George Egely - Nano Dust Fusion (40pages)

7/30/2019 George Egely - Nano Dust Fusion (40pages)

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GeorgeEgelyPhD:NanoDustFusion 28.07.2011

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NanoDustFusionAfter about 60 years of multibillion dollar efforts, the official versions of controlled nuclear

fusion

could

not

yield

any

results,

despite

all

the

efforts.

Cold

fusion

did

reach

the

overunity

stage,

thoughusuallynotinareliablemanner,exceptfortheeffortsofA.RossiandFocardi,orZhang

andArata. The Italian device seems to be readyfor massproduction. It looks like the original

PonsFleischmann solution stumbled into the periphery of the right technical approach, like

flappingwingtypeairplanesatthedawnofaviation.Thegoldmineofcontrollednuclearfusion

parametersaretobesoughtatevenhighertemperatures,andbyadifferenttechnicalsetup.The

main arena of this effort is transient, dustyplasma of nanosize carbonparticles supported by

ionacousticresonanceswithhundredsofresonancepeaks.Theresultisareliableprocesshaving

multiplenucleartransmutations.

Theprocess tobedescribed isanunusualone.Theessential ingredientsaredustyplasmamadefromnanosizecarbonparticlesandairandsomewatervapor;(SeeFig.1).In itssimplestversionthe process works at atmospheric pressure, and at modest lukewarm temperatures at 10003000C.Thefundamentalprocesscouldbecreatedathomewithmostmicrowaveovens.Indeedthere are dozens of demonstrations on YouTube, under the title 'Microwave Plasma'. However,thereisalongandunfinishedroadfromthiseasydemonstrationtoapracticaldevice.

However, thismethodcanbea faster road toacontrollable, reliable, inexpensivenuclear fusionprocess.Whatsortsoffusionprocessestakeplacehere?Wedontknowyet,butperhapswewillbe able to answer the question withjoint effort in a few years. It is obvious: there should betectonic shifts in theapproach towardscontrollednuclear fusion theoreticallyand technically, inorder to have a massproduced device. The old hot fusion method and mindset should beabandoned, the sooner the better. That fruitless approach will not yield any technical result.However, the focus of the cold version of fusion should be shifted from bulk palladiumelectrolysis with deuterium at room temperature to higher temperatures, nanosize particles,without electrolysis. The nanoparticle induced LENR pinpoints that this process is essentially asurface phenomenon, as indicated by David Nagel, and not a process inside a lattice, as earlytheoretical models expected. Further, the phenomenon is not restricted to deuterium; ordinaryhydrogencanserveaswell,andevennucleiofhighermassnumbers.

The FocardiRossitype process of heated micronsized particles is technically limited by themeltingpointofnickel.(TherearesimilarproblemswiththeArathaZhangtypeofZnO2+Pdnano

particles system,apart from thehighpriceofPd). Inouracousticdustyplasmaprocesswehavetwobottlenecks:themeltingpointofanacousticresonatorvesselandtherecrystallizationpointofnanosizecarbonparticles.Otherwise,onlytheskyisthelimit.


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PartI.Fusion Device in Ten Minutes

Thetechnicalsetupisasfollows:Asshown inFig.2,thesimplestdevice isessentiallyahouseholdmicrowaveplasmaoven,wheretheessentialfusionprocessesarerestrictedtothevolumeofanacousticresonator.Webelievethequintessenceofthetechnicalprocesstakesplace inthedusty,orcrystalplasma.[1]Thecrystalplasma isessentiallyafifthstateofmatter.It isplasma,thoughthesmalldustparticles inside itare arranged along cubic or hexagonic symmetries as shown in Fig. 1. The periodic, latticelikecrystal structure is not essential though: the nanosize carbon dust particles can settle in semiorganized liquid or disordered gaseous forms as well. Moreover sometimes large voids ofparticlesareformedwithintheoscillatingplasma.

As shown in 2, the dust particles have a large accumulated negative charge, as the high speed

electronsbump intotheparticlesurface,andpenetratedeep intothedust.Theyremaintrappeduntilanextraordinaryhighelectrondensityisreachedintheorderof105109electrons/particle.Inordertohaveaveryhighspeed (near thevelocityof light)seedingelectroncloud, theplasmamust oscillate at a wide spectrum of frequencies and at very high amplitudes. The plasmawakefieldaccelerationeffect[2]istobeusedfortheseedingprocess.Itisanalogoustosurfingonthebeach.Whenasteepandemergingwaveapproachesthebeach,thecloudofsurfersridingitisaccelerated,extractingmomentumfromthehugekineticenergyofthewave.Asimilareffectisusedonsmoothwater, ifamotorboat istowingawaterskier.Thereisnoneedforarope;theVshapedwakescanpropelaskilledskiermanouveringon the innerslopeof theboatwakewave.Tabletopsizeplasmaacceleratorsareabletoproduceuptoa1GeV/cmelectricfield inaplasmawave. This is more thananygiant, kilometersized accelerators of Fermilab or CERNare able to

produce,(butthebeamisnotuniforminourcase.)

The processes inside the plasma are indeed complex. Apart from the nanosize carbon dustparticles, negative and positive ions, electrons and neutral atoms or molecules oscillate in aresonator,inordertoachieveasfrequencieswiththehighestpossibleamplitudes.

Thoughmicrophonescannotbe inserted intotheplasma,nor intotheelectromagneticresonator,theamplitudesarebelievedtoexceed130dB.Fortunatelymostofthemattheultrasoundrange.Unfortunatelythere isanotherpeakofintensityaswellforthe infrasoundsattherangeofabout1020Hz,asthisisthetypicalhallmarkofdustyplasmas.

Inordertosatisfythe instantcuriosityofthereaderaboutthedevice,Fig.2/aand2/cprovideaquickintroductiontotheessentialsofasmallhomemadedustfusionreactor.Fig.2/aisasimplemicrowaveoven,wheremicrowavesareradiatedintotheEMresonantcavityviaawaveguide.Onehastoplaceamatchorathickerpointedpegofdrywood intothecenter.Light it,thenclosethedoorquickly,turnontheoven(atabout1kW),andwatchashiningflameclimbuptotheceiling.Thisisthecrystal,dustyorcomplexplasma. Thesootparticlesoftheburningstickofwoodprovidethemicronornanosize carbonparticles. It isevenbetter tousea thin sharpenedgraphite rod,takenfromamechanicalpencil.


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AfurtherstepisshowninFig.2/c,wheretheplasmablobiscapturedinaglassjar.Thisistheendof the foolish YouTube type experiments. A real qualitative, but very difficult step is to use asphericalquartz resonatorwithat least twodifferent tubularelongationson the topandon thebottomof the sphere. It should beplaced onan insulating stand.Aproper, welltuned acoustic

resonator,andaproperlymatchedimpedancechainstartingfromthemagnetrontotheEMcavityisamust.Thedifferenceislikehavingaviolinwithouttheusualresonator,ortohaveapiano,butwithout the wooden soundboard, only the strings. Instead of a spherical quartz resonator, onemightuseanopenendedquartztube(~25mmx60mm)ora50x50x50mmboxmadeofmicaplate;(seethefirstphotograph).

Thesystemisnotnecessarilyclosedhermetically,asitworksatatmosphericpressures,orathigherandlowerpressuresaswell.Thereisanotheruniquefeatureofthissystem:itisextremelytolerantofanyalienmatterpassingthroughtheplasma.Thusaverywiderangeofchemicalandnuclearreactions of fusion of the plasma can be achieved, like splitting the molecules of CO2 or any

hazardousmaterialslikewasterubbertires,orgalvanicsludge,justtonameafew.ElectrochemicalCFcellsareintolerantofanygarbageorpollutantsgettingintotheelectrolyteorintotheelectrodematerial.ThesysteminFig.2/cisenoughforabreakevendevice,ifdenseCO2isblownthrough

theplasmainsidetheacousticresonator.


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PartII.Assumptions

GodCreatedMatter,buttheSurfaceisMadebytheDevil

What sortof physical process takesplace inside theplasma?Theuniqueandvery embarrassingfeatureofthisparticulartechnology isthattheessentialphenomenatakeplacesimultaneouslyatleastonfourdifferentlevelsofsizeandtimescale,spanningabout12ordersofmagnitude.

Thesearethefollowing:

Macroscopicengineeringlevel

Complex plasma oscillations of different frequencies range from the order of 1 Hz to GHz.Consequently, the wave lengths of acoustic oscillations vary from the scale of cm way down to

submicron.Whenfilmedbyahighspeedcamera,thedifferentoscillatingregionsarevisibletothenakedeye,up toa limit.Onsome filmsonecanseeanoscillatingsphericalcheckerboardwithregionsmovinginandoutofphasewithregularsizesubregionslikethesurfaceofapeeledorange.Thedustyplasmaasawholeisconsideredtobeelectricallyneutral,exceptitssurface.

Thereareostensiblysimilardifferencesinthe localplasmatemperaturesfordifferentingredients.Electrons,acceleratedbythemechanismofplasmawakefieldaccelerationcanreachnearlythevelocity of light, therefore they can penetrate deep into a dust particle, creating an enormouschargedensityneverseeninanyothertechnicaldevice.

In fact, theaccelerationofevenapositive ioncanexceed thatofablackholebeyond theevent

horizonduetothemassivenegativechargeofadustparticle.Butforneutralatomsnearthecoldwallof theacoustic resonator, thevelocityhasmodest,usualvalues like inany technicaldevice,(likeaweldingtorch).

Micrometerrange

This is the levelof the interactionof the carbonnanoparticleswith theirambient surroundings.The plasma is no longer neutral electrically in this range. The nonlinear Debye length is thecharacteristicdistanceofthedustplasmainteractions.

