Genetics Unit 7 General Biology. Chromosome Number The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance – genes...
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Genetics Unit 7 General Biology. Chromosome Number The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance – genes are located in specific positions on chromosomes. Homologous
Chromosome Number The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance genes
are located in specific positions on chromosomes. Homologous
Chromosomes chromosomes come in pairs, one from the male parent and
one from the female parent.
Slide 3
Gene Map
Slide 4
Chromosome Number Diploid a cell that contains both sets of
homologous chromosomes. (2N) Diploid cells contain two complete
sets of chromosomes and two complete sets of genes (one set from
each parent). Haploid a cell only containing one set of
chromosomes. (N)
Slide 5
Meiosis Meiosis a process of reduction division in which the
number of chromosomes is cut in half through separation of
homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell. Meiosis takes place in
two distinct divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
Slide 6
Meiosis Interphase cells undergo DNA replication, forming
duplicate chromosomes during the S phase. Meiosis I Prophase I each
chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome to
form a tetrad. Crossing over occurs in prophase I. Metaphase I
chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and attach to spindle
fibers. Anaphase I spindle fibers pull chromosomes toward opposite
ends of the cell. Telophase I and Cytokinesis nuclear membrane
reforms and the cell divides into two cells.
Slide 7
Meiosis I Crossing Over in prophase I, homologous chromosomes
exchange portions of their chromatids. This produces new
combination of alleles and allows for more genetic variation.
Slide 8
Meiosis I
Slide 9
Meiosis Meiosis II Prophase II meiosis I resulted in two
haploid daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the
original cell. Metaphase II the chromosomes line up in the middle
of the cell. Anaphase II sister chromatids are separated and move
toward opposite ends of the cell. Telophase II and Cytokinesis
nuclear membranes form and meiosis II results in four haploid
daughter cells.
Slide 10
Meiosis II
Slide 11
Gamete Formation In male animals, meiosis results in four
equal-sized gametes called sperm.
Slide 12
Gamete Formation In many female animals, only one egg results
from meiosis. The other three cells, called polar bodies, are
usually not involved in reproduction.
Slide 13
Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis results in the production
of two genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis
produces four genetically different haploid cells. The physical
processes that occur during meiosis II is identical to the physical
processes that occur during mitosis.
Slide 14
Gregor Mendel Gregor Mendel is known as the father of genetics.
In 1866, he published his findings on the method and mathematics of
inheritance in garden pea plants. Pea plants reproduce by
self-fertilization. Self- fertilization occurs when a male gamete
within a flower combines with a female gamete in the same flower.
Mendel discovered that pea plants could be easily cross-
pollinated. As Mendel bred his pea plants, he analyzed his results
using mathematics to form hypotheses concerning how traits were
inherited.
Slide 15
Flower Anatomy
Slide 16
Genetics The passing of traits from one generation to the next
is called inheritance, or heredity. Genetics is the study of
heredity.
Slide 17
The Inheritance of Traits Mendel noticed that certain varieties
of garden pea plants produced specific forms of a trait, generation
after generation (like yellow and green seeds). To begin to
understand how the traits were inherited, he used
cross-pollination: Transferring male gametes from a true-breeding
green- seed pea plant to the female organ of a flower from a
true-breeding yellow-seed pea plant. He called this parent
generation, the P generation.
Slide 18
The Inheritance of Traits The offspring of the P cross, called
the F 1 generation, all had yellow seeds Why didnt any of have
green seeds if one of the parents had green seeds??? Mendel allowed
the F 1 generation to self-fertilize and the offspring of the F 2
generation had mostly yellow seeds, but some green seeds too How
did the green seeds reappear in the F 2 generation???
Slide 19
Slide 20
Conclusions From The Experiment There must be two forms of the
seed-color trait in the pea plants (yellow and green) These are
called alleles, or difference forms of a single gene/trait The
gene/trait: seed color Alleles: green or yellow Based on his
observations, he decided that some alleles must be dominant over
others. We called the allele that gets masked recessive.
