Geo-Analyst , ISSN 2249-2909 December, 2015gswb.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Nazrul-Islam.pdf · Brick kiln industry is a small scale, ... • To discuss the brief review of brick

Geo-Analyst , ISSN 2249-2909 December, 2015

13

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT BRICK KILN TECHNOLOGIES

Nazrul Islam* and Dr. Ranjan Roy**

Abstract

Bricks are widely used construction and building materials around the world. . It is a small scale,

traditional industry. The dried bricks were used for the first time in 8000 BC and fired clay bricks

were used as early as 4500 BC. Since the time of inception, brick kiln had followed several

technologies for manufacturing of bricks. The main objective of this paper is to review the

performance of various brick kiln technologies. For this purpose, a detailed literature survey

carried out. Analysis and discussion are done on the basis of energy, environmental, financial and

production and quality of product performance. The paper discusses the performances mentioned

above on the basis of Indian brick kiln sector because India has produced 250 billion bricks

annually from 1,00,000 brick kilns, employing about 15 million workers and consuming about 35

million tons of coal annually. Some key recommendations will be made for the adoption of cleaner

production techniques and for management for better performance in brick productions.

Keywords: Traditional Industry, Kiln technology, Performance, Cleaner production technique,

Biomass fuels.

Introduction

Brick kiln industry is a small scale, a traditional industry which is considered as an unorganized

sector in most of the countries, especially in developing countries. There are three basic needs of

human beings namely Food, Shelter and Clothing which played a significant role in the progress of

human civilisation and all three basic needs gradually improved in their nature as well as variety

directing towards the growth of multidimensional economic activity throughout the world. The

origin of bricks production results from the improvement of shelter of human being in its

quantitative as well as qualitative aspects. Bricks are widely used construction and building

material around the world (Zhang, 2013). The current production of bricks in the world is about

1391 billion units (Freedonia, 2012). India’s annual production of bricks is 250 billion units from

100000 brick factories employing about 15 million skilled and semi-skilled labours and consuming

about 35 million tons of coal annually (Wanjule et.al. 2015). India's share of brick production is

second (17.97%) followed by China (54%). This sector is growing at a faster rate in India (9%

*Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Sitalkuchi College, Cooch Behar, West Bengal

**Associate Professor, Department of Geography and Applied Geography, University of North

Bengal, Raja Rammohanpur, West Bengal


14

annually). The brick sector in India consumes about 24 million tons of coal every year. The brick industry is the 3rd largest sector in the consumption of coal (after power and iron and steel

industry) which accounts for 3% of total coal production as well as 1.45 % of total coal

consumption respectively in India. In addition to this, the sizeable amount of bio-mass fuels is

also used in brick kiln industry in different parts of the country. Moreover, it also consumes

several million tons of biomass fuels (eco-bricks, 2017). The cost of energy for brick production is

about 35-40% of total cost of the plant in India.

Objectives

The prime objectives of the present study are as follows -

• To discuss the brief review of brick firing technologies.

• To explore the energy and environmental performance of different types of Brick kilns.

• To estimate the production and productivity performance.

• To suggest some recommendations in favour of improving the performance of brick kiln

technologies.

Materials and Methods

The study has been carried out by reviewing existing literatures such as published and unpublished

research articles, organizational and corporate reports and theses. Relevant websites were also

visited to gather information for fulfilling the objectives. The Government plans, reports were also

reviewed as well. Some secondary data which were monitored by different organizations and

persons individually were also incorporated to assess the performance of the brick kilns. Finally,

the gathered information was tabulated and analyzed to draw a reasonable conclusion.

Results and Discussion

Burning is defined as the union of the principal elements such as coal, carbon, and hydrogen and

with the oxygen of the atmosphere. The dried bricks were used for the first time in 800 BC and

fired clay bricks were used as early as 4500 BC (Pacheco, et. al., 2011). The permanent or semi-

permanent of structures where green bricks are burned is called kiln. The classification of bricks

burning is shown as under-

1. Brick Burning Process

Intermittent Kiln

� Without Stack

Clamp ; Scove ; Scotch

� With Stack

Down Draught Kiln (DDK)


15

Continuous Kiln

� Moving Fire Kiln

Bull’s Trench Kiln- 1) Moving Chimney Bull’s trench Kiln (MCBTK)

2) Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln (FCBTK)

� Hoffman Kiln- 1) Original Hoffman Kiln (OHK)

2) Hybrid Hoffman Kiln (HHK)

� Zig Zag Kiln (ZZK- 1) Natural Draught Zig Zag Kiln (NDZZK)

2) High Draught Zig Zag Kiln (HDZZK)

Moving Ware Kiln

a) Tunnel Kiln

b) Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK)

