of American policies, including the Vietnam War,and right-wing authoritarian regimes. The Brandt Reportbecame a recognised measure for describing the generalNorth-South divide in world economics and politics be-tween an affluent North and a poor South. Brandt wasalso known for his fierce anti-communist policies at thedomestic level, culminating in the Radikalenerlass (Anti-Radical Decree) in 1972.Brandt resigned as Chancellor in 1974, after Günter Guil-laume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agentof the Stasi, the East German secret service.

1 Early life, the war

Willy Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Carl Frahm in theFree City of Lübeck (German Empire) on 18 Decem-ber 1913.[2] His mother was Martha Frahm, a single par-ent, who worked as a cashier for a department store.

His father was an accountant from Hamburg named JohnMöller, whom Brandt never met. As his mother workedsix days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mother’sstepfather, Ludwig Frahm, and his second wife, Dora.After passing his Abitur in 1932 at Johanneum zu Lübeck,he became an apprentice at the shipbroker and ship’sagent F.H. Bertling. He joined the “Socialist Youth” in1929 and the Social Democratic Party (SPD) in 1930. Heleft the SPD to join the more left wing Socialist WorkersParty (SAP), which was allied to the POUM in Spain andthe Independent Labour Party in Britain. In 1933, usinghis connections with the port and its ships, he left Ger-many for Norway to escape Nazi persecution. It was atthis time that he adopted the pseudonymWilly Brandt toavoid detection by Nazi agents. In 1934, he took part inthe founding of the International Bureau of RevolutionaryYouth Organizations, and was elected to its Secretariat.Brandt was in Germany from September to December1936, disguised as a Norwegian student named Gun-nar Gaasland. He was married to Gertrud Meyer fromLübeck in a marriage of convenience to protect her fromdeportation. Meyer had joined Brandt in Norway in July1933. In 1937, during the Civil War, Brandt worked inSpain as a journalist. In 1938, the German governmentrevoked his citizenship, so he applied for Norwegian cit-izenship. In 1940, he was arrested in Norway by occu-pying German forces, but was not identified as he wore aNorwegian uniform. On his release, he escaped to neutralSweden. In August 1940, he became a Norwegian citi-zen, receiving his passport from the Norwegian embassyin Stockholm, where he lived until the end of the war.Willy Brandt lectured in Sweden on 1 December 1940at Bommersvik college about problems experienced bythe social democrats in Nazi Germany and the occupiedcountries at the start of World War II. In exile in Nor-way and Sweden Brandt learned Norwegian and Swedish.Brandt spoke Norwegian fluently, and retained a close re-lationship with Norway.In late 1946, Brandt returned to Berlin, working for theNorwegian government. In 1948, he joined the SocialDemocratic Party of Germany (SPD) and became a Ger-man citizen again, formally adopting the pseudonym,Willy Brandt, as his legal name.

1

2 3 CHANCELLOR

Brandt meeting John F. Kennedy in 1961

2 Politician

From 3 October 1957, to 1966, Willy Brandt wasGoverning Mayor of Berlin, during a period of increas-ing tension in East-West relations that led to the con-struction of the Berlin Wall. In Brandt’s first year asmayor, he also served as the president of the Bundesratin Bonn. Brandt was outspoken against the Soviet repres-sion of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and againstNikita Khrushchev's 1958 proposal that Berlin receivethe status of a "free city". He was supported by theinfluential publisher Axel Springer. As mayor of WestBerlin, Brandt accomplished much in the way of ur-ban development. New hotels, office-blocks and flatswere constructed, while both Schloss Charlottenburg andthe Reichstag building were restored. Sections of the“Stadtring” Bundesautobahn 100 inner city motorwaywere opened, while a major housing programme was car-ried out, with roughly 20,000 new dwellings built eachyear during his time in office.[3]

At the start of 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy sawBrandt as the wave of the future in West Germany andwas hoping he would replace Konrad Adenauer as chan-cellor following elections later in the year.[4] Kennedymade this preference clear by inviting Brandt, the WestGerman opposition leader, to an official meeting at theWhite House a month before meeting with Adenauer,the country’s leader. The diplomatic snub strained re-lations between Kennedy and Adenauer further duringan especially tense time for Berlin.[5] However, followingthe building of the Berlin Wall in August 1961, Brandtwas disappointed and angry with Kennedy. Speaking inBerlin three days later, Brandt criticized Kennedy, assert-ing “Berlin expects more than words. It expects politicalaction.” He also wrote Kennedy a highly critical publicletter in which he warned that the development was liable“to arouse doubts about the ability of the three [Allied]Powers to react and their determination” and he called thesituation “a state of accomplished extortion”."[6]

Brandt became the Chairman of the SPD in 1964, a postthat he retained until 1987, longer than any other partyChairman since its foundation by August Bebel. Brandt

was the SPD candidate for the Chancellorship in 1961,but he lost to Konrad Adenauer's conservative ChristianDemocratic Union of Germany (CDU). In 1965, Brandtran again, but lost to the popular Ludwig Erhard. Er-hard’s government was short-lived, however, and in 1966a grand coalition between the SPD and CDUwas formed,with Brandt as Foreign Minister and Vice-Chancellor.

3 Chancellor

At the 1969 elections, again with Brandt as the lead-ing candidate, the SPD became stronger, and after threeweeks of negotiations, the SPD formed a coalition gov-ernment with the smaller Free Democratic Party of Ger-many (FDP). Brandt was elected Chancellor of the Fed-eral Republic of Germany.

3.1 Foreign policy

Willy Brandt with French president Georges Pompidou inCologne, 3 July 1972.

As Chancellor, Brandt developed his Neue Ostpolitik(New Eastern Policy). Brandt was active in creating adegree of rapprochement with East Germany, and alsoin improving relations with the Soviet Union, Poland,Czechoslovakia, and other Eastern Bloc (communist)countries. A seminal moment came in December 1970with the famous Warschauer Kniefall in which Brandt,apparently spontaneously, knelt down at the monument tovictims of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.[7] The uprisingoccurred during the Nazi German military occupation ofPoland, and the monument is to those killed by the Ger-man troops who suppressed the uprising and deported re-maining ghetto residents to the concentration camps forextermination.Timemagazine in theU.S. namedBrandt as itsMan of theYear for 1970, stating, “Willy Brandt is in effect seekingto end World War II by bringing about a fresh relation-ship between East and West. He is trying to accept thereal situation in Europe, which has lasted for 25 years, buthe is also trying to bring about a new reality in his bold

3.2 Domestic policies 3

approach to the Soviet Union and the East Bloc.”[8] Pres-ident Richard Nixon also was pushing détente on behalfof the United States. The policies of Nixon and HenryKissinger, after some initial suspicion, amounted to co-opting Brandt’s Ostpolitik.[9]

In 1971, Brandt received the Nobel Peace Prize for hiswork in improving relations with East Germany, Poland,and the Soviet Union. Brandt negotiated a peace treatywith Poland, and agreements on the boundaries betweenthe two countries, signifying the official and long-delayedend of World War II. Brandt negotiated parallel treatiesand agreements with Czechoslovakia.In West Germany, Brandt’s Neue Ostpolitik was ex-tremely controversial, dividing the populace into twocamps. One camp embraced all of the conservativeparties, and most notably those West German resi-dents and their families who had been driven west (“dieHeimatvertriebenen") by Stalinist ethnic cleansing fromHistorical Eastern Germany, especially the part that wasgiven to Poland as a consequence of the end of the war;western Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland); and the restof Eastern Europe, such as in Romania. These groups ofdisplaced Germans and their descendants loudly voicedtheir opposition to Brandt’s policy, calling it “illegal” and“high treason”.A different camp supported and encouraged Brandt’sNeue Ostpolitik as aiming at “Wandel durch Annäherung”(“change through rapprochement"), encouraging changethrough a policy of engagement with the (communist)Eastern Bloc, rather than trying to isolate those coun-tries diplomatically and commercially. Brandt’s support-ers claim that the policy did help to break down the East-ern Bloc’s "siege mentality", and also helped to increaseits awareness of the contradictions in its brand of Social-ism/Communism, which – together with other events –eventually led to the downfall of Eastern European Com-munism.

3.2 Domestic policies

3.2.1 Political and social changes

West Germany in the late 1960s was shaken by studentdisturbances and a general “change of the times” that notall Germans were willing to accept or approve. What hadseemed a stable, peaceful nation, happy with its outcomeof the “Wirtschaftswunder” (“economic miracle”) facedeconomic turbulence. The German baby-boom genera-tion wanted to come to terms with the deeply conserva-tive, bourgeois, and demanding parent generation. Thebaby-boomer students were the most outspoken, and theyaccused their “parental generation” of being outdated andold-fashioned and even of having a Nazi past. Comparedto their forebears, the “skeptical generation” was muchmore capricious, willing to embrace more extreme social-ist ideology (such as Maoism), and public heroes (such

as Ho Chi Minh, Fidel Castro, and Che Guevara), whileliving a looser and more promiscuous lifestyle. Studentsand young apprentices could afford to move out of theirparents’ homes, and left-wing politics was considered tobe chic, as well as taking part in American-style politicaldemonstrations against having American military forcesin South Vietnam.

