Geological Society of America Special Papers · AIRSAR AIRcraft Synthetic Aperture Radar Aircraft Earth 5 m 5.7, 25.0, and 68.0 cm ALOS Advanced Land Observation Satellite Satellite

Geological Society of America Special Papers

doi: 10.1130/2011.2483(26) 2011;483;435-448Geological Society of America Special Papers

Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Sarah A. Fagents and Scott K. Rowland morphology and flow field emplacementNASA volcanology field workshops on Hawai'i: Part 2. Understanding lava flow

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435

The Geological Society of AmericaSpecial Paper 483

2011

NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2. Understanding lava fl ow morphology and fl ow

fi eld emplacement

Peter J. Mouginis-Mark1,†, Sarah A. Fagents1, and Scott K. Rowland2

1Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA2Geology and Geophysics Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA

ABSTRACTThe Big Island of Hawai‘i presents ample opportunities for young planetary volcanolo-gists to gain fi rsthand fi eld experience in the analysis of analogs to landforms seen on Mercury, Venus, the Moon, Mars, and Io. In this contribution, we focus on a subset of the specifi c features that are included in the planetary volcanology fi eld workshops described in the previous chapter in this volume. In particular, we discuss how remote-sensing data and fi eld localities in Hawai‘i can help a planetary geologist to gain exper-tise in the analysis of lava fl ows and lava fl ow fi elds, to understand the best sensor for a specifi c application, to recognize the ways in which different data sets can be used syn-ergistically for remote interpretations of lava fl ows, and to gain a deeper appreciation for the spatial scale of features that might be imaged in the planetary context.

Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Fagents, S.A., and Rowland, S.K., 2011, NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2. Understanding lava fl ow morphology and fl ow fi eld emplacement, in Garry, W.B., and Bleacher, J.E., eds., Analogs for Planetary Exploration: Geological Society of America Special Paper 483, p. 435–448, doi:10.1130/2011.2483(26). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. © 2011 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

†[email protected].

INTRODUCTION

Rowland et al. (2011, Chapter 25, this volume) described the background and history of the 10 planetary volcanology fi eld workshops that have been held on the island of Hawai‘i since 1992. These workshops have provided an opportunity for more than 130 young National Aeronautics and Space Admin-istration (NASA)–funded graduate students, postdoctoral fel-lows, and junior faculty to view basaltic volcano features up close, in the company of both terrestrial and planetary volca-nologists. The goal for each workshop was to give these young scientists a strong background in basaltic volcanology, and to provide the chance for them to view eruptive features up close so that the participants can then compare the appearance of

these features with planetary analogs in state-of-the-art remote-sensing images.

The participants covered a wide range of disciplines during the workshop, including physical volcanology (Francis, 1993; Kilburn and Luongo, 1993; Parfi tt and Wilson, 2008), planetary remote sensing (Pieters and Englert, 1993; Mouginis-Mark et al., 2000; Campbell, 2002), and volcanism on the planets (McGuire et al., 1996; Zimbelman and Gregg, 2000; Lopes and Gregg, 2004; Keszthelyi et al., 2006; Lopes and Spencer, 2007). It is also hoped that they gained some familiarity with the theo-retical aspects of volcanism on the Moon (Wilson and Head, 1981), Mars (Wilson and Head, 1994), and Venus (Head and Wilson, 1986, 1992). Thus, the range of topics that they studied in the fi eld in one short week was a mixture of geology, sensor



436 Mouginis-Mark et al.

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Viewing active lava fl ows was an additional aid to work-shop participants because they gained fi rsthand knowledge of the temperature distribution of the surface of an active fl ow, as well as the speed at which such fl ows can move (Lipman and Banks, 1987; Kilburn and Luongo, 1993). This knowledge could then be employed in the planetary context for modeling the emplacement of lava fl ows on the Moon (Schaber, 1973; Hulme and Fielder, 1977), Mars (Wadge and Lopes, 1991; Glaze et al., 2009), or Venus (Roberts et al., 1992; Lancaster et al., 1995), and it can help to interpret the duration of erup-tions (Keszthelyi and Pieri, 1993; Mouginis-Mark and Yosh-ioka, 1998). Knowledge of terrestrial lava fl ows can aid the interpretation of active effusive volcanism on Io (Williams et al., 2001). In each day in the fi eld, use was made of the abun-dant remote-sensing data that have been collected for Hawai‘i over the years, including high-resolution (1 m/pixel) visible images, thermal infrared images (Kahle et al., 1988, 1995), and radar data (Gaddis et al., 1989; Campbell et al., 1993).