2. A Brief Review of Different Types of Kilns

Clamp

The clump is the ancient technology which was practiced from 4000 BC. It is the basic type

intermittent kiln without any permanent structure. It has no stack chimney. Green bricks are piled

up on a bed of fuel (either coal or wood). The fuels are also fed through the tunnels which were

made by 2.0-2.5 cm among the bricks. A clamp is piled with alternate layers of green bricks and

fuel. Dry grass, cow dung, husk, wood, and coal are used as fuel in the clamp. A clamp can

produce 100000 bricks in a one firing. A.i.b) Scove and A.i.c) Scotch are the two relative

improved variations of clamp. The firing process is more or less same but the only variation is that

a scove kiln has the outer wall is plastered (scoved) by clay material to prevent the heat loss

whereas in a scotch kiln the outer wall is built permanently with the mortar. Clamp firing process

is generally practiced in African countries and Peninsular India.

Down Draught Kiln (DDK)

DDK is other types of the intermittent kiln where no chimney or stack has been provided to

disperse flue gas in the higher point of the atmosphere. In this system, bricks are fired in batches. It

has a rectangular or circular permanent walls and roof. The flue gases deflected from the roof and

then moved down ward to burn the green bricks. The kiln generally consists of two chambers. The

capacity of each chamber is 20000-40000 bricks per batch. DDK is one of the traditional methods

generally practiced in developing countries like India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. DDK contributes

0.96% of total brick production in India.

Bull’s Trench Brick Kiln

The oval shaped arch less version of the continuous kiln is Bull's Trench Brick Kiln which was

invented by British engineer J. Bull in 1876. Bull's Trench kiln (BTK) has two types.


16

Moving Chimney Bull’s trench Kiln (MCBTK)

It is one of the ancient methods of brick firing technologies. The shape of the Kiln is oval or

elliptical. In this kiln, two chimneys are moved by the firemen at regular time intervals to bring

forward in the firing zone. As soon as the firemen fed into coal or other biomass to MCBTK, it

produces black smoke with soot due to incomplete combustion of coal. The MCBTK is locally

termed as ‘Haowa Chully’ in Cooch Behar. Specific energy consumption in MCBTK is 1.2-

1.75MJ/kg bricks and specific coal consumption is 19-28 tons/100000 bricks. The firing of a 2.5

kg brick consumes 130gm coal. The total production of an MCBTK was 4-5 million bricks per

year. As this was a most polluting kiln in S.E Asia, it has been banned in India in 1996, in Nepal

2003.in Pakistan 2006 and Vietnam in 2010.

Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln (FCBTK)

FCBTK is the improved version of MCBTK. It is a continuous moving fire kiln which is widely

used in South Asian countries. It is constructed by excavating a trench of about 6-9m wide, 2.0-

2.5m deep and 100-150m long. A gap has provided at the outer wall for easy access to the trench

for loading and unloading of bricks.

The FCBTK has two trenches with 6 sections each. After the bricks of one channel are fully brunt,

it is left over for few days to cool down and then unloaded. The other trench is loading in due

course with green bricks and firing process will continue. The FCBTK has provided a 22m to 30m

high chimney depending on the size of the kiln. It produces 15000-30000 bricks per day.

Hoffman Kiln

It was invented by F.E Hoffman in 1857 in Germany. It is a circular, large and permanent arched

kiln with a central chimney. It is one of the important continuous moving fire kilns. Hoffman kiln

has two variations-

Original Hoffman Kiln (OHK) , Hybrid Hoffman Kiln (HHK)

Both have the permanent structure which allows firing bricks even in the rainy season. The shape

is rectangular in both cases. They have 10-12 chambers with doors for loading and unloading of

bricks. The coal is charged from the top of the kiln.

The HHK is designed in such a way that at the time of firing bricks by dust coal, the waste heat is

transferred to the adjacent tunnel for drying of green bricks. The HHK lead to lower energy

consumption than original Hoffman kiln. HHK is generally used in China and Original Hoffman

Kiln in South East Asia. The production capacity of Original Hoffman Kiln is 10000-20000 bricks

per day whereas HHK has a production capacity of 50000 bricks per day. It reduced the fuel

consumption by 50% than FCBTK.


