Geography 360Principles of Cartography

May 31, 2006

Outlines

1. GIS data• Data capture• Data format• Data manipulation

2. GIS software• GIS software vendors• GIS software beyond ArcGIS

3. GIS for sustainability mapping• Concepts of sustainability• Sustainability indicators• GIS for enhancing the understanding of

sustainability

Functionalities view of GIS

• One way of defining GIS would be based on functionalities provided in GIS

• GIS is a system for– Capturing (x)– Storing– Retrieving– Manipulating (x)– Analyzing– Displaying (o)

• Data which are spatially referenced to the EarthChorley 1987

We only looked at the “display” part of GIS from this course; what about others?

1. GIS data

How is geospatial data collected?

• Primary data capture– Directly measured: Go out and survey; mostly it measures

distance or direction from control points; nowadays GPS is increasingly replacing techniques required for ground surveying

– Indirect measured: Earth information can be collected without physical contact like using camera mounted on aircraft or electronic recording instrument; such a technique is called remote sensing

• Secondary data capture– If some data (directly unusable like it’s in analog form) is already

available, data can be converted into digital data through scanning or digitizing

• Data transfer – If some data (directly usable but in different file format) is already

available, only file conversion will be necessary

Typology of data collection method

Data capture

Data collection

Primary capture

Secondary capture

Remote Sensing

Ground survey, GPS

Scanning

Digitizing

Difference between data capture vs. data transfer?

Difference between primary data capture vs. secondary data capture?

In which method are these data sets created?: DOQ, DRG, DLG, DEM…

Data transfer

Geographic data

Geographic Data

Spatial Data Descriptive Data (Tabular data)Vector

dataRaster data

Tabular data

Spatial data

Vector data Raster data

Different spatial file format- Proprietary files -

• Vector format– ESRI: Coverage, exchange file (.e00), .shp– MapInfo: map info file (.mif)– CAD-based: .dxf, .dgn, .dwg

• Raster format– ESRI: Grid– ERDAS Imagine: imagine file (.img)– Standardized image file: gif, jpg, tiff, png, bil

What are commonly used data manipulation methods as preliminary steps to mapping?

• Data format conversion– Between descriptive data: ASCII file to tabular format– Between spatial data: use import/export tool in s/w

• Converting non-spatial data to spatial data– Geocoding

• Street address to real world coordinates

– Joining tabular data to spatial data• Make sure common identifier is identical in value and field

type between tabular data and spatial data

What are commonly used data manipulation methods as preliminary steps to mapping?

• Manipulating tabular data– Field calculation

• Use pre-defined functions so that you can create a new value based on formula

• +,-,/,*, left(), upper(), exp(), date(), value()… – Selection query

• Use * (wildcard) for including a set of arbitrary strings

• Manipulating spatial data– Conversion between different coordinate systems

• e.g. from geographic to SPC– Conversion between spatial data type (point, line, polygon)

• e.g. creating centroid from areal data– Conversion between spatial feature type (vector, raster)– Geoprocessing: e.g. dissolve, clip, union, merge…– Conflation (rubber-sheeting): combining data of different sources

2. GIS software

GIS vendor market share

GIS software by vendors• ESRI

– ArcGIS ArcView: Data visualization, query, analysis, and integration capabilities along with the ability to create and edit geographic data.

– ArcGIS ArcEditor: ArcView abilities +  the power to edit features in a multi-user geodatabase + allows the creation and editing of vector data formats

– ArcGIS ArcInfo: Functionality of ArcView + ArcEditor + advanced geo-processing and data conversion capabilities. ArcInfo is composed of ArcInfo Desktop and ArcInfo Workstation.

– ArcSDE : gateway to managing spatial data in a database management system – ArcIMS: Foundation for distributing high-end geographic information systems

(GIS) and mapping services via the Internet.