3.2.2 Brandt’s popularity

Brandt’s predecessor as chancellor, Kurt GeorgKiesinger, had been a member of the Nazi party,and was a more old-fashioned conservative-liberalintellectual. Brandt, having fought the Nazis and havingfaced down communist Eastern Germany during severalcrises while he was the mayor of Berlin, became acontroversial, but credible, figure in several different fac-tions. As the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Kiesinger’sgrand coalition cabinet, Brandt helped to gain furtherinternational approval for Western Germany, and helaid the foundation stones for his future Neue Ostpolitik.There was a wide public-opinion gap between Kiesingerand Brandt in the West German polls.

Willy Brandt talking at an SPD meeting in Dortmund, 1983

Both men had come to their own terms with the new babyboomer lifestyles. Kiesinger considered them to be “ashameful crowd of long-haired drop-outs who needed abath and someone to discipline them”. On the other hand,Brandt needed a while to get into contact with, and toearn credibility among, the "Ausserparlamentarische Op-position" (APO) (“the extra-parliamentary opposition”).The students questionedWest German society in general,seeking social, legal, and political reforms. Also, the un-rest led to a renaissance of right-wing parties in some ofthe Bundeslands' (German states under the Bundesrepub-lik) Parliaments.Brandt, however, represented a figure of change, and hefollowed a course of social, legal, and political reforms.In 1969, Brandt gained a small majority by forming acoalition with the FDP. In his first speech before theBundestag as the Chancellor, Brandt set forth his polit-ical course of reforms ending the speech with his famouswords, “Wir wollen mehr Demokratie wagen” (literally:

4 3 CHANCELLOR

“Let’s dare more democracy”, or more figuratively, “Wewant to take a chance on more Democracy”). This speechmade Brandt, as well as the Social Democratic Party,popular amongmost of the students and other youngWestGerman baby-boomers who dreamed of a country thatwould be more open and more colorful than the frugaland still somewhat-authoritarian Bundesrepublik that hadbeen built after World War II. However, Brandt’s NeueOstpolitik lost him a large part of the German refugeevoters from East Germany, who had been significantlypro-SPD in the postwar years.

3.3 Chancellor of domestic reform

Although Brandt is perhaps best known for his achieve-ments in foreign policy, his government oversaw the im-plementation of a broad range of social reforms, and wasknown as a “Kanzler der inneren Reformen” ('Chancellorof domestic reform').[10] According to the historian DavidChilds, “Brandt was anxious that his government shouldbe a reforming administration and a number of reformswere embarked upon”.[11] Within a few years, the educa-tion budget rose from 16 billion to 50 billion DM, whileone out of every three DM spent by the new governmentwas devoted to welfare purposes. As noted by the jour-nalist and historian Marion Dönhoff,“People were seized by a completely new feeling aboutlife. A mania for large scale reforms spread like wildfire,affecting schools, universities, the administration, familylegislation. In the autumn of 1970 Jürgen Wischnewskiof the SPD declared, 'Every week more than three plansfor reform come up for decision in cabinet and in the As-sembly.' "[12]

According to Helmut Schmidt, Willy Brandt’s domes-tic reform programme had accomplished more than anyprevious programme for a comparable period.[13] Morefunds were allocated towards housing, transportation,schools, and communication,[14] while substantial fed-eral benefits were provided for farmers.[15] Various mea-sures were introduced to extend health care coverage,[16]while federal aid to sports’ organisations increased.[17]A number of liberal social reforms were instituted[18]whilst the welfare state was significantly expanded (withtotal public spending on social programs nearly dou-bling between 1969 and 1975),[19] with health, hous-ing, and social welfare legislation bringing about welcomeimprovements,[15] and by the end of the Brandt Chancel-lorship West Germany had one of the most advanced sys-tems of welfare in the world.[10]

Substantial increases were made in social security bene-fits such as injury and sickness benefits,[10] pensions,[20]unemployment benefits,[17] housing allowances,[21] basicsubsistence aid allowances,[22] and family allowances andliving allowances.[23] In the government’s first budget,sickness benefits were increased by 9.3%, pensions forwar widows by 25%, pensions for the war wounded by

16%, and retirement pensions by 5%.[14] Numerically,pensions went up by 6.4% (1970), 5.5% (1971), 9.5%(1972), 11.4% (1973), and 11.2% (1974). Adjusted forchanges in the annual price index, pensions went up in realterms by 3.1% (1970), 0.3% (1971), 3.9% (1972), 4.4%(1973), and 4.2% (1974).[24] Between 1972 and 1974,the purchasing power of pensioners increased by 19%.[25]In 1970, war pensions were increased by 16%.[26]

In 1970, seagoing pilots became retrospectively insur-able, and gained full social security as members of theNon-Manual Workers Insurance Institute. That sameyear, a special regulation came into force for DistrictMaster Chimney Sweeps, making them fully insurableunder the Craftsman’s Insurance Scheme.[26] An in-crease was made in tax-free allowances for children,which enabled 1,000,000 families to claim an allowancefor the second child, compared to 300,000 familiespreviously.[14] The Second Modification and Supplemen-tation Law (1970) increased the allowance for the thirdchild from DM 50 to DM 60, raised the income-limitfor the second child allowance from DM 7,800 to DM13,200, subsequently increased to DM 15,000 by thethird modification law (December 1971), DM 16,800by the fourth modification law (November 1973), andto DM 18,360 by the fifth modification law (December1973).[21] A flexible retirement age after 62 years was in-troduced (1972) for invalids and handicapped persons,[27]and social assistance was extended to those who previ-ously had to be helped by their relatives.[18]

The Third Modification Law (1974) extended individ-ual entitlements to social assistance by means of higher-income limits compatible with receipt of benefits andlowered age limits for certain special benefits. Rehabil-itation measures were also extended, child supplementswere expressed as percentages of standard amounts andwere thus indexed to their changes, and grandparents ofrecipients were exempted from potential liability to re-imburse expenditure of social assistance carrier.[21] TheThird Social Welfare Amendment Act (1974) broughtconsiderable improvements for the handicapped, those inneed of care, and older persons,[28] and a new fund of 100million marks for disabled children was established.[14]Allowances for retraining and advanced training and forrefugees from East Germany were also increased,[14] to-gether with federal grants for sport.[14] In addition, in-creases were made in the pensions of 2.5 million warvictims.[12] Following a sudden increase in the price ofoil, a law was passed in December 1973 granting recipi-ents of social assistance and housing allowances a singleheating-oil allowance (a procedure repeated in the winterof 1979 during the Schmidt Administration).[29]

An April 1972 law providing for “promotion of socialaid services” aimed to remedy, through various beneficialmeasures (particularly in the field of national insuranceand working conditions), the staff-shortage suffered bysocial establishments in their medico-social, educationaland other work. A bill to harmonize re-education benefit

3.3 Chancellor of domestic reform 5

and another bill relating to severely handicapped personsbecame law in May and September 1972 respectively.[27]

To assist family planning and marriage and family guid-ance, the government allocatedDM2 232 000 in 1973 forthe payment and for the basic and further training of staff.A special effort was also made in 1973 to organize therecreation of handicapped persons, with a holiday guidefor the handicapped issued with the aid of the FederalMinistry of Family and Youth Affairs and Health in or-der to help them find suitable holiday accommodation forthemselves and their families. From 1972 to 1973, the to-tal amount of individual aids granted by Guarantee Fundfor the integration of young immigrants increased from17 million DM to 26 million DM.[30] Under a law passedin April 1974, the protection hitherto granted to the vic-tims of war or industrial accidents for the purpose of theiroccupational and social reintegration was extended to allhandicapped persons, whatever the cause of their hand-icap, provided that their capacity to work had been re-duced by at least 50%.[31]

A law on explosives (Sprengstoffgesetz) was the subjectof two application ordinances (on the 17th of Novem-ber 1970 and the 24th of August 1971 ) and a generalregulatory provision (the 19th of May 1971), which cov-ered respectively the application of the law to nationalsof EC Member States, the duty of employers to notifyin time the inspection authorities of detonation plans, theinterpretation of the purpose and field of application ofthe law, authorizations for transport of explosives, andcontrol and recognition of training courses on work withexplosives.[32] Taking into account the enormous highpeaks of air traffic noise and its concentration at a limitednumber of airports, the Law for Protection against Air-craft Noise of 1971 sought to balance two conflicting de-mands, the first being the legitimate demand by industry,business and the public for an efficient air-traffic-system,and secondly, the understandable and by no means lesslegitimate claims of the affected people for protectionand compensation. The legislation regulates the estab-lishment of so-called “Larmschutzzonen” (protection ar-eas against aircraft noise) for all 11 international airportsand for those 34military airports used for jet air craft, andthe law authorises the Federal Department of the Interiorto decree protection areas for each of those mentionedairports with approval by the “Bundesrat”, the represen-tation of the German Federal States.[33]