17

Zig Zag Kiln

Zig Zag kiln is a clear, energy efficient and environment-friendly firing technology. It is

continuous, cross draught moving fire kiln. It is a modification of Hoffman kiln with zig zag

chamber in which the flue gas flows in a zig zag path. The zig zag firing concept was first used in

Buhres (1868) and Alois Habla modified it 1927. Zig Zag Kiln has two types-

Natural Draught Zig Zag Kiln (NDZZK) and High Draught Zig Zag Kiln (HDZZK)

Both have a low height chimney at the centre of the kiln. They have several chambers which are

numbered 1 to 20. Every second chamber has a small door. These are guard walls with 1 green

brick thickness. The partition wall is alternatively attached to central island and boundary. Both

are popular in India, China, Nepal, Bangladesh and European Countries. IIT, Roorkee introduced

the HDZZK in 1967 with 24 chambers. The difference of NDZZK and HDZZK is that the airflow

inside the kiln. In NDZZK it is achieved by a chimney whereas in HDZZK it is done by a fan.

Moreover, the latter has greater energy and environmental performance than the previous.

Tunnel Kiln

Tunnel kiln is one of the low fuel consuming moving ware continuous kiln in which moulded

bricks to be burned are passed on roller wheel through a tunnel. It was invented in 1877 in

Germany. Later, it was popular in Asia, China and Vietnam. India has now only 5 kilns in this

type. As its SEC is higher (1.34-1.47 MJ/Kg), high emissivity and high construction cost, it was

failed to popular in underdeveloped and developing countries. Firing and drying are done

simultaneously in the tunnel kiln. It is the most advanced technology where a wide variety of

bricks are burnt with high quality. It has a better control over firing process.

Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln

Vertical Shaft brick kiln (VSBK) is a continuous, updraft, moving ware, energy efficient low

emissive kiln in which the fire remains stationary and counter current heat transfer is taken place

between hot flue gas and bricks.

VSBK was invented in China in 1958 and disseminated in India and South East Asia during the

1990s. India has now only about 110 brick kilns of such type.

VSBK was a rectangular shaped (1.0x1.5m to 1.75m x3.75m) with a height of 6-10m. I have two

or more shafts. The Shaft was bordered by a brick wall. All shafts are connected with chimney and

shaded by a roof. The capacity of production of VSBK is 8000-12000 bricks per day.


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3) Performance analysis of various types of Kiln

A comprehensive assessment of brick manufacturing technologies has been carried out in the

following section. Production of bricks requires burning about 110 million tons of coal and several

million tons of firewood in India (Heireli and Maithel, 2008). It is detrimental to the

environment. Different brick making technologies have exerted much energy utilization, variations

in production and financial constraints. The following sections discuss the various performances

relating to different technologies of brick making processes. These include…

• Energy performance

• Environmental performance

• Fuel performance

• Production and Product quality performance

• Financial performance

Table-1: Basic Information for measuring Performance of Brick Kilns

Technology

Emissions( g/kg of fired brick)

Sp

ecif

ic

Energ

y

Consu

mpti

on

( M

J/K

g

fire

d B

rick

) S

pec

ific

Coal

Consu

mpti

on

(Tons/

1000

Bri

cks)

Heat

requirement

(MJ/1000

Bricks)

Quantity of Fuel Required(

Tons/1000 Brick)

CO2 BC SPM SO2 CO SEC

Wood /

biomass Coal

Diesel/

Kerosene

A. i.a) Clamp Clamps do not have a chimney stack and

therefore, stack emissions can’t be

measured

3.12

51.5

17,000 1.10 0.26 0.16

A.i.b) Scove 2.90 16,000 1.00 0.59 0.36

A. i.c) Scotch 2.72 16,000 1.00 0.59 0.36

A. i.) DDK 282.4 0.29 1.56 0.28 3.78 2.97 23.5 15,500 0.97 0.57 0.35

B.i.a) MCBTK 290 0.35 1.32 0.75 3.22 1.48 21 14000 1.20 0.36 0.40

B.ii.b) FCBTK 131 0.13 1.18 0.66 2.00 1.32 47.5 4500 0.28 0.17 0.10

B.iii.a) Original

Hoffmann 125 0.08 0.45 0.59 3.22 1.36 21.5 2000 0.13 0.12 0.05

B.iii.b) Modern

Hoffmann 100 0.03 0.29 0.52 2.80 1.20 25.5 5000 0.31 0.19 0.11

B.iv.a ) NDZZK 105 0.02 0.22 0.44 0.29 1.06 17.5 3000 0.19 0.11 0.07

B.iv.b) HDZZK 105 0.01 0.24 0.32 1.62 1.03 16.5 3700 0.15 0.16 0.08

B.v) Tunnel Kiln 166 0.02 0.24 0.72 3.31 1.40 22.5 4,000 0.25 0.15 0.09

B.vi) VSBK 70.5 0.00

1 0.15 0.54 1.84 0.80 14 1800 0 0.105 0

Contd……………………..


