General Notion about General Notion about Personality and Psychological Personality and Psychological

Fiches of a Person. Fiches of a Person.

PersonalityPersonality PersonalityPersonality is t is the unique pattern of psychological and he unique pattern of psychological and

behavioralbehavioral characteristics by which each person can becharacteristics by which each person can be distinguished from other people.distinguished from other people.

Personality is fundamental to the study of psychology.Personality is fundamental to the study of psychology. The major systems evolved by psychiatrists and The major systems evolved by psychiatrists and psychologistspsychologists since since Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud to explain human to explain human mentalmental and behavioral processes can be considered and behavioral processes can be considered theoriestheories of personality. of personality.

These theories generally provide ways ofThese theories generally provide ways of describing describing personal characteristics and behavior, establishpersonal characteristics and behavior, establish an an overall framework for organizing a wide range ofoverall framework for organizing a wide range of information, and address such issues as individual information, and address such issues as individual differences,differences, personality development personality development from from birth birth throughthrough adulthood, and the causes, nature, and adulthood, and the causes, nature, and treatment of psychologicaltreatment of psychological disorders.disorders.

Type theory of personalityType theory of personality Perhaps the earliest known theory of personality isPerhaps the earliest known theory of personality is that that

of the Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.),of the Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.), who who characterized human behavior in terms of four characterized human behavior in terms of four temperaments,temperaments, each associated with a different bodily each associated with a different bodily fluid,fluid, or “humor.” The sanguine, or optimistic, type was or “humor.” The sanguine, or optimistic, type was associatedassociated with blood; the phlegmatic type (slow and with blood; the phlegmatic type (slow and lethargic)lethargic) with phlegm; the melancholic type (sad, with phlegm; the melancholic type (sad, depressed)depressed) with black bile; and the choleric (angry) type with black bile; and the choleric (angry) type with yellowwith yellow bile. Individual personality was determined by bile. Individual personality was determined by thethe amount of each of the four humors. amount of each of the four humors.

Hippocrates’ systemHippocrates’ system remained influential in Western remained influential in Western Europe throughout theEurope throughout the medieval and Renaissance medieval and Renaissance periods. Abundant referencesperiods. Abundant references to the four humors can be to the four humors can be found in the plays of Shakespeare,found in the plays of Shakespeare, and the terms with and the terms with which Hippocrates labeled thefour personality types are which Hippocrates labeled thefour personality types are still in common use today. Thestill in common use today. The theory of temperaments theory of temperaments is among a variety of systemsis among a variety of systems that deal with human that deal with human personality by dividing it intopersonality by dividing it into types.types.

TTypology of personality by ypology of personality by William SheldonWilliam Sheldon

A widely popularized (but scientifically dubious)A widely popularized (but scientifically dubious) modern typology of personality was developed in modern typology of personality was developed in thethe 1940s by 1940s by William SheldonWilliam Sheldon, an American , an American psychologist.psychologist.

Sheldon classified personality into three Sheldon classified personality into three categories basedcategories based on body types: the endomorph on body types: the endomorph (heavy and easy-going),(heavy and easy-going), mesomorph (muscular mesomorph (muscular and aggressive), and ectomorphand aggressive), and ectomorph (thin and (thin and intellectual or artistic).intellectual or artistic).

Trait theory of personalityTrait theory of personality A major weakness of Sheldon’s morphological A major weakness of Sheldon’s morphological

classificationclassification system and other type theories in general system and other type theories in general is theis the element of oversimplification inherent in placing element of oversimplification inherent in placing individualsindividuals into a single category, which ignores the fact into a single category, which ignores the fact thatthat every personality represents a unique combination every personality represents a unique combination ofof qualities. Systems that address personality as a qualities. Systems that address personality as a combinationcombination of qualities or dimensions are called trait of qualities or dimensions are called trait theories.theories.