In the field of health care, various measures were intro-duced to improve the quality and availability of healthcare provision. Free hospital care was introduced for 9million recipients of social relief,[12] while a contribu-tory medical service for 23 million panel patients wasintroduced.[12] Pensioners were exempted from payinga 2% health insurance contribution,[14] while improve-ments in health insurance provision were carried out,[10]as characterised by an expanded sickness insurancescheme, with the inclusion of preventative treatment.[21]The income limit for compulsory sickness insurance was

indexed to changes in the wage level (1970)[21] andthe right to medical cancer screening for 23.5 millionpeople was introduced.[34] In January 1971, the reduc-tion of sickness allowance in case of hospitalisation wasdiscontinued.[32] That same year, compulsory health in-surance was extended to the self-employed.[35]

Pupils, students and children in kindergartens were in-corporated into the accident insurance scheme,[21] whichbenefited 11 million children.[12] Free medical check-ups were introduced that same year,[36] while the Farm-ers’ Sickness Insurance Law (1972) introduced compul-sory sickness insurance for independent farmers, familyworkers in agriculture, and pensioners under the farmers’pension scheme, medical benefits for all covered groups,and cash benefits for family workers under compulsorycoverage for pension insurance.[21] Participation in em-ployer’s health insurance was extended to four millionemployees.[34] A Development Law of December 1970made it possible for all employees voluntarily to becomemembers of the statutory sickness insurance. The level ofincome for compulsory sickness insurance was indexed to75% of the respective assessment level for pension insur-ance, while voluntarily insured employees were granteda claim to an allowance towards their sickness insurancefrom their employer. This law also introduced a newtype of sickness insurance benefit, namely facilities forthe early diagnosis of disease. Apart from the discre-tionary service of disease prevention which had existedsince 1923, insured persons now had a right in certaincircumstances to medical examinations aimed at the earlydiagnosis of disease. According to one study, this markeda change in the concept of sickness insurance: it nowaimed at securing good health.[29]

The Hospital Financing Law (1972) secured the supplyof hospitals and reduced the cost of hospital care, “de-fined the financing of hospital investment as a public re-sponsibility, single states to issue plans for hospital de-velopment, and the federal government to bear the costof hospital investment covered in the plans, rates for hos-pital care thus based on running costs alone, hospitals toensure that public subsidies together with insurance fundpayments for patients cover total costs”.[21] The Bene-fit Improvement Law (1973) made entitlement to hospi-tal care legally binding (entitlements already enjoyed inpractice), abolished time limits for hospital care, intro-duced entitlement to household assistance under specificconditions, and also introduced entitlement to leave of ab-sence from work and cash benefits in the event of a child’sillness.[21] In 1971, to encourage the growth of registeredfamily holiday centres, the Federal Government grantedsubsidies for the building and appointing of 28 of thesecentres at a total cost of 8 million DM.[32]

The Pension Reform Law (1972) guaranteed all retireesa minimum pension regardless of their contributions[37]and institutionalized the norm that the standard pension(of average earners with forty years of contributions)should not fall below 50% of current gross earnings.[38]

6 3 CHANCELLOR

The 1972 pension reforms improved eligibility conditionsand benefits for nearly every subgroup of the West Ger-man population.[39] The income replacement rate for em-ployees who made full contributions was raised to 70%of average earnings. The reform also replaced 65 asthe mandatory retirement age with a “retirement win-dow” ranging between 63 and 65 for employees who hadworked for at least thirty-five years. Employees who qual-ified as disabled and had worked for at least thirty-fiveyears were extended a more generous retirement window,which ranged between the ages of 60 and 62. Womenwho had worked for at least fifteen years (ten of whichhad to be after the age of age 40) and the long-term un-employed were also granted the same retirement windowas the disabled. In addition, there were no benefit reduc-tions for employees who had decided to retire earlier thanthe age of 65.[40] The legislation also changed the wayin which pensions were calculated for low-income earn-ers who had been covered for twenty-five or more years.If the pension benefit fell below a specified level, thensuch workers were allowed to substitute a wage figure of75% of the average wage during this period, thus creatingsomething like a minimum wage benefit.[41]

Voluntary retirement at 63 with no deductions in the levelof benefits was introduced,[39] together with the index-linking of war victim’s pensions to wage increases.[10]Guaranteed minimum pension benefits for all West Ger-mans were introduced,[19] along with automatic pensionincreases for war widows (1970).[36] Fixed minimumrates for women in receipt of very low pensions werealso introduced, together with equal treatment for warwidows.[42] A pension reform package incorporated anadditional year of insurance for mothers,[13] while im-provements in pension provision were made for womenand the self-employed.[43] A new minimum pension forworkers with at least twenty-five years’ insurance wasintroduced,[44] while faster pension indexation was imple-mented, with the annual adjustment of pensions broughtforward by six months,[45] and the Seventh Modifica-tion Law (1973) linked the indexation of farmers’ pen-sions to the indexation of the general pension insurancescheme.[21]

In education, the Brandt Administration sought to wideneducational opportunities for all West Germans. Anaddition was made to the Basic Law which gave theFederal Government some responsibility for educationalplanning.[17] A big increase in spending on education wascarried out, with educational expenses per head of thepopulation multiplied by five,[17] while the governmentpresided over an increase in the number of teachers.[12]Generous public stipends were introduced for studentsto cover their living costs[18] while West German uni-versities were converted from elite schools into massinstitutions.[17] The school leaving age was raised to16,[46] and spending on research and education increasedby nearly 300% between 1970 and 1974.[17] Fees forhigher or further education were abolished,[10] while a

considerable increase in the number of higher educationinstitutions took place.[17] Amuch needed school and col-lege construction program was carried out,[17] togetherwith the introduction of postgraduate support for highlyqualified graduates, providing them with the opportunityto earn their doctorates or undertake research studies.[47]

Grants were introduced for pupils from lower incomegroups to stay on at school, together with [17] grantsfor those going into any kind of higher or furthereducation.[17][48] Increases were also made in educationalallowances,[21] as well as spending on science.[23] In 1972,the government allocated 2.1million DM in grants to pro-mote marriage and family education.[27] The Brandt Ad-ministration also introduced enabling legislation for theintroduction of comprehensives, but left it to the Lander“to introduce them at their discretion.” While the moreleft-wing Lander “rapidly began to do so,” other Lan-der found “all sorts of pretexts for delaying the scheme.”By the mid-Eighties, Berlin had 25 comprehensives whileBavaria only had 1, and in most Lander comprehensiveswere still viewed as “merely experimental.”[49]

In the field of housing, various measures were carried outto benefit householders, such as in improving the rightsof tenants and increasing rental subsidies. Increased lev-els of protection and support for low-income tenants andhouseholders[10] led to a drop in the number of evictionnotices. By 1974, three times as much was paid out inrent subsidies as in 1969, and nearly one and a half millionhouseholds received rental assistance.[28] Increases weremade in public housing subsidies,[50] as characterised by a36% increase in the social housing budget in 1970[14] andby the introduction of a programme for the constructionof 200,000 public housing units (1971).[51] From 1970to 1971, an 18.1% increase in building permits for socialhousing units was made.[52]

A loose form of rent regulation was introduced under thename of “Vergleichmieten” ('comparable rents’),[53] to-gether with the provision of “for family-friendly housing”freight or rent subsidies to owners of apartments or houseswhose ceiling had been adapted to increased expenses orincomes (1970).[54] In addition, a law for the creation ofproperty for workers was passed, under which a marriedworker would normally keep up to 95% of his pay, andgraded tax remission for married wage-earners applied upto a wage of 48,000 marks, which indicated the economicprosperity of West Germany at that time.[14] The TownPlanning Act (1971) encouraged the preservation of his-torical heritage and helped open up the way to the futureof many German cities[17] while the Urban Renewal Act(1971) helped the states to restore their inner cities andto develop new neighbourhoods.[55]

The Second Housing Allowance Law of December 1970simplified the administration of housing allowances andextended entitlements, increased the income limit to9,600 DM per year plus 2,400 DM for each family mem-ber, raised the general deduction on income to determine

3.3 Chancellor of domestic reform 7

reckonable income from 15% to 20%, allowance rateslisted in tables replacing complicated calculation proce-dure based on “bearable rent burdens.”[21] The Hous-ing Construction Modification Law (1971) increased theincome-limit for access to low rent apartments under thesocial housing programme from 9,000DM to 12,000 DMper annum plus 3,000 DM (instead of 2,400) for eachfamilymember. The law also introduced special subsidiesto reduce the debt burden for builders not surpassing theregular income-limit by more than 40%. Under a 1973law, the limits were increased to 1,000 DM plus 9,000DM and 4,200 DM for additional family members.[21]The Rent Improvement Law (1971) strengthened the po-sition of tenants. Under this legislation, notice was to beruled illegal “where appropriate substitute accommoda-tion not available; landlords obliged to specify reasons fornotice,”[21] whilst the Eviction Protection Law (1971) es-tablished tenant protection against rent rises and notice.The notice was only lawful if in the “justified interestof the landlord.” Under this law, higher rents were notrecognised as “justified interest.”[21] The Second Evic-tion Protection Law (1972) made the tenant protectionintroduced under the Eviction Protection Law of 1971permanent. Under this new law, the notice was only law-ful where the landlord proved justified personal interestin the apartment. In addition, rent increases were onlylawful if not above normal comparable rents in the samearea.[21]