19

Technology Product Quality (%)

Production

(No of

bricks per

Day)

Annual Production

(million Bricks/year)

Production Cost

(Lakh)

Good Inferior Sludge

Minimum Maximum Minimum

Maxim

um

A. i.a) Clamp 50 30 20 10000-

200000 per

Batch

0.01 0.20 5 6

A.i.b) Scove 65 25 10 0.01 0.20 5 6

A. i.c) Scotch 75 20 5 0.01 0.20 8 10

A. i.) DDK 85 10 5

20000-

40000 per

batch

0.60 1.00 13 20

B.i.a) MCBTK 50 30 20 10000-

28000 4.00 5.00 22 25

B.ii.b) FCBTK 60 35 5 20000-

50000 8.00 10.00 32 35

B.iii.a) Original Hoffmann 85 10 5 40000 6.00 8.00 64 90

B.iii.b) Modern Hoffmann 90 5 5 50000 15.00 16.00 380 400

B.iv.a ) NDZZK 85 10 5 20000-

50000 6.00 8.00 35 40

B.iv.b) HDZZK 80 15 5 15000-

28000 5.00 6.00 40 45

B.v) Tunnel Kiln 95 2 3 50000 15.00 20.00 600 640

B.vi) VSBK 90 0 10 8000-12000 1.00 4.50 35 40

Source: Ref.1, 3, 4, 5

Energy Performance

Energy performance of brick kilns is measured on the basis of Specific Energy Consumption

(SEC). SEC is defined as the thermal energy (Mega Joule) required for burning of 1 kg of brick. It

is generally used as the parameter to measure the energy performance of brick kilns. The SEC is

measured by the following formula

SEC= ��

�� Where,

Mfbr = Mass of fired bricks produced during one firing cycle/batch

Hin = Total energy input ( External +Internal + Organic matter of Soil)


20

to the kiln for the duration of one firing cycle/ batch. ………………(GKSPL manual)

SEC is measured by Mega Joule (MJ) energy. 1 MJ is equivalent to 34gram coal equivalent. Low

SEC indicates the more efficiency of the kiln. Table-1 shows the SEC of different Kilns. From the

following diagram, it is evident that Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) has the lowest SEC

requirement at 0.80MJ/kg of fired brick followed by Zig Zag Kilns (1.03 to 1.06 MJ/kg of fired

brick) and modern Hoffman Brick kilns (1.20 MJ/kg of fired brick). The diagram also shows that

Clamp kilns consumed highest energy (3.12 MJ/kg of fired brick) followed by Down Draught

Kilns (DDK) (2.97 MJ/kg of fired brick). The SEC of intermittent kilns is significantly high ranges

from 2.72-3.12 MJ/kg of fired brick whereas continuous kilns have lower SEC (0.80-1.48 MJ/kg

of fired brick). Moreover, Zig Zag, VSBK and Tunnel Kilns used electricity or Diesel for initial

firing and other mechanical works. So, an amount of 0.015 MJ/kg of fired brick, 0.03 MJ/kg of

fired brick, 0.3 MJ/kg of fired brick energy are required for Zig Zag (NDZZK), VSBK and Tunnel

kilns respectively. Fig-2 explains the range of SEC. The range of energy consumption is very high

in Clamp kilns (2.00-4.50 MJ/kg of fired brick) followed by DDKs (2.80-3.14 MJ/kg of fired

brick). The VSBK (0.54-1.10 MJ/kg of fired brick) has the lowest range of SEC and High Draught

Zig Zag Kiln (HDZZK) ranked second in terms of the range of energy consumption. Its range of

SEC is 0.95-1.11 MJ/kg of fired brick. Fixed Chimney Bull's Trench kiln (FCBTK) is common in

firing methods used in India. Its average SEC is 1.32 MJ/kg of fired brick and range of SEC is

1.10-.146 MJ/kg of fired brick. VSBK is, thus, 60% more efficient than FCBTK and 75% more

efficient than Clam kilns.

Fig-1: Specific Energy Consumption of different Kilns

3.122.90 2.72

2.97

1.48 1.32 1.36 1.20 1.06 1.031.40

0.80

0.000.501.001.502.002.503.003.50

MJ

/Kg f

ired

Bri

ck

Specific Energy Consumption of different Kilns


21

Fig-2: Range of Specific Energy Consumption

Environmental performance

Brick kiln industry is the 3rd largest consumer of coal (After Power and Steel Section) consumed

24 million tons per year (about 8% of the total coal consumption of the country. The total amount

of Coal and biomass consumption is 35-40 tons/tons coal equivalent (TCE) (Eco-brick). The cost

of energy in brick manufacturing is about 35% of total cost of the plant. The huge amount of coal

and biomass combustion causes environmental pollution by emitting Carbon dioxide (CO2), Black

Carbon (BC), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Carbon Mono Oxide (CO), NOx and Suspended Particulate

Matter (SPM). Thus, environmental assessment has to be discussed on the basis of the above

pollutants.