• Intergraph– Geomedia: GeoMedia offers a complete set of analysis tools to easily perform

expert, complex spatial analysis. – Geomedia Professional: GeoMedia + smart tools to capture and edit spatial data.

It enables live connections to multiple GIS data warehouses simultaneously. – Geomedia WebMap: Equivalent ArcIMS functions. Ability to read and write to

post in web both in Ethernet and Internet

GIS software by vendors• Bentley

– Microstation Geographics V.8: Provides high- performance imaging to convert maps and drawings, and to integrate aerial and other imagery into map and spatial data sets. It also integrates with our other discipline specific applications, such as Civil Engineering and Building Design, to ensure a seamless solution that spans disciplines.

• AutoDesk– MapGuide 6.3: AutoDesk MapGuide® 6.3 software helps you develop,

manage, and distribute GIS and design applications on the Internet or your intranet, broadening access to mission-critical geospatial and digital design data.

– MapGuide Server Mid-Tier : AutoDesk MapGuide Mid-Tier shares the success of AutoDesk MapGuide, which is used to deliver location-based information to hundreds of thousands of users worldwide.  Has the ability to distribute data for large-scale GIS uses.

http://www.pobonline.com/POB/Protected/Files/PDF/POB0605-GISsoftwareSurvey.pdf for GIS software survey

Other specialized GIS software

• Satellite image processing– ERDAS Imagine: file format change, image enhancement)

• Raster data analysis– IDRISI: developed in Clark University, multicriteria analysis

• Transportation modeling/analysis– TransCAD: create flow map, work with matrix data (or spatial

interaction data), can read/display transportation data

• Freeware– CrimeStat: point pattern analysis– GeoDa: exploratory spatial data analysis– AND most of commercial GIS vendors have freeware (e.g.

arcreader) of limited functionalities

3. GIS for sustainability

Let’s recap the concept of sustainability

• Heightened awareness of the limit of the Earth’s capacity to support human activities (social movement)

• So how can we ensure that our only planet will meet the needs of present generation without compromising the needs of future generation?

• For example, consider vehicle miles traveled (VMT) per city.

• VMT has environmental (more gas emission), economic (local economic development), and social (equity) consequences. Sustainability cannot be understood by one part separate from others

• VMT can be seen as a window that allows us to look into the process of sustainability sustainability indicator

Triple Bottom Line & View of Sustainable Community

• Understanding the three parts and their links is key to understanding sustainability

• It is about understanding the connections between and achieving balance among social, economic, and environmental pieces of a community

                                        

A view of community as three concentric circles: the economy exists within society, and both the economy and society exist within the environment.

What to be developedWhat to be sustained

• Sustain: to continue without lessening, to nourish, to allow to flourish

• Develop: to improve or bring to a more advanced state

National Research Council 1999

What are differences?

• Attribute– any character of the world – A.k.a. variable (social scientist’s term of attribute)

• Indicator– a widely (publicly) understood measurement. For example,

temperature, or population counts.  – A quantitative or qualitative parameter which can be assessed in

relation to a criterion

• Index– a set of indicators drawn together into a single number. An index

is commonly scaled from 0-100, but not always

What are criteria for good sustainability indicators?

1.Does the indicator address the carrying capacity of the natural resources -- renewable and nonrenewable, local and nonlocal -- that the community relies on?

2.Does the indicator address the carrying capacity of the ecosystem services upon which the community relies, whether local, global, or from distant sources?

3.Does the indicator address the carrying capacity of esthetic qualities -- the beauty and life-affirming qualities of nature -- that are important to the community?

4.Does the indicator address the carrying capacity of the community's human capital -- the skills, abilities, health and education of people in the community?.

5.Does the indicator address the carrying capacity of a community's social capital -- the connections between people in a community: the relationships of friends, families, neighborhoods, social groups, businesses, governments and their ability to cooperate, work together and interact in positive, meaningful ways?