Thedustparticlesareofmicronsizeatthestart,butby thetimethey reachtheworkingplasma

temperature they are broken and regrown into nanosize pieces by evaporation, condensation,crystallization, erosion and Maxwell stress rupturing due to the repulsion of the electronsaccumulated inside the dust particles. Small fullerenes and sections of nanotubes are to befoundhere,astheseparticlespasseventhroughveryfinefilters.

Rememberthatwithoutthe finenanodustofrightsizeandshapethere isnoeffectwhatsoever.(Plasmaetching,orionbombardment,alsocreatessuchsmallparticles,asafrequentlycursedsideeffectofsemiconductorchipmanufacturingandionimplantation,butofSi.)Theregularfeaturesofthisdustlatticecrystal,orliquidseemtobeessentialtoitssuccess.Thislatticecanaccommodate


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transverse,longitudinalandeventorsionaloscillation,anditcanamplifythemviaresonanteffects.AsimplifiedsketchoftheDustAcousticResonance,ordustacousticwave isshown inFig.3/a,and 3/b. The characteristic feature of this wave is that the heavy carbon nanoparticles arerelatively stagnant, and the electron cloud is mobile. The electron cloud is driven partly by theexternal electrical field of the transversal waves of the magnetron, and by the selforganized

plasmaoscillations.Thepositiveioncloud(mainlyofN+)andthenegativeioncloud(mainlyofO),and thenegativecarbonnanoparticlesare thedominantmassesof thisoscillation.Theelasticspring is the electrostatic field of the ions and nanoparticles. This nonlinear oscillation ischaracterizedbyalargenumberofresonantfrequencies,andonlyafewofthemareaudible.Mostofthemareintheultrasoundrange(from20kHzuptosomeGHz)withregulardistributionofpeakresonantfrequencies.(ThisqualitativedistributionisshowninFig.4,upto100kHz).

Nanometerlevel

Wehavearriveddowntothetimeandsizescaleofparameters,wheretheusualmacroscopicrulesare no longer valid, yet the rules of the familiar quantum mechanics cannot be applied. Forexample,goldnanoparticlesarechemicallyreactive,andmostmaterialssignificantlychangetheirphysical properties, like melting point, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, etc. Surfaceeffectsbecomedominanttothoseofthelatticeorcrystalstructure.Entirelyunexpectedqualitativeandquantitativefeaturesemergealreadyatthissizelevel!Weirdquasiparticlesappearatthissizescale.Theyhavepropertiestechnicallyusefulyetnotutilized.

On the surface of the dust particles surface plasmon polaritons rule the local world. They areunusual phenomena, littleknown, studied by only a handful of physicists. Quasiparticles likeelectronholes inasemiconductorcrystal,spinons,excitons,orquantizedphononvortices,etc.are strange but useful objects. Magnetic monopoles have also been discovered (and eventuallyforgotten) the same way. (A charged, rotatingmagneticdipoleof micron size irradiated by lightbehaveslikeaperfectquantizedmagneticmonopole).[3]

The most ancient and wellknown quasiparticle is a surface wave that carries energy bycollectivelyorganizingindividualdroplets.Yetitcameasasurpriseinthe1880sthattheseobjectscanbenearlydissipationless.

Contrary to the magnetic monopoles, surface and volumetric plasmon polaritons have not beenforgotten [4]. These quasiparticles appear even on infinite metal/dielectric surfaces. Theypropagateelectrondensitywaves,orelectromagneticwavesstronglyboundtothis interface.Theelectric field intensity at the interface can be very high. There can be even resonant fieldamplificationatsmallnanosizeconductiveparticles,whosesizeissmallerthanthewavelengthoftheexcitingsource.Theexcitationsourcesareparticleimpact,opticalwavesandnearfieldeffects.Themidinfraredwavelengthrangeisespeciallyfavorable.

Surfaceplasmoneffectscanbemoreprominentonnanosizeconductingparticlesthanonopticalgrades or metal plates. Good conductors as Au, Ag, ormultiwall conducting carbon nanotubeswhichproducepronouncedfieldamplificationeffects,especially inthepresenceofplasma,whichhasanegativecomplexdielectricconstant.


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Asconductingmultiwallnanotubesareabout1000timesbetterconductorsthancopperorsilver,their presence is a must. They can be quite easily manufactured in highpressure oscillatingreactiveplasma[5]

Duetothepronouncedresonantfieldamplification,allsortsofhighenergyeffectsformingneutral

particlesmaytakeplacetherelikethoseproposedbyMills[6].

Collectivelyoscillatingelectronsmay interactwith positive ions,protons, thus forming neutrons.The setup is the perfect match to the model developed by Larsen and Widom [7]. Ultracoldneutrons or other neutral quasiparticles can be born by these interactions then react with anynucleustheycancontact.

This process is most likely not governed by strong forces, but ostensibly by electroweakinteractions.Thusthecollectiveoscillationsofsurfaceelectronsdonotnecessarilycausefusionbystrong interaction, but the restof theprocess might cause fusion.So thisvery strangegroup ofphenomenaismostprobablyrestrictedtothesurfaceofnanosizecarbonparticles.Unfortunately,

thereisnowaytodirectlyobserveandjudgetheultrafastreactionsonthesurfaceofthecarbondust,butwithoutdustthere isnoeffect.Thiseffectdominatestheouter layer in theresonator,showninFig.5.

This isessentiallyanonradiantphenomenon.No radioactivity isdetectedwhen the inputpowerdensity iskeptundera threshold levelofplasmavolume (ofabout1kW/1dl).When thepowerdensityincreases,radioactiveradiationappears,e.g.mildXrays, and radiation.

Electron,nucleonsizelevel

Herethemoreor less familiarrulesofquantummechanics,orQ.E.D.rule. Inouropinion,strong

interactionandclassicalfusionstarttodominatetheprocessaboveacertainpowerdensityinthemiddle layer.Sparking isvisibleonslowmotion films.Obviously,theamplitudeofoscillationalsodepends on the plasma radius, pressure, and temperature. At the center of the plasma, theamplitudesshouldbemuchhigherthanthoseattheouterwalloftheacousticresonator. (Therecanbethehighestamplitudeofasphericalstandingwave).SeeFig.5forthethreelayers.

Near the center of the plasma sphere (middle layer), charge shielding can dominate nuclearprocessesduetotheenormoussurfacechargedensityofthedust.Thenrepulsingchargesof likeprotonscanbeovercomebythehugenegativechargedensityofthecarbonparticles.

Ontheslowmotionvideorecords,onecanclearlyseetheappearanceofsuddensmallsparks,en

mass.ThentheGeigercounterstartstoclick,thoughatmoderatelevels.Atpresentnooneknowswhatgoesoninthecenteroftheacousticresonator.

In Fig. 6 these simultaneous mechanisms are shown as field amplification by resonant surfacepolaritons(Fig.6/a),directvolumetricpolarizationbyelectronandionimpact(Fig.6/b),andchargeshielding (Fig.6/c) isshown,wherestrong interactionrules (againatadifferentsize level)at thecharacteristicsizeofanucleon.Obviouslytheseareallhypotheticalmechanisms,astheycannotbeobserveddirectly.


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Severalclassicalfusionreactionsandothernewtypeoffusionsinvolvingheaviernucleimaytakeplacehere.Thesurfaceofthecarbondustparticlecreatesanuclearlyactiveenvironment,usingthewordingofEdmundStorms[8].Thekeywordsofthisnewarenaofnuclearlyactiveenvironmentsare: dusty, resonant plasma, nanotechnology, surface and volume plasmon polaritons, electron

loading,crystalplasma,microwaveexcitation,orRFexcitation.Technicallythis isthehottestofthecoldfusionprocesses.

The classical PonsFleischman process takes place mainly a bit above room temperature, with apalladiumcathode,andheavywater(D2O)electrolysis.Thoughthereareothersubfields,theyarevariations to this engineering setup. This is the most widespread, and even most investigatedtheaterofwar,butafterabout20yearsofinvestigation,thereisnomassproduceddevicebasedon this setup, though initially it was very useful, and influential. The high temperature ceramicprotonconductorexperimentsofT.Mizunohavebeentheexceptions,nottherule.

The ArataZhang, or FocardiRossitype (or Mills?) of micropowder and nano powder approach,

with H or D loading at about 300 C already promise practical application. The resonant, dustyplasma,basedoncarbondustcanbeanother 'battleground'thatcanyieldotherusefultechnicalapplications,andofferareliable,inexpensivenuclearprocess.

Butitcomesataprice.Asmanynew,hithertounheardphysicaleffectsneedtobecombinedandutilizedduetothecomplexityofselforganizingresonantdustyplasma.However,this isthe leastexplored, least understood group of phenomena. Apart from reliability, its most importantadvantageisthatitallowsthesimultaneouspresenceofseveraltypesofenergygeneratingnuclearphenomena,layerbylayer,asshowninFig.6.

Thereareat least fourdifferentsizescalesand fivedifferentphysicalphenomena tobewatched

simultaneously. Dust ionacoustic resonances driven by resonant transversal and longitudinalelectromagneticwaves(crystalplasmaoscillations),surfaceplasmonpolaritons(asquasiparticles),wakefieldelectronacceleration(andelectronpenetrationintoadustparticle),andchargeshieldednormalandneutroninducedfusionprocessesmaytakeplaceatdifferentscaleoftime,scaleandtemperatures.

Unfortunatelyalltheatersofactionsmustbeobservedsimultaneously,andshouldbeunderstoodatleastintheiressentials.Simultaneousembedded,serialelectromagnetic,acousticandpolaritonresonances,andfieldamplificationsareessentialtohaveapracticaldevice.