REMOTE-SENSING IMAGES OF LAVA FLOW FIELDS

A major goal of the workshops was and is to permit the attend-ees to study volcanic landforms in the fi eld while viewing the same landforms in remote-sensing data that are analogous in spatial or spectral characteristics of planetary images. This provides the par-ticipants with a greater familiarity with the strengths and weak-nesses of different sensors (optical, thermal, and radar) for mapping landforms and a greater understanding of volcanic processes, as well as an understanding of the spatial resolution of each instru-ment. Such an approach is particularly helpful when the wavelength of the sensor is outside the optical region of the spectrum.

The interpretation of lava fl ow textures observed on Venus by the Magellan radar (Fig. 1) and mapping of individual long lava fl ows within Mare Imbrium on the Moon (Fig. 2) are particularly

technology, and planetary exploration. To help the reader here, we provide a summary of the sensors used during the work-shop, along with the appropriate planetary/terrestrial analog instruments, and the wavelength range and spatial resolution of the sensors (Table 1).

In this contribution, we focus on some specifi c planetary ana-log fi eld sites developed for the workshops to aid in the interpreta-tion of lava fl ows and lava fl ow fi elds. Over the course of 3 days in the fi eld, we illustrated the level of diffi culty that is involved in mapping the spatial extent and other physical attributes of a lava fl ow fi eld. In the planetary context, mapping an entire lava fl ow is important because, together with an estimate of fl ow thickness, it provides a measure of the volume of lava erupted and some of the processes that control fl ow emplacement (Moore, 1987; Baloga et al., 2003). Use of thermal infrared data that highlight the sur-face glass coatings of different Mauna Loa lava fl ows (Kahle et al., 1988) was particularly helpful for correlating multiple fl ow lobes from a single eruption, and thus determining the length of each lava fl ow. It was also important to identify the surface rough-ness differences between the two principal types of lava fl ows, namely, relatively rough ‘a‘� and relatively smooth p�hoehoe, because these differences relate to the fl ow rate at which the lava is erupted; ‘a‘� fl ows are erupted at high rates (>~20 m3 s–1), and p�hoehoe are erupted relatively low rates (<~5m3 s–1) (Rowland and Walker, 1990). An understanding of the discharge rate for planetary lava fl ows and total fl ow volume is important for inter-preting the subsurface structure of a volcano (Wilson and Head, 1994; Head and Wilson, 1992), and so the workshop participants learned how to use orbital data to make inferences about the sub-surface structure of a planetary volcano from the distribution of lava fl ow types. The utility of multiparameter (i.e., different wavelengths and different polarizations) imaging radar data for surface roughness studies was also explored, particularly in the context of studying lava fl ows on Venus, where the thick atmo-sphere precludes optical imaging of the surface.

TABLE 1. REMOTE-SENSING DATA SETS FOR THE EARTH AND OTHER PLANETS htgnelevaWnoituloseRtenalPmroftalPemanllufrosneSmynorcA

AIRSAR AIRcraft Synthetic Aperture Radar Aircraft Earth 5 m 5.7, 25.0, and 68.0 cm mc42elbairaVhtraEetilletaSetilletaSnoitavresbOdnaLdecnavdASOLA

tilletaSretemoidaRranuLreniviDreniviD e Moon ~500 m 0.3–3.0; 7.8–100 micronsmc6.5m03htraEetilletaSetilletaSlatnemnorivnETASIVNE

HiRISE High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment Satellite Mars 25 cm 400–850 nm mn527–574m01sraMetilletaSaremaCoeretSnoituloseRhgiHCSRH

IKONOS IKONOS satellite Satellite Earth 1 m 526–929 nm Landsat TM Landsat Thematic Mapper Satellite Earth 30 m 450–2350 nm LROC Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera Satellite Moon 50 cm 450–750 nm Mini-RF Miniature Radio Frequency experiment Satellite Moon 75 m 3 and 12 cm

mn009–005m21–5.1sraMetilletaSaremaCretibrOsraMCOMretemortcepSgnippaMderarfnIraeNSMIN Satellite Jupiter Variable 0.7–5.2 microns

mc6.5elbairaVhtraEetilletaSetilletaSradaRTASRADARtnemirepxeradaRgnigamIelttuhSB-RIS B Space shuttle Earth 20–30 m 23.5 cm

THEMIS IR Thermal Emission Imaging System, infrared Satellite Mars 100 m 7.93–12.57 microns THEMIS VIS Thermal Emission Imaging System, VISible Satellite Mars 18 m 425–860 nm

lartcepsitluMderarfnIlamrehTSMIT Scanner Aircraft Earth 8 m 8–12 microns UAVSAR Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar Aircraft Earth 1.8 m 24 cm

mc21m57suneVetilletaSradarnallegaMmc81.2mk7.1–m053nrutaSetilletaSradarinissaC



NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2 437

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Figure 1. Magellan radar image from the Atla region of Venus, showing several types of volcanic vents and lava fl ows. Full-resolution Magellan data are 75 m/pixel. Note the small shields (S) that have radar-dark fl ows close to their summits, and radar-bright fl ows on the lower fl anks. Also visible is a lava fl ow (F) with a central channel, and a collapse depression (D) that feeds into a channel that may be a lava channel. Image is centered at 9°S, 199°E. Part of Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) image no. PIA00201.