Performance of CO2

CO2 emissions are directly related to moisture (%), ash (%), volatile matters (%), Fixed Carbon

contents present in the coal and biomass. From the figure, it is clear that MCBTK and DDK kilns

emit maximum CO2 (290 and 282 g/kg of fired brick) followed by Tunnel Kiln(166 g/kg of fired

brick). The least CO2 emitter is VSBK which emits 70.5 g/kg of fired brick CO2. According to J.

S. Kamyotra Director, Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi, out of total production of

bricks in India, 74% achieved through BTKs and 21% through Clamps. Thus FCBTKs and

Clamps contribute maximum emission of CO2.

2.00

1.201.10

2.80

1.21 1.521.02 0.95 1.34

0.54

4.50

1.751.46

3.14

1.52 1.70

1.21 1.111.47

1.10

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

Clamp

kilns

MCBTK FCBTK DDK Original

Hoffman

Modern

Hoffman

NDZZK HDZZK Tunnel VSBK

MJ/

kg

of

fire

d b

rick

Range of Specific Energy Consumption

Minimum Maximum

Fig-2.a):

Performance of SPM and CO

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is defined as the suspended particle of less than 100 µm

diameter in the atmosphere. Emissions of SPM and CO are due to incomplete combustion of coal

and biomass. DDK has the highest emission factors for both SPM and CO. MCBTK and Tunnel

Kiln ranks 2nd and 3rd position as CO emitters. The lowest emitters of CO is NDZZKs (0.29)

followed by HDZZK (1.62). On the contrary, due to the use of dust coal as in

constant combustion VSBK (0.15), Tunnel Kiln and HDZZK (0.24) and NDZZK (0.22) are the

lowest emitters of SPM.

Emissions of Black Carbon and SO

Emission of SO2 mainly depends on the sulphur content in the fuel. The

biomass than coal have the lowest sulphur contents and hence, lowest SO

0

100

200

300

NA NAg/k

g o

f fi

red

bri

ck

Geo-Analyst , ISSN 2249-2909 December,

22

a): Emissions of CO2 from Brick Kilns





followed by HDZZK (1.62). On the contrary, due to the use of dust coal as internal fuel and


Emissions of Black Carbon and SO2 from Brick Kilns

mainly depends on the sulphur content in the fuel. The kilns that use more

biomass than coal have the lowest sulphur contents and hence, lowest SO2 emission. DDK and

NA

282.4 290

131 125100 105 105

166

70.5

Emissions of CO2

December, 2015





ternal fuel and


kilns that use more

emission. DDK and

70.5


23

HDZZK have the lowest SO2 emissions. MCBTK (0.75) and Tunnel kiln (0.72) emit highest SO2

followed by FCBTK (0.66) as they use more coal for the firing of bricks. The Fig 2.c) reveals that

BC is highest in MCBTK (0.35) followed by DDK (0.29). It is very much negligible in the case of

VSBK (0.001) followed by HDZZK (0.01). FCBTK emits a considerable amount of Black Carbon.

Black Carbon emission mainly depends on the nature of carbon bonding of the coal. It traps visible

light creating the temperature rise.

Fig-2.c): Emissions of Black Carbon and SO2 from Brick Kilns

Fuel Performance

As mentioned earlier coal and biomass are the main sources of energy for the firing of bricks.

Combustion of coal in different kilns differs significantly because of performance kiln technology.

The Gross Calorific value (GCV) of coal of different origin and various biomasses is different.

Further, kiln performance also depends on firing temperature and loss of heat during firing and

drying process. Table 2 describes the different fuel (External and Internal) properties and their

Gross Calorific Value (GCV).

0.29

0.35

0.13

0.08

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.02

0.001

NA

NA

NA

0.28

0.75

0.66

0.59

0.52

0.44

0.32

0.72

0.54

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

A. i.a) Clamp

A.i.b) Scove

A. i.c) Scotch

A. i.) DDK

B.i.a) MCBTK

B.ii.b) FCBTK

B.iii.a) Original Hoffmann

B.iii.b) Modern Hoffmann

B.iv.a ) NDZZK

B.iv.b) HDZZK

B.v) Tunnel Kiln

B.vi) VSBK

g/kg of fired brick

Emissions from Brick Kilns

SO2 BC


24

Table-2: Fuel Analysis

Types of Fuel Moisture (%) Ash (%) Volatile (%) Fixed Carbon

(%)

GCV

(Kcal/kg)

GCV*

(MJ/kg)