Slide 21
Representing Alleles Alleles that are dominant are represented
with capital letters. Alleles that are recessive are represented by
the same letter as the dominant allele for the trait, just lower-
case. For example: If yellow seeds are dominant over green seeds.
The dominant allele, yellow seeds: Y The recessive allele, green
seeds: y
Slide 22
You try In pea plants, if round seeds are dominant over
wrinkled seeds The dominant allele, round seeds: The recessive
allele, wrinkled seeds: In pea plants, if tall stems are dominant
over short stems The dominant allele, tall stems: The recessive
allele, short stems:
Slide 23
Homozygous and Heterozygous Remember that each offspring has an
allele for each trait from both parents. If both alleles are the
same, we say that the offspring is homozygous for that trait. YY
(homozygous dominant) yy (homozygous recessive) If the two alleles
are different, we say that the offspring is heterozygous for that
trait. Yy
Slide 24
Genotype and Phenotype The organisms allele pairs (YY, Yy, or
yy) is called its genotype. The observed characteristic or outward
expression (yellow or green) of an allele pair is called the
phenotype.
Slide 25
The Laws During Mendels study of heredity in pea plants, he was
able to develop two laws: 1.Law of Segregation 2.Law of Independent
Assortment
Slide 26
Law of Segregation The law of segregation states that two
alleles for each trait separate during the formation of gametes
(meiosis). During fertilization, two alleles for that trait
unite.
Slide 27
Monohybrid Cross A cross that involves hybrids for a single
trait is called a monohybrid cross. This occurred during the
self-fertilization of Mendels F 1 generation. Yy x Yy
Slide 28
Dihybrid Cross The simultaneous inheritance of two or more
traits in the same plant is a dihybrid cross. Dihybrids are
heterozygous for both traits YyRr x YyRr
Slide 29
Law of Independent Assortment The law of independent assortment
states that a random distribution of alleles occurs during
metaphase I of meiosis as chromosomes align down the center of the
cell. Therefore, the genes of one trait do not influence the genes
of another trait.
Slide 30
Fig. 13-11-1 Possibility 1 Possibility 2 Two equally probable
arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I
Slide 31
Fig. 13-11-2 Possibility 1 Possibility 2 Two equally probable
arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I Metaphase II
Slide 32
Fig. 13-11-3 Possibility 1 Possibility 2 Two equally probable
arrangements of chromosomes at metaphase I Metaphase II Daughter
cells Combination 1Combination 2Combination 3Combination 4
Slide 33
Dr. Reginald Punnett In the early 1900s, he developed what is
known as the Punnett square to predict the possible offspring of a
cross between two known genotypes. Punnett squares can be used to
determine possible genotypes and phenotypes of the cross. These can
be represented as ratios: Genotypic ratio Phenotypic ratio
Slide 34
Using a Punnett square 1.Create a box with 4 squares.
2.Identify the alleles for the trait/gene (T and t). 3.Identify the
genotypes of the individuals being crossed. 4.Place the alleles for
the genotypes in the appropriate places around the box. 5.Fill in
the box by carrying the letter across and down.
Slide 35
Single Factor Cross
Slide 36
Two Factor Cross
Slide 37
Complex Inheritance Patterns Some alleles are neither dominant
nor recessive, and many traits are controlled by multiple alleles
or genes. These types of inheritance patterns are called complex
inheritance patters
Slide 38
Incomplete Dominance Incomplete Dominance one allele is not
completely dominant over another. In incomplete dominance, the
heterozygous phenotype is somewhere in-between the two homozygous
phenotypes.
Slide 39
Codominance Codominance both alleles contribute to the
phenotype. Example: AB blood type
Slide 40
Multiple Alleles Multiple Alleles genes having more than two
alleles. This does not mean that an individual can have more than
two alleles, but it means that more than two possible alleles exist
in a population for a given trait. Example: human blood type (A, B,
AB, O)
Slide 41
Multiple Alleles Human Blood Groups The ABO blood group has
three alleles I A, I B, and i. Alleles I A and I B are codominant.
These alleles produce molecules known as antigens on the surface of
red blood cells. The i allele is recessive to both I A and I B and
produces no antigen.