Directives on the housing of foreign workers came intoforce in April 1971. These directives imposed certain re-quirements for space, hygiene, safety, and amenities inthe accommodation offered by employers. That sameyear, the Federal Government granted a sum of 17 mil-lion DM to the Länder for the improvement and mod-ernization of housing built before 21 June 1948.[32] The“German Council for town development,” which was setup by virtue of Article 89 of a law to foster urban build-ing, was partly aimed at planning a favourable environ-ment for families (such as the provision of playgrounds).In 1971, the Federal Labour Office made available DM425 million in the form of loans to provide 157 293 bedsin 2 494 hostels. A year later, the Federal Government(Bund), the Lander and the Federal Labour Office pro-moted the construction of dwellings for migrant workers.They set aside 10 million DM for this purpose, which al-lowed the financing of 1650 family dwellings that year.[27]

Development measures were begun in 1972 with federalfinancial aid granted to the Lander for improvement mea-sures relating to towns and villages, and in the 1972 bud-get, DM 50 million was earmarked, i.e. a third of thetotal cost of some 300 schemes. A council for urban de-velopment was formed in May 1972 with the purpose ofpromoting future work and measures in the field of ur-ban renovation.[27] In 1973, the government provided as-sistance of DM 28 million for the modernisation of olddwellings.[30]

New rules were introduced regarding improvements in

the law relating to rented property, control of the risein rents and protection against cancellation of leases alsoprotected the rights of migrant workers in the sphereof housing.[27] A law of July 1973 fixed the funda-mental and minimum requirements regarding workers’dwellings, mainly concerning space, ventilation and light-ing, protection against damp, heat and noise, power andheating facilities and sanitary installations.[30]

In regards to civil rights, the Brandt Administration intro-duced a broad range of socially liberal reforms aimed atmaking West Germany a more open society. Greater le-gal rights for women were introduced, as exemplified bythe standardisation of pensions, divorce laws, regulationsgoverning use of surnames, and the introduction of mea-sures to bring more women into politics.[42] The votingage was lowered from 21 to 18,[56] the age of eligibilityfor political office was lowered to 21,[47] and the age ofmajority was lowered to 18 (March 1974).[47] The ThirdLaw for the Liberalization of the Penal Code (1970)liberalised “the right to political demonstration”,[13][47]while equal rights were granted to illegitimate childrenthat same year.[22] An amendment to a federal civil ser-vice reform bill (1971) enabled fathers to apply for part-time civil service work.[57] Reforms were carried out tothe armed forces,[15] as characterised by a reduction inbasic military training from eighteen to fifteen monthsand a reorganisation of education and training, as well aspersonnel and procurement procedures.[28] In 1971, cor-poral punishment was banned in schools.[58] A measurewas introduced in 1973 that facilitated the adoption ofyoung children by reducing the minimum age for adop-tive parents from 35 to 25.[30]

A women’s policy machinery at the national level wasestablished (1972)[59] while amnesty was guaranteed inminor offences connected with demonstrations.[47] A billwas also passed which introduced entitlement for the vic-tims of violence to compensation under the Federal Sup-ply Act, “if the offender or not determined or to paycompensation can not be used.”[52] Legislation aimed atsafeguarding consumers was also implemented under theBrandt Administration. The consumer’s right of with-drawal in case of hire purchase was strengthened (March1974),[60] and fixed prices for branded products wereabolished by law (January 1974) which meant that man-ufacturers’ recommended prices were not binding forretailers.[60] In addition, a progressive anticartel law waspassed.[17]

In terms of working conditions, a number of reforms wereintroduced aimed at strengthening the rights of workersboth at home and in the workplace. The Sickness Act of1970 provided equal treatment of workers and employ-ees in the event of incapacity for work,[45] while mater-nity leave was increased.[61] Legislation was introducedwhich ensured continued payment of wages for workersdisabled by illness (1970).[37] In 1970 all employees unitfor work (with the exception of women in receipt of ma-ternity benefits and temporarily and inconsiderably em-

8 3 CHANCELLOR

ployed persons) were provided with an unconditional le-gal claim against their employer to continued payment oftheir gross wage for a period of 6 weeks, as also in thecase of spa treatment approved by an Insurance Fund, theFund bearing the full cost thereof. Previously, paymentof employer’s supplement and sick pay were only madefrom the day on which the doctor certified unfitness forwork.[26] In 1972, an Act on Agency Work was passedwhich sought to prevent works agencies from providingjob placement services and aimed to provide job mini-mum protection for employees in agency work.[62] A lawon the hiring out of manpower, passed in October 1972,contained provisions to stipulate prior authorization forthe hiring out of manpower, to draw a distinction betweenthe system governing workers hired out and the placingof workers, to regulate and improve the rights of hiredout workers pertaining to working conditions and socialinsurance, and provide for more severe penalties and finesto be imposed on offenders.[27]

Improvements were also made in income and work con-ditions for home workers,[63] together with an extensionof paid annual leave and an extension of the dismissaldeadline.[52] Accident insurance was extended to non-working adults.[19] The government also introduced a newemployment law for young people, including providingfor the introduction of the five-day week of 40 hoursand longer holidays.[52] In addition, the Border ZoneAssistance Act (1971) increased levels of assistance tothe declining zonal peripheral area.[64] The OccupationalSafety Act (1973) required employers to provide com-pany doctors and safety experts.[65] A directive on pro-tection against noise at the place of work was adopted inNovember 1970. If measurements showed or there wasreason to assume that a noise level guide value of 90 dB(A)may be exceeded at the place of work, then the author-ity had to instruct the employer to arrange check-ups ofthe employees concerned and these employees had to usepersonal noise protection devices.[27] A matching fundprogram for 15 million employees was also introduced,which stimulated them to accumulate capital.[15]

In a directive of 10 November 1970, the Minister ofLabour and Social Affairs recommended to the higherauthorities for work protection of the “Lander” to bringin the directive published, in agreement with the Min-istry of Labour, by the German Engineers’ Associationon the evaluation of work station noise in relation to lossof hearing, in order to improve safeguards for workersagainst the noises in question. In September 1971, anordinance was published concerning dangerous workingmaterials. It safeguarded persons using these materialsagainst the dangers involved. In August 1971, a law cameinto force which was directed at reducing atmosphericpollution from lead compounds in four-stroke engine fu-els. As a safeguard against radiation, a decree on the sys-tem of authorisations for medicaments treated with ion-izing radiation or containing radioactive substances, in itsversion of 8 August 1967, was remodelled by a new De-

cree of 10 May 1971 which added some radionuclides tothe list of medicaments which doctors in private practicewere authorized to use. A law on individual promotionof vocational training came into force in October 1971.It provided for financial grants for attendance at furthergeneral or technical teaching establishments from the sec-ond year of studies at higher technical schools, academiesand higher education establishments, training centres ofsecond degree, or certain courses of television teaching.Grants were also made in certain cases for attendance attraining centres located outside the Federal Republic.[32]

By a decree of the Federal Minister for Labour and So-cial Order, the Federal Institute for Industrial Protec-tion became the Federal Agency for Industrial Protectionand Accident Research. Amongst its designated tasks in-cluded the promotion of industrial protection, accidentprevention on the journey to and from work and accidentprevention in the home and leisure activities, the encour-agement of training and advanced training in the area ofindustrial protection, and to promote and coordinate ac-cident research. A regulation was issued in 1972 whichpermitted for the first time the employment of women asdrivers of trams, omnibuses and lorries, while further reg-ulations laid down new provisions for lifts and work withcompressed air.[27]

The Factory Constitution Law (1971) strengthened therights of individual employees “to be informed and to beheard on matters concerning their place of work.” TheWorks’ Council was provided with greater authority whiletrade unions were given the right of entry into the fac-tory “provided they informed the employer of their in-tention to do so,”[11] while a law was passed to encouragewider share ownership by workers and other rank-and-file employees.[17] The Industrial Relations Law (1972)and the Personnel Representation Act (1974) broadenedthe rights of employees in matters which immediately af-fected their places of work, while also improving the pos-sibilities for codetermination on operations committees,together with access of trade unions to companies.[37]The Works Constitution Act of 1972 required in casesof collective dismissal at an establishment normally em-ploying more than twenty employees that managementand the works council must negotiate a social plan thatstipulates compensation for workers who lose their jobs.In cases where the two parties cannot agree on a socialplan, the law provides for binding arbitration.[66] In 1972,the rights of works councils to information from manage-ment were not only strengthened, but works councils werealso provided with full codetermination rights on issuessuch as working time arrangements in the plant, the set-ting of piece rates, plant wage systems, the establishmentof vacation times, work breaks, overtime, and short-timework.[67] Legislation was passed which acknowledged forthe first time the presence of trade unions in the work-place, expanded the means of action of the works coun-cils, and improved their work basics as well as those ofthe youth councils.[68]