Coldfusion,orLENRisusedhereasawordingonlyinitsbroadestsense,asseveralplasmabased

interactive phenomena take place simultaneously. The possibility of Hagelstein type processesshould be considered as well as the characteristic frequencies can be of TeraHz order, due tointensiveinfraredradiation.

The phenomena based on dusty (crystal) plasma are nonequilibrium, nonlinear, selforganized,complex phenomena. Essential effects take place at all four levels, but all of them areinterconnectedviaseveralinternalfeedbackloops.


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Theexactdescriptionof the internalpositiveandnegative feedback loopsand theirconsecutiverelations are as yet in the fog of our ignorance, and will remain so for a while, as theirinterconnectedness issometimes loose,sometimesstrong.Forexample,theenergygeneratedbyelectroweakandstrong interactionsdirectly influencetheaverageplasmatemperature.However,averagetemperature isaparameterof interestforan investmentbankonlywhowanttoknow

nothingbuttheaverageexcesspowerdensity.Theelectrontemperature,thepositiveandnegativeioncloudtemperatureareofinterestonlyasafunctionofspaceandtime.Whocanprovidethis?Nottospeakoftheamplitudesofcrystalplasma dustoscillation.Moreover,alloftheseshouldbecoupledtothe incomingtransversewavesandtothepartiallyreflectedlongitudinal(Tesla)wavesgeneratedonthesurfaceoftheplasma[9].

Aswecannotdissectthisphenomenontoseparatesubeffects,(andthussimplifytheprocess),wecan study this group of effects like a botanist,just watching it growing by slightly altering theambientparameters.

Selforganization makes the process of chaotic plasma and the device simple, durable, and

inexpensive. On the other hand, complexity makes the experimenter mad, as seemingly smallchangesinsizeandshapeusuallymakesignificantandfatalchangesinthebehavioroftheprocess.

Dieselenginesserveasanexample.Theyproducebothplasmaoscillations,anddustparticles,butno crystal plasma and no latticeinduced nuclear phenomena. These machines have beenmanufacturedby themillions,and foroveronehundredyears.Stillthedevelopment isnotoveryet.USautomakersareunabletoproducehighquality,smalland inexpensivedieselengines(likethatofVW),buttheyarecapableofmakingexcellent,largetruckengines.Thisisjustanexampleoftheneedforthe immenseamountofknowhowduringtheR&Dphase.This isthedarksideoftheforce.


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PartIII.The Dark Side the Engineering Problems

Aswehaverealizedquiteearly,there issimplynoroomhereforelegantmathematicalmodeling.Therearenice(andunsolvable)equationsforcrystalplasma,polaritons,nuclearphenomena,etc.,butwithoutconstitutiverelations,proper initialandboundaryconditions.Tomake thingsworse,therearenoproperinexpensiveplasmadiagnostictoolstocheckthevalidityofthecalculations!

Few people are aware of the immense efforts of the complexities of the dusty diesel plasmadiagnostics,forexamplebyxrays.Millionsofdollarshavebeen invested intothisR&D,but ithasnot yielded results. Experience, immense accumulated knowledge, intuition, and trialanderrortypeeffortscharacterizethedevelopmentofplasmadevices.

Thesamehappenedduringtheformativeyearsofthemassproductionofmicrochips.Thepresence

ofsilicondusthasbeenobservedearlyduringtheplasmaetchingprocess. Itwasassumedthat itcamethroughthewindow.Thereforeexpensivecleanroomswerebuilt,andcumbersomesafetyclothinghadtobewon.Yetitwasamistake.Thedustwasanunwantedandannoyingsideproductof the plasma etching process. By the time it was realized,hundredsofmillionsof dollars werewastedonunnecessaryexpensivedustfilters.(Nevertheless,medicaloperatingtheatersbenefitedfromtheadvancedfiltersystems).

It isstrange thatTokamak typehot fusionprojectsconsider thecarbondust in theplasmaasanannoyingprocess tobeeliminatedatany cost [10].Carbon inner tilingsof the toroidal chamberhavebeenreplacedbytungstentilings.There isasophisticatedsolutiontomitigatethisproblem(the divertor chamber). However, the dust is the solution to have controlled fusion, and the

problemwhichneedstobemitigatedistheITER.

Forourexperimentsnuclearreactionsassistedbyresonantcrystalordustyplasmatheageoldtrialanderrormethod was theonly way forward. Science relies on and revels in intuition, hardwork,andpureluck.Thereforethiskindofscienceismankind'slasthope.Scienceasaninstitutionalwayssuppressedandwillkeeponsuppressing it,toourgreatestperil.Allthiswasnecessarytomentionbeforewediscussour test resultsand furtherdetailsof thedevices,whichhavealwaysbeenbasedonintuition,crudediagnosticsandneverondetailedcalculations.Wehavetomentionthatonlya fractionof thedesired testswerecarriedout,due to lackof fundingandconsequentlackofmanpower.Wehavefacedmajordifficultieswithseveraltechnicalissuesatthesametime.

The firstchallengehasbeentheefficientgenerationofhigh frequencyEMwaves,to findouttherightshapeandsizeofcavityresonators,couplingantennas,waveguides.Therewasverylittleofftheshelfknowledgeinthisfield.

Aswerealizedtoourperil,theresonant,oscillatingplasmaemitsscalar,or longitudinal, i.e.Teslawaves.[9]Textbooksonelectromagneticwaves,mentiononlytransversalwaves.Someofthemtrytogiveashyexplanationofwhythereareno longitudinalandtorsionwaves.Asanytextbookofmechanics describes theses waves in solids, the longitudinal (sound), transversal and rotationalwaves,onemayponderwheretheyareinelectrodynamics.Thetroublecomesmainlyfromthefact


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thatTesla'spioneeringresearchinthisareahasbeenalmostcompletelyignored.Thefundamentalprocess to generate a longitudinal wave is to charge a sphere (or a plate) to a high electricpotential,andtodischargeitrapidly.Itisbettertohaveonesidedpushwaves,butthepushpullmethodalsoworks inanoscillatingmembrane.According toourvisualobservations, theplasmahasevenrotatedinthecavityresonator.Accordingtotextbookphysicsthereisnoreasonforitto

doso.

TherotatedplasmaphenomenonappearsatthethresholdlevelofseveralthousandsofVoltsandkHz.Inouroscillatingplasma,boththenegativelychargeddustparticlesandnegativeandpositiveionstakepartinthisoscillationprocess;(seeFig.8.)

Without heavy positive and negative ions, there is no ion acoustic resonance, and there are nosignificantoscillations.Electronsaresimplytoo lighttocounterbalancetheheavymassofpositiveions.Nevertheless,ionacousticanddustacousticoscillationshaveaveryusefulproperty:theyemitlongitudinal sound and Tesla waves, which serve as a reliable diagnostic tool, along with thespectrumoftheplasma,(thoughonlyforanarrowbandforacousticfrequencies.)

The Tesla waves are emitted from the plasma surface. However, the cavity resonator, which isreflectivefortransversewaves,isonlypartiallyreflectiveforthelongitudinalEMwaves,whichisanunwantedlossalongwiththegenerationofsoundwaves;(SeeFig.9.)Thisposedamajordrawbackfor us. The electromagnetic cavity resonator has to be optimized to achieve the following tripletask:

Atthestart,anignitionpackofcarbonpowderisplacedintotheacousticcavityresonator,andthisresonator is placed into the transversal cavity resonator; (see Fig. 2/c). The dust lump must belocatedatthemaximumnodeoftheelectricfield,otherwisethere isno ignition.OnlytransversalEMwavesarepresent.

Afterignition,theconductiveplasmadestroysthehighqualityfactoroftheEMresonatorbyshortcircuiting,anddissipating.Thenadifferentshapeoftransversalwavecavityresonatorwouldworkmore efficiently. So we struck a compromise: we start at a higher input power, but once theplasmaisformed,theinputpowerisreduced.However,whenthetemperatureofthedevicehasclimbedto itsnormalsteadyvalue,thepowerpartially radiated away by scalar longitudinal (Tesla) waves is annoying. The Tesla waves aregenerated at multiple frequencies, as they are generated by the ion and dust acoustic waves.Therefore their multiple reflections and transmittance inside the EM cavity resonator require adifferentshape,thanthatoftransversalwavesonly.Inthebeginning,theperformanceofthenewboxwasnotsteady.Sometimesitwasselfextinguishing,whenthematchbetweentheshapeofthemetalbox (EMcavity)optimized for transversaland longitudinalwavesand thepositionof the

acousticresonator(quartzsphere)wasnotcorrect.Ittookanextremeamountoftrialanderrortofigureoutacompromiseamongthethreecompetingdesigncriteria.

Longitudinal(Tesla)wavesareemittedbytheplasma(byacomplicatedspatialdistributionatthemaximumamplitudenodes),and reflectedback into theEM cavity resonator. If the longitudinalwaveisreflectedbackpartlyintotheplasma,thenapositivefeedbackloopexists,andtheplasmaisselfsustaining.SeeFig.8.


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Otherwisetherearetwocompetingmodesinsidethemetalcavityresonator,(becausethetwoEMwaves have two different nodes), and the oscillation becomes intermittent causing a series offlashesandloudminiexplosions.Theseeventsaretechnicallyuseless.