appropriate topics for comparison with fl ow fi elds in Hawai‘i. In each case, the spatial extent of an individual fl ow, as well as the eruption conditions (i.e., low or high effusion rate) are diffi cult to identify using optical images. For example, numerous individual lava fl ows can be identifi ed in the southern part of Mare Imbrium on the Moon. These fl ows are typically 10–20 km wide and ~35–50 m thick (Schaber, 1973). However, very few vents can be identifi ed using optical wavelength panchromatic images such as the ones obtained during the Apollo missions, and so it is reasonable to expect that multispectral data (such as the thermal infrared images from the Diviner lunar radiometer) might show compositional vari-ations. On the northern fl ank of Mauna Loa, there are series of lava fl ows that are very informative in terms of their surface structure and weathering state, as well as being easily accessible in the fi eld via paved and dirt roads. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images of Mauna Loa volcano (Fig. 3) provide a close comparison to the spatial resolution of Thermal Emission Imaging System Visible imager (THEMIS VIS) (18 m/pixel) or High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) (20 m/pixel) images of Mars (Table 1). The main goal of workshop activity was to allow the participants to walk along some of these roads (Fig. 4) with remote-sensing images in hand, to observe the structure of the lava fl ows, and to discuss how the different sensors have imaged the landscape. Through this fi eld analysis, the participants gain a better understanding of the use of thermal infrared data in mapping lava fl ow units, as well as the strengths and limitations of different imaging radar systems and the limitations of data sets with different spatial resolutions.

Over the past 20 years, the northern fl ank of Mauna Loa has been the focus of several remote-sensing investigations, includ-ing the weathering properties of the lava fl ows using thermal

Figure 2. Apollo handheld Hasselblad photo of lava fl ows in Mare Imbrium on the Moon. Direction of fl ow was toward the top of the image. AS15-M-1558, center coordinates 28.12°N, 28.92°W. Oblique view looking north, with a camera tilt of ~40°. Sun elevation is ~2°, and the illumination direction is from the right. The largest impact craters in this view are ~2 km in diameter.

Figure 3. Landsat 7 image mosaic of the NE rift zone of Mauna Loa. The white rectangle in the main image illustrates the area of cover-age of Figure 5. North is toward top of the image. Inset at top left shows location on the island of Hawai‘i. Base mosaic was compiled by the Hawai‘i Synergy Project, University of Hawai‘i, and includes the eruption plume on 5 January 2003.




spe 483-01 page 438

infrared data (Fig. 5) (Kahle et al., 1988; Abrams et al., 1991; Kahle et al., 1995), and many data sets serve as good planetary analogs (Table 1). High-resolution airborne radar data (Fig. 6) have been collected, and very high-resolution 0.6 m to 1.0 m/pixel mapping

from commercial panchromatic images (Fig. 7) has been conducted, although these have not been used for any published investiga-tions. Because of the coincident spectral range (8.0–12.0 μm), the Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS) data (Fig. 5) could

Figure 5. Principal components (PC) image of Thermal Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (TIMS) data for a portion of the NE fl ank of Mauna Loa volcano (Kahle et al., 1988). See Figure 3 for location. The path along which the participants walk is the bright yellow line that is included in the three boxes “A,” “B” and “C,” which mark the locations of the IKO-NOS images presented in Figure 7. The 1855–56, 1880–81, and 1935–36 fl ows are p�hoehoe. The 1899 fl ows are ‘a‘�.

Figure 4. Workshop participants observe many lava fl ows during their walk along one of the Mauna Loa strip roads. Equipped with a global positioning system (GPS) and printouts of the remote-sensing data in Figures 5, 6 and 7, they learn about the data that are useful for recognizing fl ow types (A), and they gain a better understanding of the roughness properties (B) and weathering surfaces of fl ows of different known ages.



spe 483-01 page 439

Figure 6. L-band (24 cm wavelength) horizontally transmitted and vertically received (HV polarization) aircraft radar data collected by National Aero-nautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) UAVSAR instrument, show-ing the same set of fl ows as depicted in Figure 5. Radar look-direction is from the right in this image, and the in-cidence angle is ~45°. North is toward top of image. Boxes delineate the IKO-NOS coverage presented in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Panchromatic IKONOS images for the three sub-areas (A, B, and C) illustrated in Figures 5 and 6. North is toward the top in all images. At full resolution (D), the IKONOS 1 m/pixel data are useful analogs to High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images of Mars and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter camera (LROC) images of the Moon for recognizing details of lava fl ow lobes and structures such as channels within the fl ow.