3.4 1972 crisis 9

A law of January 1972 on the organization of labourin enterprises significantly extended the works council’sright of cooperation and co-management in the matter ofvocational training. That same year, the Safety Instituteof the Federal Republic of Germany was transformedinto a public Federal Agency (Bundesanstalt) with sig-nificantly enlarged powers, in the context of which spe-cial emphasis would be placed on its new task of pro-moting and coordinating research in the area of accidentprevention.[27] A law of 18 January 1974, designed toprotect members of the supervisory boards of compa-nies who are undergoing training, was aimed at ensur-ing that the representatives of young workers and youth-ful members of works councils still undergoing trainingcould perform their duties with greater independence andwithout fear of disadvantageous consequences for theirfuture careers.[31]

New provisions were introduced for the rehabilitation ofseverely disabled people (“Schwerbehinderte”) and ac-cident victims.[42] The Severely Disabled Persons Act(1974)obliged all employers with more than fifteen em-ployees to ensure that 6% of their workforce consistedof people officially recognised as being severely handi-capped. Employers who failed to do so were assessed 100DM per month for every job falling before the requiredquota. These compensatory payments were used to “sub-sidise the adaptation of workplaces to the requirementsof those who were severely handicapped.”[22]

A law passed in January 1974, designed to protect mem-bers of the supervisory boards of companies who are un-dergoing training, was aimed at ensuring that the repre-sentatives of young workers and youthful members ofworks councils still undergoing training could performtheir duties with greater independence and without fearof disadvantageous consequences for their future careers.On request, workers’ representatives on completion oftheir training courses had to have an employment rela-tionship of unlimited duration.[31] In the field of transport,the Municipal Transportation Finance Law was passed in1971, which established federal guidelines for subsidiesto municipal governments,[69] while the Federal Trans-port Plan of 1973 provided a framework for all transport,including public transport.[70]

A federal environmental programme was established in1971,[71] followed by a Federal Environment Agencyin 1974 to conduct research into environmental is-sues and prevent pollution.[72] Matching grants cover-ing 90% of infrastructure development were allocatedto local communities, which led to a dramatic increasein the number of public swimming pools and other fa-cilities of consumptive infrastructure throughout WestGermany.[73] The federal crime-fighting apparatus wasalso modernised,[15] while a Foreign Tax Act was passedwhich limited the possibility of tax evasion.[74] In ad-dition, efforts were made to improve the railways andmotorways.[17]

Under the Brandt Administration, West Germany at-tained a lower rate of inflation than in other industrialisedcountries at that time.[14] while a rise in the standard ofliving took place, helped by the floating and revaluation ofthe mark.[17] This was characterised by the real incomesof employees increasing more sharply than incomes fromentrepreneurial work, with the proportion of employees’incomes in the overall national income rising from 65%to 70% between 1969 and 1973, while the proportion ofincome from entrepreneurial work and property fell overthat same period from just under 35% to 30%.[28]

3.4 1972 crisis

Brandt’sOstpolitik led to ameltdown of the narrowmajor-ity Brandt’s coalition enjoyed in the Bundestag. In Octo-ber 1970, FDP deputies Erich Mende, Heinz Starke, andSiegfried Zoglmann crossed the floor to join the CDU.On 23 February 1972, SPD deputy Herbert Hupka, whowas also leader of the Bund der Vertriebenen, joined theCDU in disagreement with Brandt’s reconciliatory effortstowards the east. On 23 April 1972, Wilhelm Helms(FDP) left the coalition ; the FDP politicians Knud vonKühlmann-Stumm and Gerhard Kienbaum also declaredthat they would vote against Brandt; thus, Brandt had losthis majority. On 24 April 1972 a vote of no confidencewas proposed and it was voted on three days later. Hadthis motion passed, Rainer Barzel would have replacedBrandt as Chancellor. To everyone’s surprise, the motionfailed: Barzel got only 247 votes out of 260 ballots; foran absolute majority, 249 votes would have been neces-sary. There were also 10 votes against the motion andthree invalid ballots. Most deputies of SPD and FDP didnot take part in the voting, as not voting had the same ef-fect as voting for Brandt. It was not revealed until muchlater that two Bundestagmembers (Julius Steiner and LeoWagner, both of the CDU/CSU) had been bribed by theEast German Stasi to vote for Brandt.

3.5 New elections

Though Brandt remained Chancellor, he had lost his ma-jority. Subsequent initiatives in parliament, most notablyon the budget, failed. Because of this stalemate, theBundestag was dissolved and new elections were called.During the 1972 campaign, many popular West Germanartists, intellectuals, writers, actors and professors sup-ported Brandt and the SPD. Among them were GünterGrass, Walter Jens, and even the soccer player Paul Breit-ner. Brandt’s Ostpolitik as well as his reformist domesticpolicies were popular with parts of the young generationand led his SPD party to its best-ever federal election re-sult in late 1972. The “Willy-Wahl”, Brandt’s landslidewin was the beginning of the end; and Brandt’s role ingovernment started to decline.Many of Brandt’s reforms met with resistance from state

10 4 EX-CHANCELLOR

governments (dominated by CDU/CSU). The spirit of re-formist optimism was cut short by the 1973 oil crisis andthe major public services strike 1974, which gave Ger-many’s trade unions, led by Heinz Kluncker, a big wageincrease but reduced Brandt’s financial leeway for furtherreforms. Brandt was said to be more a dreamer than amanager and was personally haunted by depression. Tocounter any notions about being sympathetic to Commu-nism or soft on left-wing extremists, Brandt implementedtough legislation that barred “radicals” from public ser-vice ("Radikalenerlass").

3.6 Guillaume affair

Main article: Guillaume Affair

Around 1973, West German security organizations re-ceived information that one of Brandt’s personal assis-tants, Günter Guillaume, was a spy for the East Germanintelligence services. Brandt was asked to continue work-ing as usual, and he agreed to do so, even taking a privatevacation with Guillaume. Guillaume was arrested on 24April 1974, and many blamed Brandt for having a com-munist spy in his inner circle. Thus disgraced, Brandtresigned from his position as chancellor on 6 May 1974.However, he remained in the Bundestag and as chairmanof the Social Democrats through 1987.This espionage affair is widely considered to have beenjust the trigger for Brandt’s resignation, not the funda-mental cause. Brandt was dogged by scandals about se-rial adultery, and reportedly also struggled with alcoholand depression.[75][76] There was also the economic fall-out onWest Germany of the 1973 oil crisis, which almostseems to have been enough stress to finish off Brandt asthe Chancellor. As Brandt himself later said, “I was ex-hausted, for reasons which had nothing to do with the trial[the Guillaume espionage scandal] going on at the time.”[77]

Guillaume had been an espionage agent for East Ger-many, who was supervised by Markus Wolf, the head ofthe “Main Intelligence Administration” of the East Ger-man Ministry for State Security. Wolf stated after the re-unification that the resignation of Brandt had never beenintended, and that the planting and handling of Guillaumehad been one of the largest mistakes of the East Germansecret services.Brandt was succeeded as the Chancellor of the Bundesre-publik by his fellow Social Democrat, Helmut Schmidt.For the rest of his life, Brandt remained suspicious thathis fellow Social Democrat (and longtime rival) HerbertWehner had been scheming for Brandt’s downfall. How-ever, there is scant evidence to corroborate this suspicion.

Willy Brandt in 1988 at the Münster party rally

4 Ex-Chancellor

After his term as the Chancellor, Brandt retained hisseat in the Bundestag, and he remained the Chairman ofthe Social Democratic Party through 1987. Beginningin 1987, Brandt stepped down to become the HonoraryChairman of the party. Brandt was also a member of theEuropean Parliament from 1979 to 1983.