Thearduoustaskofoptimizationforthelongitudinalandtransversewaveswassolvedbyoneofus

(Cs. M.) by trial and error. He kept on building and testing new cavity resonators, alwaysrectangular ones, as they were easy to make and relatively inexpensive. The spherical acousticresonatormadeofquartzservesfortheplasma.However,thereisasignificantenergylossduetosound energy. So the transversal longitudinal EM cavity resonator also functions as a simpleexternalacousticresonator.Stilltherectangularshape isnotgoodenough;asphericalonewouldbebetter.Certainly, there isahuge rangeofuntestedgeometries:cylindrical, sphericalor semirounded cylindrical. As a rule, the acoustic and the EM resonators do not have a commongeometrical focus point. The acoustic resonator usually ignites there, but not at optimalparameters.

AllmusicalinstrumentsweredevelopedduringtheMiddleAgesandmoderntimesbythistrialand

error method. Think of the analogy of a violin or a piano. The wave generation starts with theignitionofstrings,buttheir impedancematchingtotheambientair issimplyawful.Evenharpshaveasmallimpedancematchingresonator!(Otherwisetheycouldnotbeheardevenfromashortdistance.) The impedance matching between the power source, the bow and the chords, thebridge,theresonatoranditsstructureismorethanpurephysics,itisempiricalart.

A violin built long ago by Stradivari or Guarneri is still very expensive, though its technology isbetter understood and more sophisticated now. The difference between a master violin and amediocreviolinappearsintherichness,thedensityofharmonictransversalwavesoftheresonator.Thereforethequalityandthepreparationofthestructuralwoodmaterialwasatradesecret,(anditstillis).

Thesoundgetsbetterandbetterasmoreinputenergyoftheartististransformedintothedelicatebalance of properly selected longitudinal and surface mechanical transverse (bending) waves,whichturn intosecondary longitudinalsoundwaves.Thisservesasausefulanalogybetweenthetwotypesofdevices.(SeeFig.9.)

Thedifficulty tohave instantsuccess is reallydiscouraging.Onehas tobeextremelypatientanddiligenttomaptheacceptableworkingparameters.However,thisisafairdeal,asthereisarewardfromanunknowncorner.

Longitudinal(Tesla)wavesofdifferentfrequenciestendtodestroysomebacteriaandviruses,but

onlyatarathersharprangeoffrequencies.ThehonorgoestoRaymondRife,aprolificUSinventorandphysician.Heusedhydrogengasplasmaacousticoscillations to study themedicaleffectsofTeslawaves,asTeslahimselfdid.Hewasabletocurefluveryefficiently,andsometypesofcanceraswell,asavirusinfectioncouldleadtomalignancy(aftersomedecades)whentheimmunesystemisweakened.

Thiseffecthascometousasasurprise,afterourfriendswitnessingtheongoingplasmatestswerecuredfromcoldsormildflu.


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Nevertheless,overcertainlargedosesofweeksormonthsharmfuleffectsappear,likenosebleedsornausea.TheTeslawavesmayirritatethepolarizedsurfaceofthecellmembranesofthenose.

Certainlywedonotwanttodiminish furtherthepoorrespect forCFresearch.Possibletitles like

Mad Scientists Claim to Kill Bugs by Cold Fusion would not help this field, though the usefulmedicalpotentialisdefinitelythere.


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PartIV.The Next Hurdle

The proper shaping of the acoustic dusty plasma resonator is a similar problem. Without thisacousticcavityresonator,theefficiencyoftheprocessismeager.Thisisnotasurprise.Atthedawnof radioandTV, the signalswere so weak that selectiveamplifiers, several filter and resonatingcircuits had to be invented during the dawn of analog radio age, both for transmitters andreceivers.

Inthelightoftheseroutineengineeringconsiderations,itisstrange,thatmainstreamhotfusiondevicesdonotuseresonanteffects.Bruteforcegivesbirthtoinefficiency,thusapoorproductonthemarket,orstalledresearch.

Theimportanceofacousticresonancefortheamplificationoftheamplitudesofplasmaoscillations

isobvious.Itwasclearfromthestartthattheefficiencymustbeuncreased.However,theproperdesignandmanufacturingofthisHelmholtzlikecavityresonatorisnotatallsimple.

We have used at least two circular holes with some edge rings on the top and bottom of thesphericalresonator.Thematerialisquartz,assphericalheatandstressresistantceramicshellsarenotavailableofftheshelf.Certainly,thisisasevererestriction,asquartzbreaksandpartiallymeltsat about 1400C. (Further, only a few elderly glass blowers are able to form quartz with therequiredaccuracy).Unfortunatelyeven1 2mmdeviationsfromsphericityhamperefficiencydueto severelydiminishingamplitudes.More than onehundredquartzacoustic cavity resonatorsofthistypehavebeenbuiltandtested,being themostexpensivepartof theproject.Therejectionrateoftheglassspheresismorethan50%!Abouthalfofthesphereshavegivenacceptableresults,

therestwenttothedustbin.

Theevennessofthicknessofthewalls, lengthsanddiametersoftherims,andtheratiobetweenthediametersoftheholeswasimportantandrequiredpainstakingpatience.Itisnecessarytohavetwo holes and rims of different geometries. If only one hole is used, it yields only a few peakamplitudes,some fundamentalones.Two (ormore)holesgivemore frequencies,and theirsumsanddifferencesalsoappear,astheplasmaisnonlinear.Inasense,theresonantquartzsphereisamusicalinstrument.Optimizationisimportant.Itseemsthatthesequenceoffrequenciesandtheiramplitudes significantly influence the performance of the process. The more resonant peaks wehave,themoretheefficiencyincreases,butsodoesthesoundpressure,(theamplitude).However,thelargertheareaoftherimmedorifices(seephotograph),thesmallerthe(relative)amplitudeis.(Onecanmeasure thesound intensityonlyoutsideof thehotmetalcavity resonator,not insidebecausethemicrophonewouldmelt).

Mostofourworkhasbeendevotedtotheoptimizationofthetwocavityresonators,andyet it isfarfrombeingperfect.Ateamofat least5 6memberscouldmostprobablydo it in2 3years!Apart from this, the dusty plasma oscillations also contain novelties, as there is a single drivingfrequency(magnetron)andhundredsofresonantpeakplasmafrequencies.


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14

Thediameterofthesphere,thegeometryofthetwoorthreerimmedtuningholes(orshorttubes),theaverageplasmatemperature(thedrivingpower),allinfluencetheoutcome.Fortheinterestedreader,muchisneededtobelearnedonlyaboutthesynchronizationprocesses[11].

Butinordertoavoidtheexpensesofquartzmanufacturingandthehardlyrepeatablehandblown

sphericalacoustic resonators,onecandecrease thepressure.Anoilfree rotarypump isenough;then less expensive and even tubularshaped Pyrex tubes can demonstrate this phenomenon.However,thevacuumsystempressuregauges,and thethickermetalcavityresonatoraddtothecostsandtroubles.

All the abovementioned seems nothing but complaints, but one has to learn from the hostilereputation of the original PonsFleischmann experiments, when the immense amount of theminimumrequiredknowhowwassimplynonexistentatthetimeofpublication.

Ourdevicesandprocessrequireevenmoreknowhow.Tostartfromscratchwithoutaluckystrikeissuicidalbecausetherearesomanyopportunitiestofail.

Severalresonantphenomenahavetobematchedcarefullyforoptimumperformance,andavastamountoffirsthandexperience isnecessary,asthere isverylittlereliableknowhowinthisfield.Therewardwillbeareliable,powerfuleffectwithamodestlypriceddevice,which is light,small,andevencanbeportablelateron.

TheToolKit

If someone is interested in repeating the simplest setup, a household microwave oven will do,providedthebeamentranceisattheside,notonthetop.ThesetupinFig.2cisthebest.Onemayuseathin,softgraphiterodfromamechanicalpencilinsteadofaglowingwoodenstick.

Whenusinganacousticcavity resonator,onemayusea smallamountof carbondustpacked insmallball,wrappedinthincigarettepaper.Theamountislessthenaquarterofagram,butbeverycareful. Its optimum depends on the initial magnetron power, size and relative position of theacoustic and metal (EM) cavity resonator. Carbon weights increase by 10 mg steps, so carefulweighing isamust. Iftheweightofthestartingcarbondustcharge istoosmall, itwilljustmakesomesparksandfizzleout.Iftheweightistoomuch,itwilljustreleasesomesmoke,anditwillbeover.

To find out the maximum electric field in the EM (metal) cavity resonator, one may map theinternal volume by placing a heat sensitive, slightly wet fax paper into the cavity at different

heights.Therearemoresensitivemethodsbyapplyingcobaltchloride.[12]

Youshoulddecideat thebeginningwhichpathof technology issuitable foryourself. Ifyouhaveaccesstoagoodglassblowertomakequartzsphereswith0.5mmaccuracy,thenatmospheric(orgreater)pressurescanbeused.Ifnot,andonlyPyrexglassisavailable,thenlowerpressures(downto1 2Torr)arethewayout,usingarotaryvacuumpump.Then lowerfrequenciescanbeused,but at high voltage (10 20 kV). Inductively or capacitively driven tubular or spherical acoustic


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resonators can also be used. Resonant, lumped parameter power sources at about 14 MHz areavailable.

Thenecessary toolsare professionalmicrophones,acoustic spectrumanalyzers,GM tubes,massspectrometers,etc. However,skillinexperimentationanddedicationisamust.

The physics of the five essential physical phenomena are quite different though. The essentialfundamentals are dusty (crystal) plasma, plasmatransversal and longitudinal wave interactions,carbonclusters(nanotechnology),surfaceplasmonpolaritons(quasiparticles)andfinallythewildandwideworldofLENRorCANR.Therearegoodbooksandevenreviewpapersonplasmaphysicsandalltheaboveareaswhichwouldhelptogiveamoreorlesssolidbackground,thoughnoneofthemcanbedirectlyapplied.