Slide 42
Multiple Alleles Human Blood Groups
Slide 43
Polygenic Traits Polygenic Traits controlled by two or more
genes. Example: skin color of humanscontrolled by more than 4
different genes
Slide 44
Applying Mendels Principles Mendels principles dont apply only
to plants, but other organisms and humans too. In the early 1900s,
Thomas Hunt Morgan found a model organism to advance the study of
genetics: the common fruit fly. Fruit flies were an ideal organism
for several reasons: They reproduced quickly and had many offspring
Morgan and other biologists learned that Mendels principles applied
not to just pea plants, but all lifesince DNA is universal and
contains genetic information.
Slide 45
Genetics and the Environment The characteristics or phenotypes
of any organisms are not determined solely by the genes it
inherits, but by the interaction between genes and the environment.
Example: Genes may affect a sunflowers height and the color of its
flowers, but these same characteristics are also influenced by
climate, soil conditions, and availability of water.
Slide 46
Karyotype Studies The study of genetic material doesnt involve
genes alone. Scientists also study whole chromosomes by using
images of chromosomes taken during mitosis. A stain is used to
identify or mark identical places on homologous chromosomes. The
pairs of homologous chromosomes are arranged in decreasing size to
produce a diagram called a karyotype.
Slide 47
Karyotype (male or female?)
Slide 48
Slide 49
A pedigree is a diagram that traces the inheritance of a
particular trait through several generations. A pedigree uses
symbols to illustrate the inheritance: Males are represented by
squares Females are represented by circles One who expresses a
trait is dark or filled One who doesnt express the trait in
unfilled One who is a carrier is half shaded (heterozygous)only
done in recessive disorders Pedigree Charts
Slide 50
A horizontal line between two symbols shows that these
individuals are the parents of the offspring listed below them.
Offspring are listed below them, oldest on the left to youngest on
the right. A numbering system is used in which Roman numerals
represent generations and Arabic numbers are used to describe birth
order. Pedigree Charts
Slide 51
Pedigree
Slide 52
A pedigree shows an individuals phenotype You can analyze a
pedigree to infer genotypes and whether the trait that is being
inherited is a recessive or dominant genetic disorder Pedigrees are
useful if good records have been kept within families. It allows
genetic disorders in future offspring to be predicted. Analyzing
Pedigrees
Slide 53
View the pedigree below. Is this disorder dominant or
recessive? Dominant or Recessive Disorder?
Slide 54
View the pedigree below. Is this disorder dominant or
recessive? Dominant or Recessive Disorder?
Slide 55
Genetic Disorders: Recessive Disorders Many disorders seen in
humans are caused by genetics. A recessive disorder is expressed
when the individual is homozygous recessive for the trait. An
individual that is heterozygous for a recessive disorder, and
therefore doesnt express it, is called a carrier.
Slide 56
Recessive Disorders
Slide 57
Genetic Disorders: Dominant Disorders Not all disorders are
caused by recessive inheritance. Some are cause by dominant
alleles. Dominant disorders are not present in individuals that are
homozygous recessive for the trait.
Slide 58
Understanding Genetic Disorders through Genetics
Counseling
Slide 59
Meiosis and Nondisjuction Recall, that meiosis is the process
used to form gametes (Diploid cell haploid cells) During meiosis I,
homologous chromosomes are separated. During meiosis II, sister
chromatids are separated. If homologous chromosomes or sister
chromatids dont separate properly during meiosis, this is known as
nondisjunction.
Slide 60
Nondisjunction
Slide 61
Slide 62
Downs Syndrome Trisomy 21 Characteristics of the disorder:
Distinctive facial features Short stature Heart defects Mental
disability
Slide 63
Sex Determination Your gender is inherited based on your 23 rd
pair of chromosomes, called sex chromosomes. 2 types: X and Y XX =
female XY = male The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called
autosomes.
Slide 64
Sex-Linked Inheritance Sex-Linked Genes genes located on the
sex chromosomes are said to be sex-linked. Males have just one X
chromosome, thus all X-linked alleles are expressed in males, even
if they are recessive.