spe 483-01 page 440

be considered to be an analog to the Diviner nine-channel infrared mapping radiometer onboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), although Diviner has a much lower spatial resolution(~500 m/pixel; Paige et al., 2009). TIMS data are also comparable to THEMIS infrared (IR) measurements for Mars (Fergason et al., 2006), although surface dust can obscure the spectral properties of the surface in many places. As has been documented by Kahle et al. (1988), TIMS data accentuate subtle differences in the glassy surfaces of p�hoehoe fl ows and produce distinct (although only qualitative) differences among individual fl ows in principal com-ponent (PC) images (Kahle et al., 1988). Thus, data of this type can be used to map the spatial extent of p�hoehoe lava fl ows that have similar glassy surfaces. However, the PC image also shows that ‘a‘� fl ows do not possess this glassy surface, and all ‘a‘� fl ows tend to have the same color in the PC image.

An extensive array of different radar data sets has also been collected for Mauna Loa, including both orbital (Mouginis-Mark, 1995) and airborne (Kahle et al., 1995) measurements. Radar data can provide information about wavelength-scale surface roughness, as well as the dielectric properties of the material (Campbell, 2002). Because radar is a side-looking (rather than nadir-looking) instrument, it is also useful for the identifi cation of subtle topographic features (such as faults, scarps, and cones) oriented toward the sensor. Furthermore, all radars have a wavelength that can penetrate clouds, and so it is particularly useful for imaging volcanic features on the surface of Venus (Roberts et al., 1992; Lancaster et al., 1995) or Titan (Lopes et al., 2007). Radar is an active sensor (i.e., it provides its own source of illumination), and so it can also be used to image the permanently shadowed polar areas of the Moon (Spudis et al., 2010). In the case of the fi eld workshop, we used the 5 m/pixel radar data collected by NASA’s L-band (24 cm wavelength) Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar (UAVSAR) instrument (Fig. 6), but several fi ne orbital data sets from the European ENVIronmental SATellite (ENVISAT) Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) and Canadian RADAR SATellite (RADARSAT) C-band (5.6 cm wavelength) radars, or the Japanese Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) L-band radar also exist (Table 1).

Inspection of Figure 6 illustrates the problem in using radar data for young volcanic terrains, and it illuminates the problems that may exist in the interpretation of Magellan images of Venus (Fig. 1). Despite the different ages and subtle differences in the surface roughness (Fig. 4), most of the lava fl ows visited on Mauna Loa appear bright in radar images, indicating that they are all similarly rough at L-band wavelengths. It is particularly dif-fi cult to map the extent of a single fl ow, or to distinguish among individual fl ow lobes that originated during the same eruption. In a few instances, the existence of a lava channel within a fl ow unit can be detected using the radar data because of the bright, near-specular, returns that the feature possesses within a particu-lar image (Fig. 6). Radar shadows at the edge of some thicker (>~4 m) fl ows also allow some unit boundaries to be identifi ed. The participants therefore learn that the TIMS thermal infrared data are preferable in mapping the spatial extent of p�hoehoe lava fl ows in this application. The problems in interpreting radar data

are therefore given additional consideration during a second day in the fi eld (see section on Lava Flow Textures).

The second objective of the hike through the Mauna Loa lava fl ows is to gain an appreciation for the types of features that can or cannot be identifi ed in particular data sets. In the planetary context, these data sets include images from the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) for Mars (25 cm/pixel) and the narrow-angle camera on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) for the Moon (50 cm/pixel). Good ter-restrial analogs for these data sets are IKONOS images (Fig. 7), which have a spatial resolution of 1 m/pixel. The workshop par-ticipants are given a set of full-resolution IKONOS images that allow the fl ow boundaries and internal structures (such as lava channels) to be compared with the appearance of these features in the fi eld. We have found this to be particularly helpful in the interpretation of HiRISE images of fl ows on Mars (Fig. 8; Morris et al., 2010). The exercise also leads to a discussion of lighting geometry within a scene. This is relevant when considering sat-ellite orbits and the local time of image acquisition because the photointerpretation of lava fl ow morphology and texture is much easier with data collected at low solar incidence angle (e.g., the easily identifi ed lunar lava fl ows in Fig. 2) compared to images collected near local noon (Fig. 7A). Discussion of the lighting geometry can be further enhanced by considering the constraints imposed on thermal infrared data used to compute thermal inertia of the surface, as is the case with THEMIS IR data (Fergason et al., 2006). In this situation, day- and nighttime data are best collected when differences in surface temperatures are at their greatest, typically close to 2:00 p.m. and 2:00 a.m. Past workshop participants have concluded that collecting low-solar-incidence-angle data for geomorphic studies concurrently with good data for thermal inertia investigations is not possible with the same instrument on the same spacecraft.