SomeTestResults

Insteadoflistingthedetailsoffurtherhurdles,letusdescribesometestresults.

Thereareonlyahandfulof freeparameters, like inputpower,geometryofthemetalandquartzcavity resonatorsand their relative positions,plasma input mass fluxand chemical composition.Theirmutualeffect ismostlyunknown,andevenworse:counterintuitive.This typeofplasma ischaotic,butnotrandomandunpredictableatbest,wickedatworst.

Usually, iftheparametersarenotkeptwithinanarrow range,theplasmasputtersandvanishes.Thenthetransversewavesarereflectedtothemagnetron,andlackingaproperlymatchedloadtheelectronicsystemfails.

On theother sideof thespectrumofannoyingphenomena, theplasma simplyjumpsoutof the

acousticresonator,oscillatesinacornerorattheceilingoftheEMcavityresonatorandisuselessagain.Thisisnotourobedientservant,butanervecrackingprankster.(Somuchabouttherealfaceofthephenomenon).

Therangeofgeometricalandotherinitialparametersthatcanbeusedisintermittent.Thatis,theusefulphenomenaappearonlyassmall islandsof theparameterson thevastoceanofpossiblesetups.OnemaycreateaDCelectricmotorofanydiameterfromafewmillimetersuptoseveralmeters. The same is true with internal combustion engines, or springdriven clocks, etc. Butresonantdustyplasma,beingstronglynonlinearandselforganizing,obeysdifferentrules.Asthedrivingfrequencyofmagnetronsisnotafreeparameter(about2.4GHz),givenaquartzsphereofthediameterofabout58cm,onlythediametersandrim lengthsofthetuningorificesprovide

some freedom. The safest range for a 60mm diameter acoustic cavity resonator is a 5mmdiameterupperorificewitharimlengthof23mmandalowerorificeofthediameterof1520mm,andarimlengthof2mm.Thesphericityoftheresonatorshouldnotvarymorethan1mm;otherwisetheresonantpeaksofthesound(qualityfactor)noticeablydecrease.(Pyrexglasscanbetried,butitwillmeltinaminute).

Lower pressures provideamuchwider rangeofpossibleparameters, but their power density islower.


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FirstObservations

Oncetheplasmaisignitedandproperlytuned,ithums,trappedintheacousticcavityresonator.Ifnothingischanged,itwillstaythereformonths.Ourlongestcontinuoustestperiodwas6weeks.It

wasterminated inordertoexaminethewearandtearofthequartzacousticresonator.(Its innersurfacebecameopaque,andslightlyscaled,flaky,otherwiseallright.)

Thefirstquestiontoariseis,whydoesthecarbonorcarbosilicatedustremainthereafterweeksofoperation?Onewouldexpecttheterminationofthephenomenonduetotheslowdiffusionoftheinitialdustoutofthequartzsphere.Evenaslightventilationadmittingfreshairletstheprocesscontinueindicatingasortofselfreproductionofthedust.AmassivefluxofCO2willnotextinguish

theplasmaeither,indicatingselfreplicationofthefinedust.

There isanothertesttoprovethe importanceofthenanodust.Whenthemagnetron isswitchedoffandswitchedonimmediately,theplasmavanishesandreappearsatthesameinputpower.Foranordinaryhighpressuregloworarcdischarge,ahigherinitialvoltage(andpower)isnecessaryforthe ignition or reignition of the discharge. Moreover, there is a significant difference in powerconsumption, when the dusty resonant plasma is compared to the pure plasma, without anacousticresonator,butwitharectangulartransversalresonator.D.J.Sullivanetal.[13]hasburnedmethane in a microwave rectangular TE1,0,n type resonator, while it had a laminar flame. The

plasmaabsorbedonly22Wofthe12003400WinputEMpower,increasingslightlythespeedofthe flame (combustion). The volume of their plasma was only a few cubic centimeter (17mmdiameter,4mmthickness).

Inourcase,anapproximately500cm(10cmdiameter)noncombustible(CO2)plasmarequiredan

inputpowerofabout1200Wtomaintainit,yetitsmashedmostofthechemicalbondsofCO2.TestresultsareshowninTableI.

When themagnetronwaveguideEMcavityacousticcavitychainwasoptimized,1kWhofworkinputsplitted2.9kgofCO2intofineCdustandO2with~95%efficiency.Thiswasthehighest

possible CO2 mass flux, with a 10cm diameter quartz sphere resonator, the largest the glass

blowerhasevermadeafterseveralunsuccessfultrials.(About25kWh inputenergy isrequiredtodecompose2.9kgofCO2.)

TransmutationofmedicalqualitytitaniumisshowninTableII,aftera6min.treatment.Thedatais

takenfromthesurfacesample.(Twosurfacesamplesweretaken,yieldingsimilarresults.)Electronbeammicroanalysiswasusedtoanalyzethecompositionofacleanquartzsphere.

Ingeneral,theresultshavenotalwaysbeenrepeatable,astherewerealwayssomedifferencesinthegeometry of the quartz acoustic resonators. Nevertheless, transmutations have alwaysbeenobservedafter23minutesoftreatmentofthesolidsample,withtheexceptionofNiandFe.

Asalastexample,thetestresultsoftheplasmatreatmentofredsludgeareshownonTableIII.Thissludge isabyproductofaluminumproduction,rich inmineralsandmetals.Mostof it is iron


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andsilica, but thereareanumberofrareearthmetals in it,too.Thesamplewasa5g lumpofslightlywetsludge.Ithasbeenexposedtotheplasmafor3minutesatthebottomoftheacousticresonator,inair,atatmosphericpressure.Afterthetreatmentthemelted,oxidizedremnantsweregiventoanaccreditedcompanytobeexaminedbyaquadrupolemassspectrometer.Column4ofTable IIIshowsthenewcompositionaftertreatment.Thesludgeunderwentasignificantchange;

theratioandthedifferencebeforeandafterthetreatmentisshownaswell.

Underordinarycircumstancesthevolatilematerialssuchasmercuryshoulddisappear,andothermaterials with high boiling points should be enriched, but not in this case. Here lithium wasenrichedby20%,(meltingpoint277C.)Theratioofmagnesiumtripled(meltingpoint660C),asdid thephosphorus content (meltingpoint44C); thepotassiumcontent increased17 fold.Thehighestyieldwascopper.(Itsmeltingpointisabout1000C).Itwasenriched430fold.Galliumwasenrichedby50%,butitsmeltingpointis30C!Palladiumwasenriched13fold.(Itsmeltingpointis400C).

Certainlythecomparisonhastobetakenwithapinchofsalt,asgaseswerenotanalyzedatall,and

volatile materials were allowed to evaporate and escape from the system. The data have beenplottedalongwiththedataofMileyetal. (onpage92),andMizunoetal. (samepage) from theexcellentbookbyEdmundStorms.[8]Theatomicnumbersareplottedontheverticalscale,whichisalogarithmicone.E.Stormsusedtheproductionrate(atoms/cmsec)forlightwaterelectrolysis.Mizunousedheavywater (D2O) inplasmaelectrolysis,andused the totalchangeofatoms/cm,alsoinlogarithmicscale.

George Miley noted that there were more productive yield rates in transmutation in four massranges[14],notably:A=2030;5080;110130;190210. It istrue,however,thatthere isagoodapparentincreaseintheLiandBecontentaswell.Theselightelementsaresupposedtohavebeencreated in theBigBang, but there isnonucleosynthesisongoingeither insupernovaor inthe

wombofstars.Therearesomepossibleprocessesforthenucleosynthesisoflightelements,butitwould be better to carry out this test by improved methods, as condensing and analyzing thevolatilematerialsaswell.

Allouraboveresultshingedontheassumptionthatthetestresultsarestableordinarymaterials,notpolineutrons,whosenucleonsareultrarichinneutrons,observedbyJohnFisher[15].Electronbeam microanalysis or liquid chromatography should have been done, but we could not affordthem.

Thismethodopensnewdoors tosynthetisenucleonsbyan inexpensive technology.Thereforenuclear models developed by W. L. Stubbs, A. G. Gulko or L. Sindely will become of practical

importance.

Warning

If anybody is interested in repeating these tests, please note: submicroscopic,nanosize carbonparticles aremoredangerous than regular soot grains. Therefore ventilated premises must beused. Infrasound may cause nausea after long exposure. Tesla waves have hitherto unknown


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hazards, apart from their beneficial viruskilling effect. (We have developed our test device andcalibrationdeviceinordertomeasureandshieldourselvesfromthesewaves).

Historicalroots

It is the cautious opinion of the author that Nikola Tesla might have stumbled onto thisphenomenon as early as 1891, while working on his spherical and cylindrical carbon buttonlamps. (US patent 454,622) Later in his London lecture he elaborated the test results of highfrequency gas discharges with carbon, carborundum (carbosilicate) electrodes working at theparametersofabout50kHz,and20kV.

Hekeptonreturningtothissubject,andheboastedlaterinhislifethathismostimportantresultwasnotAC,nothisversionoftheradio,butatubeofhighvoltageproducingartificialradioactivity,and radiationpower.There isanurban legendabouthissilentelectricitydrivenhackedPierceArrowcar.Itisunthinkableforanaverageinventorinthe1920'stohavediscoveredandperfectedcontrolled nuclear fusion, and to have developed it into a usable device. But he was notjust

another inventor, a backyard tinkerer. In a hard to find book, [16] there are photographs ofhundredoddtubesforhisearlyradiotests.Someofthem,especiallytheone(s)inFig.99,arethecosphericalcarbon coated tubes that couldhave shown the featuresof thesephenomenaaftersomeionbombardment(sputtering).Morehastobelearnedaboutthephenomenaingeneral,buthewaswellaheadofhis(andour)timeinmanyrespects.