4.1 Socialist International

For sixteen years, Brandt was the president of theSocialist International (1976–92), during which periodthe number of Socialist International’s mainly Europeanmember parties grew until there were more than a hun-dred socialist, social democratic, and labour political par-ties around the world. For the first seven years, thisgrowth in SI membership had been prompted by the ef-forts of the Socialist International’s Secretary-General,the Swede Bernt Carlsson. However, in early 1983, a dis-pute arose about what Carlsson perceived as the SI pres-ident’s authoritarian approach. Carlsson then rebukedBrandt saying: “this is a Socialist International — not aGerman International”.Next, against some vocal opposition, Brandt decided

4.4 Hostages in Iraq 11

Socialist International Congress 1983. Willy Brandt with outgo-ing general secretary Bernt Carlsson (left) and new general sec-retary Pentti Väänänen (right)

to move the next Socialist International Congress fromSydney, Australia to Portugal. Following this SI Congressin April 1983, Brandt retaliated against Carlsson by forc-ing him to step down from his position. However, theAustrian Prime Minister, Bruno Kreisky, argued on be-half of Brandt: “It is a question of whether it is better tobe pure or to have greater numbers”.[78] Carlsson was suc-ceeded by the Finn, Pentti Väänänen as Secretary Generalof the Socialist International [79]

During Willy Brandt’s presidency the SI developed ac-tivities and dialogue on a number of International is-sues. This concerned the East-West conflict and armsrace where the SI held high level consultations with theleaderships of the United States and the Soviet Union.The SI met with such leaders as President Jimmy Carterand Vice-Presidents Walter Mondale and George Bush.They alsomet with the Secretaries General Leonid Brezh-nev and Michail Gorbachev and with the Soviet PresidentAndrei Gromyko. The SI also developed active contactsto promote dialogue concerning regional conflicts. Thoseincluded theMiddle East, where they helped to build con-tacts between Israel and the PLO, and also in SouthernAfrica and Central America.[80]

4.2 Brandt Report

In 1977, Brandt was appointed as the chairman of theIndependent Commission for International Developmen-tal Issues. This produced a report in 1980, which calledfor drastic changes in the global attitude towards devel-opment in the Third World. This became known as theBrandt Report.

4.3 Reunification

In October 1979, Brandt met with the East German dis-sident, Rudolf Bahro, who had written The Alternative.Bahro and his supporters were attacked by the East Ger-man state security organization Stasi, headed by Erich

Willy Brandt giving a speech in Wismar, campaigning for theonly free parliamentary election in East Germany (March 1990).

Mielke, for his writings, which had laid the theoreticalfoundation of a leftist opposition to the ruling SED partyand its dependent allies, and which promoted new andchanged parties. All of this is now described as “changefrom within”. Brandt had asked for Bahro’s release, andBrandt welcomed Bahro’s theories, which advanced thedebate within his own Social Democratic Party. In late1989, Brandt became one of the first leftwing leaders inWest Germany to publicly favor a quick reunification ofGermany, instead of some sort of two-state federation orother kind of interim arrangement. Brandt’s public state-ment “Now grows together what belongs together,” waswidely quoted in those days.

4.4 Hostages in Iraq

One of Brandt’s last public appearances was in flying toBaghdad, Iraq, to free Western hostages held by SaddamHussein, following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990.Brandt secured the release of a large number of them, andon 9 November 1990, his airplane landed with 174 freedhostages on board at the Frankfurt Airport.[81]

5 Death and memorials

Willy Brandt died of colon cancer at his home in Unkel,a town on the Rhine River, on 8 October 1992, and wasgiven a state funeral. He was buried at the cemetery atZehlendorf in Berlin.When the SPDmoved its headquarters fromBonn back toBerlin in themid-1990s, the new headquarters was namedthe “Willy Brandt Haus”. One of the buildings of theEuropean Parliament in Brussels was named after him in2008.On 6 December 2000, a memorial to Willy Brandt andWarschauer Kniefall was unveiled in Warsaw, Poland.German artist Johannes Heisig painted several portraitsof Brandt of which one was unveiled as part of an hon-

12 8 BIOGRAPHIES

Willy Brandt memorial in Warsaw, 2000. Brandt´s memorial iswithin sight of the Warsaw Ghetto Memorial.

Willy-Brandt-Memorial in Nuremberg by the artist Josef Tabach-nyk, 2009

oring event at German Historical Institute Washington,DC on 18 March 2003. Spokesmen amongst others wereformer German Federal Minister Egon Bahr and formerU.S. Secretary of state Henry Kissinger.[82]

In 2009, the Willy-Brandt-Memorial was opened up inNuremberg at the Willy-Brandt Square.[83] It was createdby the artist Josef Tabachnyk.In 2009, the University of Erfurt renamed its graduateschool of public administration as the Willy BrandtSchool of Public Policy. A private German-languagesecondary school in Warsaw, Poland, is also named af-ter Brandt.Main boulevard on the north entrance to Montenegrincapital Podgorica is named Willy Brandt Boulevard in2011.[84]

6 Brandt’s family

From 1941 until 1948 Brandt was married to Anna Car-lotta Thorkildsen (the daughter of a Norwegian fatherand a German-American mother). The two of them hada daughter, Ninja Brandt (born in 1940). After Brandtand Thorkildsen were divorced in 1948, Brandt marriedthe Norwegian Rut Hansen in the same year. Hansenand Brandt had three sons: Peter Brandt (born in 1948),Lars Brandt (born in 1951) and Matthias Brandt (bornin 1961). After 32 years of marriage, Willy Brandt andRut Hansen Brand divorced in 1980, and from the daythat they were divorced they never saw each other again.On 9 December 1983, Brandt married Brigitte Seebacher(born in 1946).

7 Selected works• 1960Mein Weg nach Berlin (My Path to Berlin), au-tobiography

• 1966 Draußen. Schriften während der Emigration.(Outside: Writings during the Emigration) ISBN 3-8012-1094-4

• 1968 Friedenspolitik in Europa (The Politics of Peacein Europe)

• 1976 Begegnungen und Einsichten 1960–1975 (En-counters and Insights 1960–1975) ISBN 3-455-08979-8

• 1982Links und frei. MeinWeg 1930–1950 (Left andFree: My Path 1930–1950)

• 1986 Der organisierte Wahnsinn (Organized Lu-nacy)

• 1989 Erinnerungen (Memories) ISBN 3-549-07353-4

• 2002 Berliner Ausgabe, Werkauswahl, ed. for Bun-deskanzler Willy Brandt Stiftung by Helga Grebing,Gregor Schöllgen and Heinrich August Winkler, 10volumes, Dietz Verlag, Bonn 2002f, CollectedWrit-ings, ISBN 3-8012-0305-0

8 Biographies• Lars Brandt, Andenken (ISBN 3-446-20710-4)(German)

• Helga Grebing, Willy Brandt. Der andereDeutsche. (ISBN 978-3-7705-4710-4) (Ger-man) – [Homepage of Prof. Dr. Helga Grebing](German)

• Peter Merseburger, Willy Brandt (ISBN 3-421-05328-6) (German)

13

• Barbara Marshall, Willy Brandt, A Political Biogra-phy (ISBN 0-312-16438-6)

• Nestore di Meola,Willy Brandt raccontato da KlausLindenberg (ISBN 88-7284-712-5) (Italian)

• Hans-Joachim Noack, Willy Brandt, Ein Leben, EinJahrhundert (ISBN 978-3-87134-645-3) (German)

9 References[1] Award Ceremony Speech, Nobelprize.org

[2] Jessup, John E. (1998). An Encyclopedic Dictionary ofConflict and Conflict Resolution, 1945–1996. Westport,CT: Greenwood Press. p. 89. – via Questia (subscriptionrequired)

[3] “Willy Brandt : Biography”. Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk.

[4] Kempe, Frederick (2011). Berlin 1961. Penguin Group(USA). p. 98. ISBN 0-399-15729-8.

[5] Kempe, Frederick (2011). Berlin 1961. Penguin Group(USA). p. 166. ISBN 0-399-15729-8.

[6] Kempe, Frederick (2011). Berlin 1961. Penguin Group(USA). pp. 375–376. ISBN 0-399-15729-8.

[7] “Willy Brandt-'Warsaw Genuflection' (English and Ger-man subtitles)". 100 Jahre – Der Countdown – 1970.YouTube / Zolcer TV / ZDFHistory. Retrieved 20 Febru-ary 2014.

[8] “Willy Brandt”, Time Magazine, 4 January 1971, onlinearchive. Retrieved 11 July 2007

[9] Jean-François Juneau, “The Limits of Linkage: TheNixon Administration and Willy Brandt’s Ostpolitik,1969–72,” International History Review 33 (June 2011),277–97.

[10] Socialists in the Recession: The Search for Solidarity byGiles Radice and Lisanne Radice

[11] Germany In The Twentieth Century by David Childs

[12] Foe into friend: The Makers of the New Germany fromKonrad Adenauer to Helmut Schmidt by Marion Dönhoff

[13] The German Social Democrats since 1969: A Party inPower and Opposition by Gerard Braunthal

[14] Willy Brandt: portrait of a statesman by Terence Prittie

[15] The Other German: Willy Brandt’s Life & Times byDavid Binder

[16] http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/80776/E68952.pdf

[17] ibid

[18] Can Germany Be Saved?: The Malaise of the World’s FirstWelfare State – Hans-Werner Sinn. Google Books. 2007.ISBN 9780262195584. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[19] “Dalton, Politics in Germany – Chapter 10”. Soc-sci.uci.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[20] The retreat of social democracy by John T. Callaghan

[21] Growth to Limits. The Western European Welfare StatesSince World War II by Peter Flora

[22] Responses to poverty: lessons from Europe by RobertWalker, Roger Lawson, and Peter Townsend

[23] Political leaders of contemporary Western Europe: a bio-graphical dictionary by David Wilsford

[24] The Social Democratic Party of Germany 1848–2005 byHeinrich Potthoff and Susanne Miller

[25] “GHDI – Document – Page”. Germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[26] Survey of Social Security in the Federal Republic of Ger-many by Dieter Schewe, Karlhugo Nordhorn, and KlausSchenke, Translation by Mr. Frank Kenny, M.B.E.