Conclusions from this part of the workshop include: (1) Ther-mal infrared images are excellent for the identifi cation of differ-ent fl ow lobes from the same eruption. (2) In instances where an entire area is covered by radar-bright ‘a‘� fl ows, radar images are a less useful discriminator of different fl ow units within an extensive fl ow fi eld of similar lava textures. However, radar images are good at distinguishing lava channels or the edges of thick lava fl ows. (3) It is remarkably challenging to locate oneself on a lava fl ow fi eld using panchromatic images with 1 m/pixel spatial resolution. (4) Solar incidence angle is an important factor when interpreting planetary images.

LAVA FLOW TEXTURES

The investigation of the radar image of Mauna Loa (Fig. 5) introduces the workshop participants to the realization that some types of radar data may not be suitable for the interpretation of topographically rough lavas such as the ‘a‘� fl ows. To further explore this issue, and to provide a better insight into ways in which volcanic fl ows on Venus or the Moon might be studied using orbital radar data, during a second day of the workshop, we explore the value of multiwavelength, multipolarization radar data (Fig. 9). We lead the workshop participants through




spe 483-01 page 441

Figure 8. Recent spacecraft images can have very high spatial resolution, such as the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) instrument for Mars, and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter camera for the Moon. Workshop par-ticipants compare 1 m/pixel IKONOS images with comparable images of the planets, such as this 25 cm/pixel image of a lobate fl ow on the southwestern rim of Tooting crater on Mars (Morris et al., 2010). Image at right shows the full-resolution view of the area outlined by the box at left. HiRISE image PSP_002646_2035. Image centered at 23°06�N, 207°34�W.

Figure 9. (A) AIRSAR C-band (5.6 cm) horizontally transmitted and horizontally received (HH polarization) image of the distal portion of the December 1974 lava fl ow in the Ka‘� Desert. (B) AIRSAR C-band data, horizontally transmitted and vertically received (HV polarization). Notice the greater image contrast in these cross-polarized data, which aids the identifi cation of fl ow boundaries. (C) Color composite of AIRSAR images obtained of P-band (68 cm wavelength) HV data in red, L-band HV data in green, and C-band (5.6 cm) data in blue. The area shown in the visible image in Figure 10 is delineated by the white box. Direction of fl ow of the lava was from right to left.




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the applications of radar remote sensing for the analysis of planetary radar. Campbell (2002) provided an excellent review of radar-scattering and radar-polarization nomenclature, radar refl ection and transmission from plane surfaces, as well as the mathematical representations of scattering surfaces at different radar wavelengths. One of the best places in Hawai‘i to perform this analysis is in the Ka‘� Desert southwest of K�lauea caldera (Fig. 10). During the fi rst few workshops, this case study was primarily relevant for the analysis of Magellan radar images of

Venus but in recent years it has become useful for the analysis of Cassini radar images of Titan (Lopes et al., 2007), and of Mini-RF radar images of the Moon (Spudis et al., 2010) (Table 1).

Because of its accessibility and range of surface morpholo-gies, the December 1974 lava fl ow in the Ka‘� Desert has been the site of a number of radar-based quantitative texture stud-ies. Gaddis et al. (1989, 1990) measured the centimeter-scale roughness of this fl ow (Fig. 11) in order to interpret L-band radar images collected during the 1984 Space Shuttle Imaging

Figure 10. Oblique air view of the central portion of the December 1974 lava fl ow. View is looking southwest, toward the dis-tal end of the fl ow, which is just out of the view to the upper left. Brightness differences in the fl ow result from different fl ow textures: the p�hoehoe (P) is relatively light toned, and the ‘a‘� (A) is relatively dark. Note parts of the Koa‘e fault scarp at “S,” which is ~10 m high and is detectable in the radar image (Fig. 9) because the scarp is perpendicular to the radar look-direction.

Figure 11. Field measurements of the surface roughness of p�hoehoe (left) and ‘a‘� (right) made along the December 1974 lava fl ow. These measurements have been used to understand radar backscatter from both terrestrial (Gaddis et al., 1989, 1990) and Venusian lava fl ows (Campbell et al., 1993; Campbell and Rogers, 1994). The vertical rods are spaced 1 cm apart and show the dramatic difference between smooth p�hoehoe surfaces and rough ‘a‘�. Photos by L. Gaddis.




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Radar-B (SIR-B) radar mission. These (and subsequent) radar data have enabled a series of comparisons between basaltic lava fl ows on Earth and Venus (Campbell et al., 1993; Campbell and Rogers, 1994; Carter et al., 2006), as well as more detailed analyses of centimeter- to meter-scale topography of lava fl ows (Campbell and Shepard, 1996; Shepard et al., 2001; Morris et al., 2008).