DustFusioninNature?

Onemay presume that this phenomenamay take place in the cold, dusty interstellaroscillatingplasma (rich in graphite), creating some energy (dark energy?). Larsen and Widom are of theopinion that this process might take place in the solar corona explaining its much higher

temperaturethanthatofthesurface.

All in all, oscillating dusty plasma offers a chance for a more reliable, useful, renewable energyproductionmethodinourlifetime:Fromdusttodust.

FurtherSteps

Fourfurtherrathercounterintuitive,butusefultechnicalstepsneedtobetakentoimprovefurthertheperformanceofthedevice.Apartfromthehightemperaturesolutionthereisanotherlargeandusefulareausing lowtemperature(dilutedplasma).Patentapplicationshavebeenfiledforbothareas. As these areas are vast, and much needs to be done, we are looking for partners in

experiments,managementandinvestment.


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CaptionstoFigures

Figure1:Schematicviewofnearequilibriumrectangularcrystal(ordusty)plasma

Small micron or nanosize negatively charged dust particles are in dynamic equilibrium with theneighboringplasma.Positive ionsareattractedtothesurfaceofthedustparticles;theymaytakeanelectronandleaveitasaneutralatomoroscillatecollectivelyonthesurface.Thisconfigurationisadissipating,energyconsumingmedia,ofnodirectpracticalinterest.Theparticlescanbeofanyshape,andtheirdistributionofsizeisusuallynonuniform.


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Figure2:Schematiclayoutofamicrowavedrivendustyplasmaexperimentsetup

a) Layout of a commercial microwave oven. The metal, rectangular cavity resonator has astrictlycalculatedgeometry.(Thewaveguideandthemagnetronarenotdetailed!)

b) Aburning,pointedwoodenstick isplacedonan insulatingstand.Afterthedoor isclosedandthemagnetronisstarted,ashinyloudhummingplasmablobiscreated,anditwillfloattotheceiling,meltingitafterawhile.Athinsharpenedgraphiterodwilldothesamejob.

c) Whenthestickoragraphiterodiscoveredwithaglassjar,theeffectisbetter,louder.Thejarisbrokenafterafewseconds,duetothermallyinducedmechanicalstress.

d) Spherical,tunedquartzacousticcavityresonator insideametalE.M.cavityresonator.Thelattershouldbemodified(alongthewaveguideandthemagnetronelectronics)toyieldanoptimum (cos 1),andhighperformance.WhendenseCO2 isblown into theacoustic

resonator,thebreakevenpointisexceededbyawidemargin.


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Figure3:Simplified,schematicsofaDustAcousticWave,fortwocharacteristicpositions:

whentheelectroncloudisinside(Fig3/a)oroutside(Fig3/b)ofthedustlattice

Thedust latticeitselfbarelymoves,butthepositive ions(andnegative ions)andtheelectronsdomove.They interactwiththeexternalmicrowaves.Onlythefundamentalharmonic isshown,notthesubandhigherharmonics.Theplasmaisstronglynonlinearandselforganizing.Theresonatorwallisnotshown.


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Figure4:Characteristicdistributionofacousticamplitudes

(inlogarithmicscale)asafunctionoffrequencies(linearscale)

Thisistheleastexpensiveplasmadiagnostictool.Underabout50Hz,theDustAcousticWavesaredominant (infrasounds). There are no dominant peaks in the lower audible range. High peaksappear in the ultrasound region, due to ion acoustic oscillations. The higher and narrower theresonant peaks are, the better. The sphericity of the acoustic oscillator is the most importantqualityfactor.Over100kHzTeslawavedetectioncouldreplaceacousticplasmadiagnostics.Some

testdataareasfollows: 3Hz68dB; 5Hz72dB,12Hz98dB;3200Hz81dB;6400Hz80dB;12800Hz82 dB; 25600Hz72dB;32000Hz62dB;38400 Hz 62dB;89600Hz 56dB. (Datawas takenoutsideofthemetalE.M.cavityresonator.)


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Figure5:Schematicsofthevisibleplasmacharacteristicforslowmotions

fora10cmdiameteracousticresonator,forabout1.5KWinput

a) The external plasma near to the wall is the coolest. Moving nodes, antinodes and crests(being darker) are clearly visible, they produce Chladnylike surface oscillations. (Thecharacteristicphysicsseemstobedominatedbyquasiparticles).Forlowinputenergythisistheonlyvisiblemechanism,thereisnoradioactivity.

b) Athigherinputenergy,thesparkingregionappears,alongamilddegreeofradiationbothx rays and particles. (There is a slight radioactivity in the exhausted dust and the quartzsphereafterthepowerisswitchedoff,foracoupleofdays).

c) Internalcorenoinformation.Meltednanodustparticles?


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Figure6:Threedifferentassumedmechanismstakeplaceonthesurfaceofnanoparticles

a) Due to the external transversal and longitudinal E1 electrical field, the conductive dustparticle (nanotube) is unevenly polarized. A secondary, amplified E2 electrical field is

generated,anditisverystrong.Thefieldamplificationfactorcouldbeupto108[4a].InthestrongE2secondaryfield,protonsattachedtotheparticlesurfaceareaccelerated,andthey

mayformneutronswiththeelectrons.(WidomLarsenprocess?).IonizedArgonatomsmaytake part in a catalytic reaction with electrons. (Mills process?). Small closed carbonspheroids may be used, from Fullerenes (C60) up to carbon spheroids of C540 may

participate in this process,but mainlynanotubesare present.Even singlelayergrapheneflakescanparticipate in this typeofprocess, theirsharpedgesandgoodconductivityareessentialinthistypeoftheprocess.

b) Whenthedustparticleisnotyetfullycharged,anelectron,acceleratedbyplasmawakefieldacceleration (up to0.60.8GeV)hitsaprotonon thesurface,yieldinganeutron. (LarsenWidom II electroweak interactions?) Large, closedsurface carbon spheroids and

amorphousgrainsofupto106atomsmaytakepartintheprocess.

c) Thechargeshieldingeffectcanbesubstantialwithveryhighdustchargedensity.Protonsordeuteronscantakepartofreactionsinvolvingstrongnuclearforces.Region'b'inFig5yieldsradioactivebyproducts.Largerparticlesofseverallayersofcarbonatoms,evenamorphousmicronsizedones,maytakepartinthisprocess.Electricalconductivityisnotessential;thelarger

isthe

particle,

the

more

charge

can

be

accumulated,

until

itisripped

apart

by

internal

Maxwellstress.


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Figure7:Twophasesofadustacousticoscillation

The heavy dust particles do not move significantly, but the electron cloud does, partly as aconsequenceofwakefieldacceleration.Positiveandnegative ionsmayalsoacceleratetoamuchlesser degree. (Neutral atoms, molecules are not shown). Only the fundamental frequency isshown.Theexcessheatisgeneratedonthesurfaceofthecarbonnanoparticlesbyheatingawave,thuscreatingapositivefeedback.Teslawavesareemittedfromtheplasmasurface,asthesurfacechargealternatesfrompositivetonegative.

Theexternalelectromagnetic radiation isabsorbedmainlyby theelectrons.The thicknessof the

plasmasheetabsorbingexternalandexcessenergydependsonthenumberoffreeelectrons inagivenvolume.Thisrestrictsthemaximumdiameterofanacousticresonator.


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Figure8:

Outline

of

the

process

of

the

generation

reflection

of

Tesla

(longitudinal)

wave

Netcharge(positiveornegative)appearsonthesurfaceoftheplasmasphere(seeFig7/aand7/b)creatinganetsurfaceelectricfieldofchangingsign,thuslongitudinalwaves.

Thereareanumberof frequencies for the longitudinalwaves,whichare partly reflected,partlytransmittedby themetalE.M.cavity resonator.There isnoclearcutgeometry forhighQcavityresonatorforthelongitudinalwaves,soitsresonancecurveisshortandflat.Powerfullongitudinalwavesmaydestroythemagnetron.Threeembeddedresonancesareshownhere.Electromagnetic(transversal and longitudinal waves), acoustic and (invisibly small) resonant surface plasmonpolaritons.Thelastoneisessential.


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Figure9:Asimplifiedstringmusicalinstrument.

Itsstringscanbeexcitedbyaboworpluckedbyhand

Theenergyofthe transversalwaves is ledbyabridge (waveguide) intoaresonator,which isanacousticcavity.


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Annotatedreferences,recommendedpapers,books[1]

Thereisnothinginthevastliteratureaboutplasmasthatfitsexactlyourneed,but:Therearedozensofgoodbooksonintroductory(regular)plasmaphysics.

Myfavoriteisashort,enlighteningbook:

Lev.A.Arzimovich.1965.ElementaryPlasmaPhysics.BlaisdellPublications.