[27] http://aei.pitt.edu/9826/1/9826.pdf

[28] Helmut Schmidt, Perspectives on Politics edited by Wol-fram F Hanrieder

[29] The Evolution of Social Insurance 1881–1981: Studies ofGermany, France, Great Britain, Austria, and Switzerlandedited by Peter A. Kohler and Hans F. Zacher in collabo-ration with Martin Partington

[30] http://aei.pitt.edu/9801/1/9801.pdf

[31] http://aei.pitt.edu/9842/1/9842.pdf

[32] http://aei.pitt.edu/9805/1/9805.pdf

[33] http://mapcontext.com/autocarto/proceedings/auto-carto-4-vol-1/pdf/automated-cartography-as-an-aid-to-define-protection-areas-against-air-traffic-noise.pdf

[34] “DER SPIEGEL 16/1972 – Anders als zu Kaisers und zuKatzers Zeiten”. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[35] Tomka, Béla (2004). “Welfare in East andWest: Hungar-ian Social Security in an International Comparison, 1918–1990”. ISBN 9783050038711.

[36] “Innere Reformen”. Hdg.de. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[37] [j]karef GmbH (28October 1969). “The first policy state-ment (August 1970) – Biografie Willy Brandt”. Willy-brandt.org. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[38] Growth to Limits. The Western European Welfare StatesSince World War II, Volume 4, by Peter Flora

[39] Taxation, Wage Bargaining and Unemployment by IsabelaMares

[40]

[41] Old-age security in comparative perspective by John B.Williamson and Fred C. Pampel

[42] My Life in Politics by Willy Brandt

14 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

[43] Banking on death: or, investing in life : the history andfuture of pensions by Robin Blackburn

[44] Responses to poverty: lessons from Europe by RobertWalker, Roger Lawson and Peter Townsend

[45] “Sozialliberale Koalition und innere Reformen | bpb” (inGerman). Bpb.de. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[46] Europe since 1945: an introduction by Peter Lane

[47] Germany: the long road west 1933–1990 by Heinrich Au-gust Winkler and Alexander Sager

[48] http://www.gew.de/Binaries/Binary37514/GEW_fzs_UN_Opinion.pdf

[49] Germany and the Germans by John Ardagh

[50] ColdWar Politics in Postwar Germany by David F. Patton

[51] Management, quality and economics in building by ArturBezelga and Peter S. Brandon

[52] “1971 – Frischer Wind durch innere Reformen der Bon-ner Koalition – chroniknet Artikel und private Fotos”.Chroniknet.de. 29 May 1977. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[53] Hovels to high rise: state housing in Europe since 1850 byAnne Power

[54] “Digitales Archiv Marburg – Das DigAM Projekt”.Digam.net. 28 October 1969. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[55] The constitutional jurisprudence of the Federal Republicof Germany by Donald P. Kommers

[56] Christian democracy in Western Germany by GeoffreyPridham

[57] http://www.genet.ac.uk/workpapers/GeNet2007p28.pdf

[58] Contemporary Western European Feminism (RLE Femi-nist Theory) – Gisela Kaplan – Google Books

[59] Development and Crisis of the Welfare State. Parties andPolicies in Global Markets by Evelyne Huber and John D.Stephens

[60] “Germany'74 – Economy”. Sophienschule.de. 20 De-cember 1974. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[61] http://digam.net/dokument0625.html?ID=9020

[62] http://www.germanlawjournal.com/pdfs/Vol05No10/PDF_Vol_05_No_10_1233-1257_Private_Schiek.pdf

[63] “GHDI – Document”. Germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org. 24September 1973. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[64] Burned Bridge: How East and West Germans Made theIron Curtain – Edith Alice Replogle Sheffer. Google Books.2008. ISBN 9781109097603. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[65] “Dezember 1973 – Regierung Uruguay Parteien Zeitun-gen “El Popular” “Cronica” Verband – chroniknet –Schlagzeilen, Ereignisse, Fotos mit Geschichte, Commu-nity”. Chroniknet.de. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[66] http://www.nber.org/chapters/c11255.pdf

[67] Union of Parts: Labor Politics in Postwar Germany –Kathleen Ann Thelen. Google Books. 1991. ISBN0801425867. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[68] “IZPB | bpb” (in German). Bpb.de. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[69] http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr38/f10_uts.html

[70] Banister, David (2002). “Transport Planning”. ISBN9780415261715.

[71] The state of Germany atlas by Bernhard Schäfers

[72] Germany: A Country Study by Eric Solsten

[73] Can Germany be saved?: the malaise of the world’s firstwelfare state by Hans-Werner Sinn

[74] “GHDI – Document”. Germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org. 17May 1974. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[75] Talk by Hans-Jochen Vogel on 21 October 2002

[76] Gregor Schöllgen: Willy Brandt. Die Biographie. Propy-läen, Berlin 2001. ISBN 3-549-07142-6

[77] quoted in: Gregor Schöllgen. Der Kanzler und sein Spion.In: Die Zeit 2003, Vol. 40, 25 September 2003

[78] “Never at a Loss for Words”. Time. 18 April 1983. Re-trieved 2008-07-09.

[79] “Progressive Politics For A Fairer World”. Socialist Inter-national. Retrieved 2012-11-14.

[80] Väänänen, Pentti (2012). Purppuraruusu ja samettinyrkki(in Finnish) (1st ed.). Kellastupa. pp. 258–259. ISBN9789525787115.

[81] “Mideast Tensions”, TENSIONS; Buildup in Gulf Seen asa Signal On Use of Force, The New York Times, 9 Novem-ber 1990. Retrieved 3 January 2008

[82] “Honoring Willy Brandt”. GHI BULLETIN NO. 33(FALL 2003).

[83] http://www.nuernberg.de/imperia/md/baureferat/dokumente/wettbewerbe/pm_enthuellung_willybrandt.pdf, 09.11.2009

[84] http://www.dan.co.me/?nivo=3&rubrika=Podgoricom&clanak=283467&datum=2011-06-10

10 External links

• Willy-Brandt-Forum in Unkel

• Official Biography of Willy Brandt by ChancellorWilly Brandt Foundation

• Adam Sneyd, “Brandt Commission” in Globaliza-tion and Autonomy Online Compendium, edited byWilliam D. Coleman and Nancy Johnson

• Biography of Willy Brandt

15

• Willy Brandt and the unification of Europe fromCenter for European Studies collection

• Ubben Lecture at DePauw University

16 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Willy Brandt Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy%20Brandt?oldid=645696068 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Zundark, Danny, Jinian,