One motivation for such studies is to correlate lava fl ow type with eruption rate, specifi cally exploring the relation-ships between p�hoehoe (produced by low-effusion-rate erup-tions) and ‘a‘� (high effusion rates) (Rowland and Walker, 1990). Workshop participants walk more than 3 km from the vent area of the 1974 fl ow (Fig. 12) to the point where the fl ow ran up against a scarp that forms part of the Koa‘e fault system (Fig. 11), during which time they see the narrow (>2 m wide) fi ssures, thin (<50 cm thick) proximal p�hoehoe fl ows, and the transition of these p�hoehoe fl ows into ~3–4-m-thick ‘a‘� fl ows.

The point where the 1974 fl ow encountered the Koa‘e faults also provides the opportunity to discuss the way in which small fractures and faults, of the kind that are prob-ably very numerous on the lava plains of Venus (Fig. 1), can be recognized in radar images if the viewing geometry is appropriate (i.e., perpendicular to the look-direction) and vir-tually invisible when the feature parallels the look-direction. At this point in the workshops, there is often a discussion of orbital radar acquisition parameters such as incidence angle

and look-direction, both of which play a crucial role in the specifi c topographic features that can be identifi ed in radar data (Campbell, 2002). This, in turn, engenders a discussion of orbits appropriate for imaging radar experiments; global mapping requires a near-polar orbit, but this limits the ability of radars to view north or south to detect east-west–trending structural features.

Multiwavelength and multipolarization radar data are par-ticularly useful in distinguishing between ‘a‘� and p�hoehoe lava fl ows (Fig. 9). Participants examine dual-polarization (i.e., both horizontally transmitted and horizontally received [HH] data, as well as horizontally transmitted and vertically received [HV] data) C-band measurements (5.6 cm wavelength), which are the closest terrestrial analog to the S band (12 cm) Magellan radar data. From Figure 9, it is apparent that in this particular case, the C-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received (i.e., cross-polarization) data (Fig. 9B) are more useful because these data reduce the high radar returns from older fl ows, while improving the ability to map the boundaries of the 1974 fl ow. Although radars with wavelengths longer than S-band have not yet been fl own to other planets, we demonstrate to the work-shop attendees the advantage of using longer wavelength data; a three-wavelength color composite of radar data collected from the NASA AIRSAR instrument (Fig. 9C) includes L-band (24 cm wavelength) and P-band (70 cm wavelength) data. Figure 9C shows that the surface of most fl ows are rough at C-band (notice the large areas of blue in the image), that there

Figure 12. Field observations of the proximal parts of the December 1974 lava fl ow (out of view in Fig. 9). The fi eld party is walking between p�hoehoe fl ow lobes within ~100 m of the vents. Note how thin the fl ows are close to their vents. Mauna Loa volcano is in the background.




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are several brown-colored fl ows (a consequence of being bright at both C- and L-band), but that only the December 1974 fl ow is bright at P-band (i.e., it appears as white in the image), because the surface roughness is greater than 70 cm. Inspection of radar images in the fi eld leads to a discussion of which radar systems would be optimum for investigating the surface of a planet. We often discuss the physical sizes of the radar antennas that are needed to collect specifi c data sets (L-band and P-band data would require antennas that are too big to fl y to the other plan-ets on existing rockets), as well as the operational constraints (data rates, antenna power, and orbital control) that also make it challenging to fl y the most appropriate imaging radars to Mars, Venus, or one of the moons of the outer planets.

Conclusions to be drawn from fi eld studies of the 1974 fl ow include: (1) Multiparameter radar images provide infor-mation complementary to optical data of lava fl ows, but differ-ent surface textures in radar images have non-unique origins. (2) Cross-polarized radar data (HV or VH) often provide addi-tional textural information in comparison to like-polarized data (HH or VV). (3) At longer radar wavelengths (L- or P-band), there is enhanced contrast between smooth p�hoehoe (dark) and rough ‘a‘� fl ows (bright). (4) Structural features such as graben and fault scarps appear very bright if oriented perpendicular to the radar look-direction, and they are virtually invisible if aligned parallel to the radar look-direction. (5) Radar studies of lava fl ow fi elds on Venus (Fig. 1) must therefore consider both the wavelength and the polarization of the data sets, and recog-nize that shorter wavelengths may not be optimum for certain investigations.

ACTIVE LAVA FLOWS AS AN ANALOG FOR VOLCANISM ON IO

The active fl ow fi elds at K�lauea provide an excellent ana-log to volcanism on Jupiter’s moon Io, the only other body in the solar system where active silicate volcanism has been observed. During another day of the workshops, participants have been able to view active surface fl ows and/or lava ocean entry points. Direct observation provides the participants with critical insights into the thermal structure of an active fl ow, an understanding of the rate of advance of basaltic lavas, fi rsthand experience of the structure and evolution of a fl ow fi eld at the time of formation, and the opportunity to inspect lava infl ation features (such as tumuli, lava rises, and lava-rise pits; Walker, 1991) that may have analogs in the highest resolution planetary images (e.g., HiRISE data; Keszthelyi et al., 2008).