Introductorybooksandpapersondustyplasmas:

a) S.V.Vladimirov,K.Ostrikov.2004.DynamicSelfOrganizationinComplexIonizedGasSystems.Pp175380.Vol393.PhysicsReports

(highlyrecommended)

b) V.N.Tsytovichet.al:ElementaryPhysicsofComplexPlasmas(verygood)Springer,LectureNotesonPhys.Vol731.2008.

c) P.K.Shukla,B.Elisson:FundamentalsofDust-plasmaInteractions.(good)ReviewsofMod.Phys.Vol81;JanMarch2009.pp2544.

d) I.E.E.E.Transact.onplasmaSci.Vol38,No4,Apr2010.PartIII.SpecialIssueonthePhysicsofDustyPlasmas(severalshortpapers)

e) I.R.Gekker:InteractionofStrongE.M.fieldswithplasmas.ClarendonPress,Oxford,1982.(good,practicalintroduction,butwithordinaryplasma)

f) AndreiLudu:NonlinearWavesandSolutionsonContoursandClosedsurfaces.Springer,2007.(goodtheoreticalbackgroundforsphericalandcylindricalresonators)

g) B.K.Shiramoggi:IntroductiontononlinearFluidPlasmaWaves.KluwerAcad.Publishers,1988.(generalintroductiontopartiallyionizedplasma)

h) Y.Magarshaketal:SiliconVersusCarbon.Springer,2008.i) V.N.Tsytovich:NonlinearEffectsisPlasmas.PlenumPress,N.Y.,1970.

Inordertocompareourresonantdustyplasmawithordinarytransientdustyplasma:

j) A.K.Oppenheim:DynamicsofCombustionSystems,Springer,2008.Ingeneral,experimentaldustyplasmaresearchtakesplaceatlowpressure,lowfrequencies,low

temperaturesandverylowamplitudes.Nevertheless,theabovereferencesaregoodhelpfor

starters.


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[2] TheplasmaWakefieldaccelerationisaveryuseful,indispensableauxiliaryeffect.a) E.Esaveyet.al:OverviewofPlasma-basedAcceleratorConcepts.

IEEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.Vol24,No2,April1996,pp252288.

b) J.Chandrasekhar,T.Katsouleas:PlasmaAcceleratorsattheEnergyFrontierandonTabletops.PhysicsToday,June2003.pp4753.

c) W.Leemans,E.Esavey:LaserDrivenPlasma-waveelectronaccelerators.PhysicsToday,March2009,pp4449.

d) PlasmawavesandCosmicRays(1020eVprotons)PhysicsToday,May2009,pp22.(Therearedozensofexperimentalpapersonthesubject,butnotextbooksofar).

[3]

Undulyneglectedworksonmagneticmonopolesandattractionbylightuponnanoandmicroparticles.Thesearealsoquasiparticles.Thephysicistsarelookingfortheminthe

wrongplaceaselementaryparticles.

a) FelixEhrenhaft:HelicalPathsinLongitudinalTransversalPhotophoresisTheunipolarMagneticCharge.ActaPhysicaAustriaticaVol2,pp187,1948.

b) FelixEhrenhaft:berdiePhotophoreseActaPhys.Austriatica,Vol4,No1,1951,pp1229PartII

Ehrenhaftandsoworkerspublishedhundredoddpapersonthesubjectuntil1952.

c) V.F.Mikhailov:TheMagneticChargePhenomenonPhysicsLetters,Vol130B,No5,27Oct1983,pp331334

d) V.F.MikhailovandL.I.Mikhailova:Interactionsbetweenferromagn.aerosolsJournalofPhys.Condens.Matter.Vol5(1993)pp351360.

[4] Plasmonpolaritonsarestrangequasiparticles,buttheyhavealreadybeenappliedinindustry.Agood,shortoverviewis:

MarkI.Stockman:Nanoplasmonics:The

Physics

behind

the

applicationsPhysicsToday,Feb.

2011.pp3944.

Thepaperclearlyoutlinestheusefulparameterrangeofthephenomenon:particlesize2

20nm;plasmonrelaxationtime10femtosecond,polarizationtimewithin100attosecond,

localfieldenhancementscalebetween104 108.Forelongatedparticlesthiscanbefurther


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increased.

Ingeneral,therearetwocharacteristicelectricfieldsandfrequencyranges.

TheverystronginternalelectricfieldsandTeslawavesduetoplasmaoscillationsbyacoustic

resonanceareinthekHzGHzrange.TheweakerfieldsgeneratedbytheplasmafrominfraredtosoftxraysareintheorderofTerahertz.Bothcontributetosurfaceand

volumetricelectricfieldamplification,buttherateoftheirindividualcontributionwouldbe

justaguesswork.Inarkdischarge,perhapsonlythelatterworksasintheQuantumRabbit

tests,orunderwaterarkdischargesbytheGreanoues.

Therearesomegoodtextbooks,buttheydontmentionthetypefavorableforourpossible

use.

DrorSarid,W.Challener:ModernIntrod.toSurfacePlasmons,CambridgeUniv.Press.2010.

Ithaschaptersonnanowires,localizedsurfaceplasmons,nanoshells,etc.

R.B.M.Schasfoort,A.J.Tudos;HandbookofSurfacePlasmonResonance.RoyalSocietyof

Chemistry,2008.(Goodgeneralintroduction,butmainlymacroscopic.)

StephanA.Meier:Plasmonics:FundamentalsandApplications.Springer,2007.

Inourcase,surfaceandvolumeplasmonpolaritonsshouldbesoughtinthecontextof

nanotechnology,butitisaninsignificantsubsubfield.Nanotechnologyisconcernedmainly

innanoparticlemanufacturingandassembly,andbiohazards.ThebookofY.Magarshaketal

Ref[1]isusefulinthisregard.

[5] Unfortunatelywehadnoaccesstoatransmissionelectronmicroscope,sowehavenoinformationontheactualsizeanddistributionofthenanoparticlesresponsibleforthe

beneficialeffects.However,thereisarichandrapidlygrowingbodyofknowledgeoncarbon

nanosizedust,whichisofourmainconcern.Mostprobablyclosedsurfacecarbongrains

(likeC540),carbontubesandirregularcarbonpolymersparticipateinthereactions.

Surfaceandvolumetricplasmonpolaritonscanexciteclosedsurfaceandconductivecarbonnanotubesofmultiwall.Fluffy,irregular,insulatinggrainsoftherangeof1nmtoeven m

maytakeplaceinthereactioninvolvingchargeshieldingphenomena.

Thereisavastandgrowingbodyofknowledgeonhowcarbonnanoparticlesaregrown.This

processisnottheusualwayofengineering,notfromtoptobottommanufacturing.Onthe

contrary,itisabottomupprocess.Itinvolves9ordersofmagnitude,asthesizedifference


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betweena20nmnanotubeanda50cmmanufacturingdeviceissowide.Ifweaddthatwe

manufacturethecarbonnucleusfromelectronsandprotons,thesizegapisevenwider.This

difficultandcomplicatedchainofinteractivephenomenaliesattheheartofthewhole

process.Thelistofreferencesissomewhatshortandarbitrary,butthereadermayeasilyfindother

goodreviewarticlesandmonographs.

a) P.J.F.Harris:CarbonNanotubeScience.CambridgeUniv.Press,2009b) ToshikiSugaietal.:Synthesisofsingle&doublewallcarbonnanotubesbyhigh

temperaturepulsedarcdischargemethod.NewJournalofPhysics.Vol6,2004

c) K.V.Ostrikov:FromNature'sMastery...IEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.,Vol35(2),pp127137,Apr.2007

d) S.Ghouruietal.:RoleofArcPlasmaInstabilityonNanosynthesisIEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.Vol34(1),pp121, Feb.2006

e) Levchenko,K.Ostrikov:DeterministicNanoassembly...Appl.Phys.Lett.Vol89,033109,2006

f) C.Collardetal.:RFplasmaConditionsforGrowthofCarbonNanostructures.IEEETrans.onPlasmaSci.Vol3381),pp170175,Feb.2005

[6] ThehydrinomodelofR.L.Millshasmanyattractivefeaturestoexplain(partially)theradioactivity freepartofthedustfusionprocess.Howeveritrequiresspecialcatalysts,like

atomiclithium,andmolecularNaH,butthesecatalystareusuallynotpresent.ArandHeions

mayservealsoascatalysts,andtheyarepresentinair.Wehavemadetestsinsealedglass

cylinders,fullofatmosphericandsubatmosphericArgon,butnotinacousticresonators.The

ignitionprocessworkedwell,asusual,butthePyrexglassmeltedimmediately.Therefore

thetestwasinconclusive;amoresophisticatedsetupwouldbenecessarytodecideifit

worksinatmosphericArgon.Neverthelessitisquitepossiblethatthisprocessalsotakes

place.TheMillsprocessdoesnotrequireplasmaoscillationsorextendedsolidplasma

surface.InapaperbyR.L.MillsandP.Ray,(Vibrationalspectralemissionoffractional

principalquantumenergylevelhydrogenmolecularion. Int.J.HydrogenEnergyVol27

(2002)pp533564)amicrowavedrivenplasmaisusedatverylowpressure.(Aturbopumpis

used.)


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[7] Inprinciple,theelectronprotoncombinationmodelofA.WidomandL.Larsenhasanumberofveryattractivefeatures,butthetechnicaldetailsarefoggy,especiallyonexactlywhata

heavyelectronis,andhowtomakethem.Theirtwopublishedpatentsare:2008/0296519

and2008/0232532.(Theyincludetheirtheoreticalpapersaswell).Thetechnicalparametersoftheirsuggesteduseofroomtemperaturemetallic(palladium)

substrateelectrolysisisaverypoortechnicalenvironmentfortheimplementationoftheir

proposedtheoreticalmodel,butotherwisegood.

Thereareanumberofotherneutralparticlemodelsnotdiscussedhere.Mostofthemare

useful.TheLarsenWidommodelreferstocollectiveelectronandprotonoscillations,

withouttechnicalspecificsonhowtocreatethem.Theirpatentismoreofatheoretical

physicspaperthenaguidehowtomakeadeviceandhowtouseit.

However,theirlineofthoughtisworthyofconsideration,andafterconsiderablerefinement

couldbeusedtoexplaintheradioactivityfreepartofthedustyplasmanuclearprocess.