Hephaestos, Edward, 172, AlexR, Paul Benjamin Austin, Pjamescowie, Docu, G-Man, Den fjättrade ankan, Djmutex, Chrysalis, Andres,²¹², John K, Conti, Schneelocke, Bemoeial, Wik, Furrykef, EikwaR, Mackensen, Jhobson1, Jeffq, Huangdi, Dimadick, Robbot, Tremblay,Nico, Fredrik, RedWolf, Mirv, Ojigiri, Acegikmo1, Saforrest, Jpbrenna, Robbar, Lzur, Xyzzyva, HangingCurve, IRelayer, Niteowlneils,Lueddeke, Thomas Ludwig, Edcolins, Golbez, Gugganij, Sca, Abu badali, Piotrus, Rdsmith4, Rlquall, Lucky13pjn, Sam Hocevar, Soman,Burschenschafter, Dr. Nodelescu, Bhugh, D6, ChanochGruenman, Ta bu shi da yu, Mormegil, Miroslawa, Bourquie, Rich Farmbrough,Alistair1978, Bender235, ESkog, Tom, Art LaPella, Keno, Hajduk, XerKibard, Jjk, Pokrajac, Giraffedata, Rajah, ריינהארט ,לערי The-wayforward, Leifern, Ranveig, Freako, Josias Bunsen, Rd232, Craigy144, Thf1977, Swarve, Denniss, Bbsrock, Fourthords, Grenavitar,Sleigh, Maria Stella, Isfisk, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Dzordzm, Emerson7, Purplecat, BD2412, Kbdank71, JIP, Mendaliv, Rjwilmsi, Tim!,Koavf, MZMcBride, SNIyer12, FlaBot, Ground Zero, KarlFrei, Kmorozov, CarolGray, Kuzzer, Str1977, Nevfennas, Idaltu, Chobot,Kresspahl, EamonnPKeane, Ravenswing, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, 03haya, Tresckow, Manxruler, Rjensen, Emilio floris, Ezeu, Tor-bjorn, Ospalh, CVCE, Bronks, Homagetocatalonia, Nikkimaria, Tyronen, Willtron, T. Anthony, Curpsbot-unicodify, Captain Proton,Schizobullet, SmackBot, Brandon39, Roger Davies, David Kernow, DuncanBCS, Unyoyega, VarunRajendran, Rrius, Delldot, Aivazovsky,Ivyst, Mauls, Alsandro, FMB, Hmains, Schmiteye, Bluebot, Dahn, Jprg1966, B00P, MalafayaBot, Arnholm, See Hoy Kim, Fromgermany,Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Writtenright, Ioscius, Donation, Kittybrewster, Davecampbell, Savidan, Coffeinfreak, Ericl, NeilFraser,Cvieg, Ohconfucius, JLogan, SashatoBot, Esrever, SEWalk, John, Timdownie, Npsalomon, Michael Bednarek, BuckyRea, Bollinger,Kseferovic, Hera1187, E-Kartoffel, Tasoskessaris, RMHED, Eastfrisian, Iridescent, Hawkestone, GiantSnowman, Axt, MightyWarrior,Joey80, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Mattbr, Drinibot, Cydebot, Meile, Achangeisasgoodasa, R-41, Tunheim, JohnInDC, BetacommandBot,Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Thomas Skogestad, Headbomb, Fluxbot, Frank, EricErik, Therequiembellishere, GLGerman, AntiVandal-Bot, RobotG, Luna Santin, Ivanh1, Bondolo, Sapphire, Dricherby, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Jmorrison230582, JNW, George Esayas,Mapetite526, Romulus, Bobby H. Heffley, Ekki01, Hdt83, ExplicitImplicity, Kostisl, H-Scorpio, K wedge, DrKiernan, Maurice Carbonaro,Bot-Schafter, DadaNeem, Joost 99, 2812, MisterBee1966, Squids and Chips, Thismightbezach, Adamsneyd, AlnoktaBOT, PJHaseldine,TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Optigan13, Haggman, Jrgsf, Dirkbb, Bpcesl2007, Happyme22, CoolKid1993, MrsMyer, Sai2020, Ptah, the El Daoud,Rejlii, SieBot, Cyberroach, Alex Middleton, Erik Jesse, Thehornet, Barliner, Monegasque, Darth Kalwejt, Lightmouse, BenoniBot, KevinL. from Germany, Tkreuz, Someone111111, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Polentario, GordonBrownforPresident, All Hallow’s Wraith,Rjd0060, Parkjunwung, Joao Xavier, P. S. Burton, D2dMiles, Sirius85, Alexbot, Ziko, CowboySpartan, Dekisugi, Mickey gfss2007, BO-Tarate, Fetchanextratablewillyoujames, Redhill54, GLGermann, Bilsonius, SilvonenBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Wulf Isebrand, Ron-hjones, Jswinkin, Kaj1mada, AndersBot, LinkFA-Bot, BobMiller1701, Tassedethe, DK4, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Pi-raeus, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Citation bot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Saris Marito, Ulf Heinsohn, GrouchoBot, نسر,برلين FrescoBot, Cme34, D'ohBot, CircleAdrian, Citation bot 1, Urban XII, Kalmbach, Jauhienij, Vandagard, TobeBot, LukeM212,LilyKitty, Seoulmate1, Specs112, Ontologix, Ninja999, EmausBot, Dewritech, Wikipelli, Kkm010, Zictor23, Vladwin, ZéroBot, Illegiti-mate Barrister, SporkBot, Room711, Tolly4bolly, Spicemix, Berlin 11011, ClueBot NG, Delaywaves, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tholme, Fester-munk, BG19bot, Roberticus, Jay8g, Iselilja, Dhyeatts, Germanpolitician, J R Gainey, BattyBot, Cloptonson, Nick.mon, WellardW, Egeymi,Dexbot, SamWinchester000, Boston9, Caleb Dorey, HughOttoBaesler, VFair, Marxistfounder, FoxyOrange, Madehub, EvaristoAugello,Maxim560, Christine1200, Skagen73, Tadeusz Nowak, Jarould, BritishLabour100, Ruzze and Anonymous: 263

11.2 Images• File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F037099-0021,_Köln,_Staatsempfang_für_Präsident_Pompidou.jpg Source: http:

//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F037099-0021%2C_K%C3%B6ln%2C_Staatsempfang_f%C3%BCr_Pr%C3%A4sident_Pompidou.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to WikimediaCommons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archiveguarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as providedby the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Wegmann, Ludwig

• File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F064862-0019,_Dortmund,_SPD-Parteitag,_Willy_Brandt.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F064862-0019%2C_Dortmund%2C_SPD-Parteitag%2C_Willy_Brandt.jpgLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (DeutschesBundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using theoriginals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:Schaack, Lothar

• File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F079282-0022,_Münster,_SPD-Parteitag,_Willy_Brandt.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F079282-0022%2C_M%C3%BCnster%2C_SPD-Parteitag%2C_Willy_Brandt.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive(Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only usingthe originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist:Engelbert Reineke

• File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0316-035,_Wismar,_SPD-Wahlkundgebung,_Willy_Brandt.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1990-0316-035%2C_Wismar%2C_SPD-Wahlkundgebung%2C_Willy_Brandt.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German FederalArchive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representationonly using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive.Original artist: Sindermann, Jürgen

• File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Bekanntmachung über die farbige Darstellung des Bundeswappens. Vom 4. Juli 1952. In: Bunde-sanzeiger Nr. 169 vom 02. September 1952. Original artist:

• diese Datei: Jwnabd

11.2 Images 17

• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Berlin.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_Berlin.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors:

• Gelb – HKS 4 (RGB 255-201-0, #ffc900, Umrechnungstabelle Druckfarben + Screenfarben) Original artist: Ottfried Neubecker(1908–1992) <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Creator:Ottfried_Neubecker' title='Link back to Creator infobox tem-plate'><img alt='Link back to Creator infobox template' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png' width='15' height='15' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/23px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/30px-Blue_pencil.svg.png2x' data-file-width='600' data-file-height='600' /></a> <a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q70824' title='wikidata:Q70824'><imgalt='wikidata:Q70824' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png'width='20' height='11' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'data-file-height='590' /></a>

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: TheTango! Desktop Project. Original artist:The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (althoughminimally).”

• File:Flag_of_Berlin.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_Berlin.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Gesetz über die Hoheitszeichen des Landes Berlin. Vom 13. Mai 1954. (PDF, 61.511 Bytes)Original artist:

• diese Datei: Jwnabd• File:Flag_of_East_Berlin_(1956-1990).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Berlin_

%281956-1990%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work after FOTW Original artist: User:Madden• File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: Own work

• Gesetz zur Änderung des Gesetzes über das Staatswappen und die Staatsflagge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Vom 1.Oktober 1959

• Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. — Flaggenverordnung — Vom 3.Januar 1973

• Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. — Flaggenverordnung — Vom 12.Juli 1979

Original artist:

• diese Datei: Jwnabd• File:Flag_of_German_Reich_(1933–1935).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_German_

Reich_%281933%E2%80%931935%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: R-41• File:Flag_of_German_Reich_(1935–1945).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_German_

Reich_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fornax• File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ?

Original artist: ?• File:Flag_of_Germany_(3-2_aspect_ratio).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Flag_of_Germany_

%283-2_aspect_ratio%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Mmxxxxxxxx• File:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.

svg License: Public domain Contributors: Recoloured Image:Flag of Germany (2-3).svg Original artist: User:B1mbo and User:Madden• File:Flag_of_the_NSDAP_(1920–1945).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_the_NSDAP_

%281920%E2%80%931945%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Original PNG version created by de:Benutzer:Kookaburrawith the name "Bild:Flag Germany 1933.png” in de.wikipedia; uploaded to the Wikimedia Commons by User:Guanaco, later convertedto SVG by User:Rotemliss and later modified by other Wikimedia Commons people. Original artist: ?

• File:John_F._Kennedy_meeting_with_Willy_Brandt,_March_13,_1961.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/John_F._Kennedy_meeting_with_Willy_Brandt%2C_March_13%2C_1961.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c34151.This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.Original artist: Marion S. Trikosko

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:Red_rose_02.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Red_rose_02.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib-utors: Own work Original artist: Perhelion

• File:SPD_logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/SPD_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors:self-digitized Original artist: dbenzhuser

• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

18 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:WillyBrandtBerntCarlssonPenttiVäänänen.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/WillyBrandtBerntCarlssonPenttiV%C3%A4%C3%A4n%C3%A4nen.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Väänänen, Pentti(2012). Purppuraruusu ja samettinyrkki (in Finnish) (1st ed.). Kellastupa. pp. 192–194. ISBN 9789525787115. Original artist: PenttiVäänänen

• File:Willy_Brandt_Memorial-Nuremberg.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Willy_Brandt_Memorial-Nuremberg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: UlrichAAB

• File:Willy_Brandt_monument_in_Warsaw_05.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Willy_Brandt_monument_in_Warsaw_05.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 pl Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adrian Grycuk

• File:Willy_Brandt_signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Willy_Brandt_signature.svg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.historyforsale.com/productimages/jpeg/131764.jpg Original artist: Willy Brandt

11.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0