The heat driving Io’s extreme activity is generated by gravitational interactions between its neighbor satellites and Jupiter (Schubert et al., 1986). The prodigious heat output is manifested as massive outpourings of lava, large lava lakes, and plumes of gas and particles reaching up to 450 km above the surface (McEwen et al., 2000). Figure 13 shows a series of views of Prometheus Patera. The 75-km-high plume asso-ciated with Prometheus was observed by the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft to have migrated ~70 km to the west between

the two missions (Kieffer et al., 2000). When Galileo returned high-resolution views of the surface, it could be seen that the volcanic center consisted of a lava-fi lled caldera (Fig. 13B), with a south-trending fi ssure erupting lava fl owing to the west (Keszthelyi et al., 2001).

The surface of the Prometheus’ lava fl ows consists of a patchwork of darker and lighter fl ow units, with the darkest surfaces being the youngest (Fig. 13C). The fl ows brighten with age because as they cool, sulfur dioxide frost is depos-ited from the eruption plume (Lopes and Williams, 2005). The patchwork effect is produced by the successive breakout of lava from beneath cooled solid crust, in the same way that com-pound p�hoehoe fl ow fi elds are produced at K�lauea (Fig. 14A; Keszthelyi et al., 2001). The convoluted margins of individual breakouts at Prometheus Patera are reminiscent of p�hoehoe-like characteristics, suggesting that the Prometheus fl ow fi elds may therefore have been formed by relatively low-effusion-rate p�hoehoe eruptions (Rowland and Walker, 1990). One dif-ference between the lavas of K�lauea and Io is that very high temperatures have been measured for Io using the near infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS) on the Galileo spacecraft—up to 1800 K (~1526 °C; McEwen et al., 1998), compared to typi-cal basaltic eruption temperatures of ~1150 °C on Earth (Flynn and Mouginis-Mark, 1992). This has been attributed to the pos-sibility that lavas on Io are ultramafi c (similar to ancient ter-restrial komatiites), or to superheating of basalt during rapid ascent in the crust (McEwen et al., 1998). Repeat imaging on successive orbits of the Galileo spacecraft showed that the rate of resurfacing at the Prometheus and Amirani volcanic centers was 0.5 and 5 km2/d, respectively (Keszthelyi et al., 2001), which is one to two orders of magnitude greater than K�lauea fl ows (Mattox et al., 1993).

Typically, workshop participants have been able to observe active lavas downslope from the Pu‘u ‘O‘o vent on the east rift zone of K�lauea (Mattox et al., 1993; Heliker and Mattox, 2003) (Fig. 14). Upon approaching a fl ow, participants recognize that the fl ow surface has a range of temperatures, from incandescent lava to a silver-gray crust or dark clinker, even if the fl ow is still moving. As has been recognized from thermal remote sens-ing of active fl ows (Flynn and Mouginis-Mark, 1992; Wright and Flynn, 2003; Wright et al., 2010), there are many different thermal components to an active fl ow fi eld on Earth; lava fl ows in Hawaii are erupted at a temperature of ~1150 °C, but the surface may cool within tens of seconds to ~800 °C, and then completely cool over a period of days to weeks. In the planetary context, this rapid cooling is discussed as it pertains to thermal modeling of active fl ows and lava lakes on Io (Howell, 1997; Davies et al., 2000; Howell and Lopes, 2007), and the partici-pants learn how the evolution of volcanic hotspots on Io may be investigated via the measurement of the spatial variations in surface temperature derived from the NIMS data.

A second key observation made by workshop partici-pants is the relatively slow advance speed of active p�hoehoe lava fl ows (Fig. 14A) compared to ‘a‘� fl ows (Fig. 14B), which can advance at many meters per minute. Of particular




spe 483-01 page 445

Figure 14. Workshop participants have had many opportunities to ob-serve active lava fl ows. (A) Participants of the 2010 workshop explor-ing an active p�hoehoe fl ow, and (B) a participant in 1998 viewing an ‘a‘� fl ow, ~2 m high, moving toward the photographer at ~50 cm/s, across a recently emplaced p�hoehoe fl ow.

Figure 13. Active fl ow fi eld at Prometheus volcano, Io. (A) Global view showing the many volcanic centers on Io. (B) Closer view of Prometheus Patera and lava fl ows at 170 m/pixel resolution. To the upper right is a caldera, with a fi ssure extending to the south, from which the lavas are erupting. (C) High-resolution (12 m/pixel) images reveal that the fl ow fi eld formed by successive emplacement of fl ow units, with darker surfaces being younger. Brightest pixels in inset boxes represent actively erupting incandescent lava. Image produced by National Aeronautics and Space Administra-tion (NASA)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)/University of Arizona. JPL Photojournal images PIA02308, PIA02565, PIA02568, and PIA02557.