[8] Writtenbyaprominentcoldfusionresearcher,thebookofEdmundStorms:TheScienceofLowEnergyNuclearReaction,WorldScientific,2007,isanexcellentandcomprehensive,

balancedoverviewofthecoldfusionfield.Itisamustforeveryexperimenterinthis

field.Inthereviewofpastexperimentsitisclearthatmosttestswerecarriedoutalongthe

classicalP.F.linesofheavywaterelectrolysiswithaPacathode.

Thereisanotherusefultwovolumebookwrittenbyseveralprominentresearchers:

LowEnergyNuclearReactionsSourcebook,Vol.I.andVol.II.,editedbyJanMarwanand

StevenB.Krivit.AmericanChemicalSocietyseriesNo998and

[9] Thereareonlyafewpapersonlongitudinal(Tesla)waves.a) C.Monstein,J.P.Wesley:ObservationsofScalarLongitudinalwavesEurophysics

Letters.Vol59(4)pp514520,2002.b) Adetailedtheoreticalandexperimentalpaper,worthreadingis:KonstantinMeyl:

ScalarWavesIndelGmbH,2003.www.meyl.eu

c) J.P.Wesley:SientificPhysics,page125128,Samizdat,2002Weiherdamstrasse24;78176Blumberg,Germany


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[10] Dustintheofficialplasma:a) R.R.Weynants:ICRFReviewFromErasmustoITER.InRFpowerinPlasmas.Proc.Of

the18thConference.Gent,Belgium2426June2009.

AIPConferenceproceeding1187.EditorV.Bobkoov,J.M.Noterdaeme.

QuotefromWeynants:Thegrowingrealizationthatthegrosserosionratesforgraphite

duetophysicalandchemicalsputteringwouldbeexcessiveinareactorandthattritium

codepositionbyredepositionofgraphitewouldbeprohibitive,hasledtoareturnto

theoldallmetalconceptfavoringhighZmaterial,mainlyWatcriticalwallareas.(Page

9.)

b) W.Fundamensky.PowerExhaustinfusionPlasmas.CambridgeUniv.Press.2010.Seepp208forPlasmaimpurityinteractions.

Forthestellar,excessivetechnicalparameterrequirementofITERandInertial

ConfinementFusionsee:

I.R.Lindemuth,R.E. Siemon:TheFundamentalParameterSpaceofControlled

ThermonuclearFusion.Am.J.ofPhysics,Vol77(5)2009,pp407.

[11] Nonlinear,selforganizationFortunately,thereareanumberofbooksaboutnonlinearphenomena.Someofthem

concerningplasmaphysicsanddustyplasmaarequotedinRef[1].Butthefundamental

physicsareusuallyshroudedinmathematicalformulae,withlittleinsighttotheessence.But

thereisanexceptionwrittenbyRussianscientists.

a) A.V.GaponovGrekhov;M.I.Rabinovich:NonlinearitiesinAction.(Oscillations,Chaos,Order,Fractals).Springer,1988.

Forussynchronizationisofconcern.Thereisagood(advancedlevel)bookonthe

subject:

b) A.Pikovskyet.al:Synchronization.CambridgeUniv.Press.2003.Therearesomeessentialconceptswhicharehelpfulunderstandingthedustyplasma

oscillations,like:Parametricexcitation,modecoupling,selfexcitedoscillations,self

organizedstructures,spatiotemporalcompetition,synchronizationofnoisysystems,

Arnoldinstabilitytongues,entrainmentofseveraloscillationsbyacommondrive,mode

locking,Devilsstaircase,etc.


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Selforganizingnonlineardustyplasmaisamazinglystable.Itsbehaviorisverystrange,

even counterintuitivetoourlinearbasedwayofthinking.

[12] Therearehundredsofbooksonmicrowaves,someforplasmas,quotedinRef[1].ButagoodintroductiontomicrowaveovenisbyM.Vollmer:Physicsofthemicrowaveoven.Physics

Education.Vol39(1)pp74,Jan2004.

TomapthemaximumfieldinametalcavityresonatoragoodintroductioniswrittenbyS.

Kamoletal:3Dstandingwavesinamicrowaveoven.Am.J.ofPhys.Vol78(5)May2010;pp

492.

[13] D.J.Sullivanet.al:MicrowavetechniquesfottheCombustionEnhancements40thASMEJointConference:AIAAA20043713

[14] G.Miley:LowEnergyNucl.ReactionSourcebook,VolI.,pp173.

[15] M.Macy:TheFisher-Orianicollaboration.InfiniteEnergy.Vol16;(4)pp1018,2010

[16] NikolaTeslaonhisworkwith...AnExtendedInterview.Editor:LelaniAnderson.XXI.Cent.Book,Breckenridge,Cd.2002ISBN:1893817016


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CaptionstoTables

Table1:

Row

data

of

CO2

thermal

nuclear

dissociation

experiments.

Firstcolumn:5l/minCO2at1bar,inlettemperatureabout10C

Secondcolumn:10l/min.

Thereactionproductsarecooledrapidlytoambienttemperatureafterleavingtheacousticresonator.


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Table2:TransmutationofmedicalTiAlalloyaftera6min.treatment


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Table3:Redsludgecomposition

element massbefore[mg/kg]

after[mg/kg]

ratio difference

3 Li lithium 7 28 33,7 1,20 5,74 Be beryllium 9 4,13 5,72 1,38 1,59

5 B boron 11 179 57,4 0,32 121,6

11 Na sodium 23 27600 27420 0,99 180

12 Mg magnesium 24 1400 8230 5,88 6830

13 Al aluminum 27 36840 116800 3,17 79960

15 P phosphorus 31 396 1320 3,33 924

16 S sulfer 32 2990 4060 1,36 1070

19 K potassium 39 275 4800 17,45 4525

20 Ca calcium 40 30820 34570 1,12 3750

22 Ti titanium 48 18420 26090 1,42 767023 V vanadium 51 555 541 0,97 14

24 Cr chromium 52 525 501 0,95 24

25 Mn manganese 55 1505 1500 1,00 5

26 Fe iron 56 143290 136100 0,95 7190

27 Co cobalt 59 30,7 33,9 1,10 3,2

28 Ni nickel 59 215 212 0,99 3

29 Cu copper 69 45,5 19920 437,80 19874,5

30 Zn zinc 65 96,9 103 1,06 6,1

31 Ga gallium 70 16 24,1 1,51 8,1

32 Ge germanium 72 8,87 13,1 1,48 4,23

33 As arsenic 75 93,3 56,2 0,60 37,1

34 Se selenium 79 0,18 0,01 0,06 0,17

35 Br bromine 35 3,58 9,34 2,61 5,76

37 Rb rubidium 85 2,24 8,8 3,93 6,56

38 Sr strontium 88 216 155 0,72 61

40 Zr zirknium 91 209 238 1,14 29

41 Nb niobium 93 7,07 7,81 1,10 0,74

42 Mo molibden 96 12,6 8,2 0,65 4,4

46 Pd palladium 106 0,16 2,1 13,13 1,94

47 Ag silver 107,8 0,11 2,53 23,00 2,42

48 Cd cadmium 48 2,55 3,5 1,37 0,9550 Sn tin 119 21,6 267 12,36 245,4

51 Sb antimony 122 20,2 6,84 0,34 13,36

52 Te tellurium 128 1 0,32 0,32 0,68

53 I iodine 127 4,78 0,19 0,04 4,59

55 Cs cesium 133 0,75 0,8 1,07 0,05

56 Ba barium 137 47,8 49,2 1,03 1,4

57 La lanthanum 139 88 47,1 0,54 40,9


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element massbefore[mg/kg]

after[mg/kg]

ratio difference

58 Ce crium 140 207 121 0,58 86

59 Prpraseodymium 141 19,1 10,5 0,55 8,6

60 Nd neodimium 144 72 38,1 0,53 33,9

62 Sm samarium 150 14,5 7,89 0,54 6,61

63 Eu europium 152 2,96 1,62 0,55 1,34

64 Gd gadolinium 157 13,4 6,7 0,50 6,7

65 Tb terbium 159 1,91 0,99 0,52 0,92

66 Dy disprosium 162 10,8 5,83 0,54 4,97

67 Ho holmium 165 2,2 1,24 0,56 0,96

68 Er erbium 167 6,64 3,86 0,58 2,78

69 Tm thulium 169 0,95 0,56 0,59 0,39

70 Yb ytterbium 173 7,13 4,23 0,59 2,9

72 Hf hafnium 178 9,78 4,03 0,41 5,75

73 Ta tantalum 181 0,07 0,02 0,29 0,0574 W tungsten 184 6,15 77,9 12,67 71,75

77 Ir iridium 192 0,01 0,01 1,00 0

78 Pt platinum 195 0,01 0,01 1,00 0

80 Hg mercury 200 1,82 0,12 0,07 1,7

81 Tl thallium 209 0,33 0,03 0,09 0,3

82 Pb lead 207 138 16 0,12 122

83 Bi bismuth 209 3,11 0,29 0,09 2,82

90 Th thorium 232 63,6 23,6 0,37 40

92 U uranium 238 22,5 3,31 0,15 19,19


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CaptionstoPhotographs

Photo1:Makeshiftresonators:Micabox,tubularquartzresonators:

halfwavewhenbothendsaregreen,quarterwavewhenoneendisclosed.

Photo2:Sphericalquartzresonators,diameterabout6cm.


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Photo3:Teslawavegeneratorforcalibration100Hz1MHz

Photo4:Teslawavereceiversrodandplasmaantenna


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