6.Does the indicator address the carrying capacity of a community's built capital -- the human-made materials (buildings, parks, playgrounds, infrastructure, and information) that are needed for quality of life and the community's ability to maintain and enhance those materials with existing resources?

From Hart 1999Carrying Capacity: the population that can be supported indefinitely by its supporting systems

What are criteria for good sustainability indicators?

7.Does the indicator provide a long-term view of the community?

8.Does the indicator address the issue of economic, social or biological diversity in the community?

9.Does the question address the issue of equity or fairness -- either between current community residents (intra-generational equity) or between current and future residents (inter-generational equity)?

10.Is the indicator understandable to and useable by its intended audience?

11.Does the indicator measure a link between economy and environment?

12.Does the indicator measure a link between environment and society?

13.Does the indicator measure a link between society and economy?

14.Does the indicator measure sustainability that is at the expense of another community or at the expense of global sustainability?

Integrating (theme), Forward-looking (time), Distributional (space)

Organizing indicators- DPSIR Framework -

• General framework for organizing information about state of the environment

• The framework assumes cause-effect relationships between interacting components of social, economic, and environmental systems, which are – Driving forces of environmental change (e.g. industrial

production) – Pressures on the environment (e.g. discharges of waste water) – State of the environment (e.g. water quality in rivers and lakes) – Impacts on population, economy, ecosystems (e.g. water

unsuitable for drinking) – Response of the society (e.g. watershed protection)

Jesinghaus 1999

Examples of DP Indicators- What is causing the problems? -

• fossil fuel consumption (WRI 98) • fossil fuel supply (OECD 98) • urban traffic density as measured by car holdings per capita, vehicle

miles travelled by lane mile, average travel times and number of vehicle trips (OECD Environmental indicators 97)

• economic growth (OECD 98) • road traffic (OECD 98) • emissions of SOx, NOX, VOCs,CO, PB,SO2 and particulate matter

less than 10 microns in diameter, by source (OECD 97) • pollution loads (ESD 95) • air emissions from private transport (as a share of total emissions,

and related intensities in kg per capita or per passanger-km and per vehicle-km) (OECD 98)

• air emissions from residential energy use (as a share of total emissions in %, and related intensitities in kg per capita and per GDP) (OECD 98)

Examples of SI Indicators- What is the situation with the issue? -

• number of days per annum that WHO standards are exceeded, and average annual measured concentrations for SO2, Nox, CO, O3, SPM, PB (UNCHS 1995)

• ambient air quality (ESD 97) • cover of lichens on tree branches, concentration of

sulphur in needles (M.Hakanen 1995) • population exposure to air pollution (OECD 98) • number of days per year on which alarm levels are

exceeded and traffic circulation is stopped (European foundation 98)

• acute respitory deaths defined as percentage of deaths due to acute respiratory diseases (UNCHS 1995)

• damage caused by acid precipitation and deposition to buildings and monuments, ecosystems (OECD 98)

Examples of R Indicators- What is being done to fix the problems -

• regulations on emissions for new cars (OECD 97) • emission standards used (ambient or tailpipe) (ICLEI 98) • air quality standards used (local/regional/national/WHO)

(ICLEI 98) • renewable energy usage defined as proportion of energy

derived from renewable sources (hydro, wind, geothermal and solar electricity, combustion of animal wastes, fuelwood where this is being replaced through reforestation (UNCHS 1995)

• fuel price (UNCHS 95) • expenditure on air pollution abatement and control

(OECD 98) • capacity of air pollution abatement equipment (stationary

sources, motor vehicles) (OECD 98)

Integration of spatial data for sustainability mapping in GIS

• Locational framework can act as a glue that puts together related themes– Sustainability can be understood by examining relationships of all related themes, not by

examining one theme separate from other themes– Sustainability can be understood by examining connected geographic areas that reach beyond

a single jurisdiction (e.g. watershed analysis)– Sustainability can be understood by examining temporal behavior of the theme mapped

Thematic integration

Geographic integration At one point in time