A) External Fuel

a) Coal

i) Assam Coal .96-2.99 11.0-26.46 22.84-37.71 37.06-49.88 4764-5603 20-23

ii) Chandrapua

Coal

3.96-8.36 22.19-37.16 25.07-30.96 33.81-38.49 4077-4877 17-20

iii) Jharia Coal .31-1.48 34.47-46.89 15.83-26.85 33.78-50.06 3520-5034 15-21

iv) Raniganj Coal 6.83-8.61 31.3-23.86 25.1-27.41 34.46-42.43 4607-5258 19-22

b) Biomass

i) Mustard Straw 5.38-9.09 3.1-6.3 70.47-73.79 16.51-17.1 3998-4306 16.5-18

ii) Rice Husk 5.63-19.4 17.4-23.89 48.26-55.95 14.35-14.92 3403-3471 14-15

iii) Cotton Straw 12.18 3.77 66.75 17.3 4219 17.5

iv) Saw dust 30.61 5.31 53.38 10.7 3235 13.5

B) Internal Fuel

i) Katni coal dust 1.92 45.77 19.66 3336 14

ii) Coal rejects of

thermal power

2.43 68.5 18.09 2049 8.5

*1 Kcal/kg = .0041868 Mega Joule/kg

Source: Ref.1 ,3, 4, 5

Performance of Heat Requirement

It is evident from the Fig.3.a that the heat requirement is higher in the traditional type of kilns

ranging from 14000-1700 MJ/1000 bricks. It is highest in Clamp kiln followed by Scove and

Scotch kiln (16000MJ/1000 Bricks). Movable Chimney Bull's Trench kiln (MCBTK) has also

higher requirements of heat (14000 MJ/1000 bricks). Among the modern kilns, VSBK has the

lowest requirements of heat (1800 MJ/1000 bricks) followed by original Hoffman Kiln

(2000MJ/1000 Bricks). The other modern technologies show the requirements of 3000-5000

MJ/1000 bricks for combustion of fired bricks.


25

Fig-3.a) Specific Coal Consumption

The performance of Specific Coal Consumption

Fig-3.b) Heat requirements

51.5

23.5

21.0

47.5

21.525.5

17.5 16.522.5

14.0

0

20

40

60

80

Clamp kilns MCBTK FCBTK DDK Original

Hoffman

Modern

Hoffman

NDZZK HDZZK Tunnel VSBK

ton

s/1

00

,00

0 b

rick

s

Specific Coal Consumption

Minimum Maximum Average

02,0004,0006,0008,000

10,00012,00014,00016,00018,000

MJ/

10

00

Bri

ck

Heat requirement


26

Quantity of Fuel required

The Fig 3.c incorporates the quantity of coal required for burning of clay bricks. Brick burning

processes may be intermittent or continuous. Intermittent kilns are generally traditional in nature

whereas continuous kilns are modern and modified in nature. The firing of green bricks required

coal, wood/biomass and diesel or kerosene as fuel. Most of the traditional kilns use more wood or

biomass for the firing of bricks. MCBTK has used highest amount of wood or biomass (1.20

tons/1000 bricks) followed by clamp kilns (1.00-1.10 tons/ thousand bricks). There is no need of

wood in case of VSBK. VSBK uses only coal and its requirement of coal is least (0.105 tons/1000

bricks) followed by Zig Zag and original Hoffman kiln. VSBK does not use diesel or kerosene.

The use of diesel or kerosene is the minimum for modern kilns. The traditional or intermittent

kilns even now use a considerable amount of diesel or kerosene for lit up the first fire and for

continuing the firing process.

Fig-3.c) Quantity of Fuel required

1.10

1.00

1.00

0.97

1.20

0.28

0.13

0.31

0.19

0.15

0.25

0

0.26

0.59

0.59

0.57

0.36

0.17

0.12

0.19

0.11

0.16

0.15

0.105

0.16

0.36

0.36

0.35

0.40

0.10

0.05

0.11

0.07

0.08

0.09

0

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40

A. i.a) Clamp

A.i.b) Scove

A. i.c) Scotch

A. i.) DDK

B.i.a) MCBTK

B.ii.b) FCBTK

B.iii.a) Original …

B.iii.b) Modern …

B.iv.a ) NDZZK

B.iv.b) HDZZK

B.v) Tunnel Kiln

B.vi) VSBK

Tons/1000 Brick

Quantity of Fuel Required

Diesel/ Kerosene Coal Wood / biomass

Production and Product quality performance

The Fig- 4a and 4b show the performance of production and final product quality of bricks

produced in different technologies of brick firing. Annual production and product quality is

highest in Tunnel kiln (15-20 Million bricks/year and 95% good bricks) followed by modern

Hoffman kiln (15-16 million bricks/year & 90 % good brick). The annual production, as well as

product quality, is inferior in traditional intermittent kilns like Clamp, Scove, Scotch, DDK, and

MCBTK. Annual production is also low in case of VSBK (1.0

its product quality is very much high (90%). Product quality of all modern continuous kilns is high

ranges between 80-95% only exception in DDK whose product quality is also high. Thus, it may

deduce that the more the modernizat

and product quality.