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interest is the (small) scale of preexisting topographic depres-sions that can divert the advance of p�hoehoe fl ows (Peitersen and Crown, 2000), or of obstacles that might divert or be over-run by a moving fl ow (Glaze and Baloga, 2007). Stalling of a fl ow against a barrier provides additional insights into the dynamics of a moving lava fl ow, as this can promote the devel-opment of lava infl ation features such as tumuli, lava pits, and rises (Walker, 1991). Over a period of about an hour, work-shop participants have observed part a fl ow surface infl ate by tens of centimeters, thereby giving them insights into the way in which the hummocky surface of a compound p�hoehoe fl ow fi eld evolves over weeks or months. Although analogous infl a-tion features have not been confi dently identifi ed on Mars, par-ticipants learn that tumuli and lava pits would be key features to search for in HiRISE images in order to identify infl ated fl ows on Mars.

Discussions that arise at the active fl ows focus on the issues involved in numerical modeling of such complex processes to gain insights into planetary fl ow emplacement (Wilson and Head, 1994; Mouginis-Mark and Yoshioka, 1998). Often, a two-component model of surface temperature distribution (hot lava in cracks surrounded by cooler crust) is used in lava cooling models (Crisp and Baloga, 1990; Harris et al., 1998), although fi ve components may be necessary to adequately describe the surface temperature distribution of active lava fl ows (Wright and Flynn, 2003). In the context of understanding the thermal variability of the lava fl ow surface, the participants can see (and feel) that the fl ow surface of a p�hoehoe fl ow cools rapidly in tens of seconds, but that the core of both p�hoehoe and ‘a‘� fl ows may remain incandescent for many days. This realiza-tion infl uences their understanding of satellite remote sensing of active lava fl ows for the Earth (Wright and Flynn, 2003; Wright et al., 2010) as well as numerical models of lava fl ow emplacement on other planets. Participants are also interested to discuss the ways in which surface fl ows might develop lava tubes, and the ways in which the thermal infrared data that they have already seen used on Mauna Loa volcano can be used to detect active lava tubes (Realmuto et al., 1992).

These considerations often lead to discussion of the infl u-ence of different planetary environments on lava emplacement, cooling, and resulting fl ow morphologies, including the con-trasting effects of the hot, dense, atmosphere on Venus versus the low-pressure, low-gravity environment of Mars (Head and Wilson, 1986; Wilson and Head, 1994; Snyder, 2002). The potential ability of moving lava to thermally erode its substrate to form sinuous rilles on the Moon or canali on Venus is also frequently debated (Fagents and Greeley, 2001).

Conclusions from this part of the workshop include: (1) Active lava fl ows have a diversity of surface temperatures, even dur-ing the time period that they are being emplaced. (2) P�hoehoe lava fl ow fi elds grow incrementally, and several segments of the same lava fl ow may advance at the same time. (3) P�hoehoe lava fl ows can thicken by infl ation after their initial emplace-ment and while the fl ow fi eld is still active. (4) Nothing com-pares to observing active geologic processes in situ.

CONCLUSIONS

We have described here only a small selection of the vol-canic features that the participants visit during each of the planetary volcanology workshops. Some of these examples require several hours of strenuous hiking to study, whereas oth-ers benefi t from the “drive-in-volcano” nature of K�lauea and parts of Mauna Loa volcanoes. Although we recommend all of these sites to other investigators interested in learning about the planetary analogs that exist at K�lauea, it is unfortunate that the summit activity that is ongoing as of this writing (July 2011) precludes access to the 1974 lava fl ow in the Ka‘� Des-ert. Nevertheless, we recommend a visit to Hawai‘i to see the other landforms. Finally, if you have a graduate student or post-doctoral research assistant studying planetary volcanology, we hope that you will encourage them to attend a future workshop!

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our thanks go to Gordon, Joann, and Ki‘i Morse from My Island Bed and Breakfast, Volcano Village, who played such an impor-tant role as hosts for the fi rst seven of these workshops; their hos-pitality and great cooking helped foster a strong feeling of com-panionship among all the workshop participants. Pineapple Park hostel and especially Marshall, Virgie, and Maggie Freitas fi lled the Morses’ big shoes very well for the ninth and tenth work-shops. The workshops were sponsored by grants NAG5-4127, NAG5-8921, NAG5-10228, NAG5-13151, NNG05G159G, and NNX08AL52G from National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-tration (NASA)’s Planetary Geology and Geophysics Program. This is School of Ocean Earth Science and Technology publica-tion 8204 and Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology contribution 1893.

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Manuscript Accepted by the Society 2 February 2011

Printed in the USA



Documents

Geological Society of America Special Papers · AIRSAR AIRcraft Synthetic Aperture Radar Aircraft Earth 5 m 5.7, 25.0, and 68.0 cm ALOS Advanced Land Observation Satellite Satellite