Fig

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

0.01 0.010.20 0.20

mil

lio

n B

rick

s/y

ea

r

Annual Production of Bricks


27

Production and Product quality performance

show the performance of production and final product quality of bricks


20 Million bricks/year and 95% good bricks) followed by modern

16 million bricks/year & 90 % good brick). The annual production, as well as


MCBTK. Annual production is also low in case of VSBK (1.0-4.5 Million Bricks/ year) through


95% only exception in DDK whose product quality is also high. Thus, it may

deduce that the more the modernization and efficiency of firing process the more the production

Fig-4a) Annual Production of Bricks

0.01 0.60

4.00

8.006.00

15.00

6.00 5.00

15.00

1.000.20 1.00

5.00

10.008.00

16.00

8.006.00

20.00

4.50

Annual Production of Bricks

Minimum Maximum

December, 2015

show the performance of production and final product quality of bricks


20 Million bricks/year and 95% good bricks) followed by modern

16 million bricks/year & 90 % good brick). The annual production, as well as


llion Bricks/ year) through


95% only exception in DDK whose product quality is also high. Thus, it may

ion and efficiency of firing process the more the production

4.50


28

Fig-4b) Product Quality of Bricks

Financial Performance

An appraisal of the financial performance of various technologies is presented in the Fig-5.

Clamp Kilns including Scove and Scotch kilns require lower investments. The Tunnel kiln and

Modern Hoffman technologies require large capital investment (75-100% more than clamp kilns).

VSBK, Zig Zag Kilns have the similar production cost and it varies from 35-40 lakh rupees.

VSBK has the smaller in size and Tunnel kilns have larger enterprise. So, financial performance

mainly depends on modernization and size of the kiln.

50

6575

85

5060

8590

8580

9590

3025

2010

3035

105

1015

2 0

2010

5 5

20

5 55

5 5 310

0

20

40

60

80

100

% o

f B

rick

s

Product Quality

Good Inferior Sludge

Conclusion and Recommendations

The economy of India is growing at a faster rate with rapid urbanization. This leads to a great

demand of bricks. But the brick sector of India is characterized by traditional manufacturing

process with considerable emissivity

labour with steadily slow mechanization process. The brick manufacturing is unorganized in and

small scale in nature with financial constraints. It uses top soil as raw material which

agriculturally fertile. A composite score on the basis of performance of the variable chosen is

prepared and tabulated in the Table No 4

score the higher is performance and consequently, the fewer

is clear that the VSBK technologies would be the right option for cleaner technologies as its score

is lowest. Zig Zag kilns may be the right option

investment and higher production rate and more energy and pollution efficiency. Further, the

Natural Draught Zig Zag Kiln (NDZZK) is more efficient than High Draught Zig Zag (HDZZK).

0

500

1000

5

6

Ru

pe

es

in L

ak

h


29

Fig-5: Financial Performance

Conclusion and Recommendations



emissivity causing pollution. The sector still relies on low-cost manual


small scale in nature with financial constraints. It uses top soil as raw material which


Table No 4. The Fig 6 shows the composite score. The lower is the

score the higher is performance and consequently, the fewer are constraints or vice versa. Thus, it


is lowest. Zig Zag kilns may be the right option for substitution of FCBTK because of low capital

her production rate and more energy and pollution efficiency. Further, the


5

8

13

22

3264

380

35

40

600

35

6

6

1020

2535

90400

4045

640

40

Production Cost

December, 2015



cost manual


small scale in nature with financial constraints. It uses top soil as raw material which is


shows the composite score. The lower is the

are constraints or vice versa. Thus, it


for substitution of FCBTK because of low capital

her production rate and more energy and pollution efficiency. Further, the


Minimum

Maximum

In India, about 72 % kilns are Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench (FCBTK) which is ranked 6

performance. Movable Chimney Bull's Trench Kiln has been banned in India in 1996. The other

traditional kilns are more inefficient and should be banned. The Tunnel kiln is more capital

intensive and it requires more mechanization. Thus, it may take lots of

The VSBK would be the best choice but it has low productivity, unavailability of very high quality

of clay and limited market make it unpopular.

Finally, the present study recommends for adopting the following measures for cl

efficient kiln technologies in India

• The initiative should be taken to encourage for adopting Zig Zag and VSBK technologies.

• Encouragement should be given to the kiln owners to use fly ash instead of top soil.

• Brick production should be

bricks etc.

• The policy should be framed for using more renewable energy.

• Proper environmental monitoring should be ensured by the government.

• Last but not least the traditional processes of brick

and replaced by modern technologies.

Fig

164.5 162.0 158.5

0.0

50.0

100.0

150.0

200.0

Co

mp

osi

te S

core

Gross performance of Brick Kilns


30

In India, about 72 % kilns are Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench (FCBTK) which is ranked 6

erformance. Movable Chimney Bull's Trench Kiln has been banned in India in 1996. The other


intensive and it requires more mechanization. Thus, it may take lots of time to popularize in India.


of clay and limited market make it unpopular.

Finally, the present study recommends for adopting the following measures for cleaner and more

iln technologies in India-

The initiative should be taken to encourage for adopting Zig Zag and VSBK technologies.

Encouragement should be given to the kiln owners to use fly ash instead of top soil.

Brick production should be diversified like the production of hollow bricks, perforated

The policy should be framed for using more renewable energy.

Proper environmental monitoring should be ensured by the government.

Last but not least the traditional processes of brick making technologies should be banned

and replaced by modern technologies.

Fig-6: Gross Performance of Brick Kilns

158.5

125.0148.0

111.0

93.5 97.069.0 82.0

92.5

58.0

Gross performance of Brick Kilns

December, 2015

In India, about 72 % kilns are Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench (FCBTK) which is ranked 6th

in

erformance. Movable Chimney Bull's Trench Kiln has been banned in India in 1996. The other


time to popularize in India.


eaner and more

The initiative should be taken to encourage for adopting Zig Zag and VSBK technologies.

Encouragement should be given to the kiln owners to use fly ash instead of top soil.

diversified like the production of hollow bricks, perforated

making technologies should be banned


31

Table 4: Composite Scores of Brick Kiln Performance

Technology 1. Emissions( g/kg of fired brick)

2.Specifi

c

Energy

( MJ/Kg

fired

Brick)

3.Specific

Coal

(Tons/1000

Bricks)

4.Quantity of Fuel Required

(Tons/1000 Brick)

CO2 BC SPM SO2 CO SEC Min Max

Wood /

biomass Coal

Diesel/

Kerosene

A. i.a) Clamp 10 10 10 10 10 12.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 8.0 8.0

A.i.b) Scove 10 10 10 10 10 10.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 11.0 10.5

A. i.c) Scotch 10 10 10 10 10 9.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 11.0 10.5

A. i.) DDK 9.0 8.0 9.0 1.0 9.0 11.0 7.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 9.0

B.i.a) MCBTK 8.0 9.0 8.0 9.0 6.5 8.0 4.0 8.0 9.0 9.0 12.0

B.ii.b) FCBTK 6.0 7.0 7.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 9.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

B.iii.a) Original Hoffmann 5.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0

B.iii.b) Modern Hoffmann 2.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0

B.iv.a ) NDZZK 3.5 3.5 2.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 3.0

B.iv.b) HDZZK 3.5 2.0 3.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 5.0 4.0

B.v) Tunnel Kiln 7.0 3.5 3.5 8.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 5.0

B.vi) VSBK 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Contd..........

Technology 5. Product Quality (%)

6. Annual Production

(million Bricks/year)

7. Production Cost

(Lakh) Composite

Score Good Inferior Sludge Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

A. i.a) Clamp 11.5 10.5 11.5 10.0 10.0 1.0 1.0 164.5

A.i.b) Scove 9.0 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.0 1.0 1.0 162.0

A. i.c) Scotch 8.0 8.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 3.0 3.0 158.5

A. i.) DDK 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 9.0 4.0 4.0 125.0

B.i.a) MCBTK 11.5 10.5 11.5 7.0 7.0 5.0 5.0 148.0

B.ii.b) FCBTK 10.0 12.0 5.0 3.0 3.0 6.0 6.0 111.0

B.iii.a) Original Hoffmann 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.5 10.0 10.0 93.5

B.iii.b) Modern Hoffmann 2.5 3.0 5.0 1.5 2.0 11.0 11.0 97.0

B.iv.a ) NDZZK 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.5 7.5 7.5 69.0

B.iv.b) HDZZK 7.0 7.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 9.0 9.0 82.0

B.v) Tunnel Kiln 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.5 1.0 12.0 12.0 92.5

B.vi) VSBK 2.5 1.0 9.5 5.0 8.0 7.5 7.5 58.0

Source: Compiled by the authors


32

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