Well-known trait theorist Well-known trait theorist Gordon Allport Gordon Allport (1897-1967)(1897-1967) extensively investigated the ways in which extensively investigated the ways in which traits traits combinecombine to form normal personalities, cataloguing overto form normal personalities, cataloguing over 18,000 separate traits over a period of 30 years. He 18,000 separate traits over a period of 30 years. He proposedproposed that each person has about seven central traits that each person has about seven central traits thatthat dominate his or her behavior. Allport’s attempt to dominate his or her behavior. Allport’s attempt to makemake trait analysis more manageable and useful by trait analysis more manageable and useful by simplifyingsimplifying it was expanded by subsequent researchers, it was expanded by subsequent researchers, who foundwho found ways to group traits into clusters through a ways to group traits into clusters through a processprocess known as factor analysis.known as factor analysis.

Raymond B. Cattell Raymond B. Cattell and and Hans Eysenck Hans Eysenck

Raymond B. Cattell reducedRaymond B. Cattell reduced Allport’s extensive list Allport’s extensive list to 16 fundamental groups of interrelatedto 16 fundamental groups of interrelated characteristicscharacteristics..

Hans Eysenck Hans Eysenck claimed thatclaimed that personality could be personality could be described based on three fundamentaldescribed based on three fundamental factors: factors: psychoticism (such antisocial traits as crueltypsychoticism (such antisocial traits as cruelty and and rejection of social customs), introversion-rejection of social customs), introversion-extroversion,extroversion, and emotionality-stability (also called and emotionality-stability (also called neuroticism).neuroticism). Eysenck also formulated a quadrant Eysenck also formulated a quadrant based on intersectingbased on intersecting emotional-stable and emotional-stable and introverted-extroverted axes.introverted-extroverted axes.

Psychodynamic theory of Psychodynamic theory of personalitypersonality

Twentieth-century views on personality have beenTwentieth-century views on personality have been heavily influenced by the heavily influenced by the psychodynamic approach ofpsychodynamic approach of Sigmund Freud . Freud proposed a three-part Sigmund Freud . Freud proposed a three-part personalitypersonality structure consisting of the structure consisting of the id id (concerned with the gratification(concerned with the gratification of of basic instincts), the basic instincts), the ego ego (which mediates between(which mediates between the demands of the id and the demands of the id and the constraints of society),the constraints of society), and the and the superego superego (through which parental and (through which parental and socialsocial values are internalized). values are internalized).

In contrast to type or traitIn contrast to type or trait theories of personality, the dynamic model proposed theories of personality, the dynamic model proposed byby Freud involved an ongoing element of conflict, and itFreud involved an ongoing element of conflict, and it was these conflicts that was these conflicts that Freud saw as the primary determinantFreud saw as the primary determinant of personality. His psychoanalytic of personality. His psychoanalytic method wasmethod was designed to help patients resolve their conflicts by designed to help patients resolve their conflicts by exploringexploringunconscious unconscious thoughts, motivations, and conflictsthoughts, motivations, and conflicts through the use of through the use of free association free association and other techniques.and other techniques. Another distinctive feature of Freudian Another distinctive feature of Freudian psychoanalysispsychoanalysis is its emphasis on the importance of is its emphasis on the importance of childhood childhood experiencesexperiences in personality formation. in personality formation.

Other psychodynamicOther psychodynamic models were later developed by colleagues and models were later developed by colleagues and followersfollowers of Freud, including of Freud, including Carl JungCarl Jung, , Alfred AdlerAlfred Adler, and , and OttoOtto Rank Rank (1884-(1884-1939), as well as other neo-Freudians such1939), as well as other neo-Freudians such as as Erich FrommErich Fromm, , Karen HorneyKaren Horney, , Harry Stack SullivanHarry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949), and (1892-1949), and Erik EriksonErik Erikson..

Phenomenological theory of Phenomenological theory of personalitypersonality

Another major view of personality developed duringAnother major view of personality developed during the twentieth century is the twentieth century is the phenomenological approach,the phenomenological approach, which emphasizes people’s self- which emphasizes people’s self- perceptions and theirperceptions and their drive for drive for self-actualization self-actualization as determinants of as determinants of personality.personality. This optimistic orientation holds that people are innatelyThis optimistic orientation holds that people are innately inclined inclined toward goodness, love, and toward goodness, love, and creativitycreativity and that the primary natural and that the primary natural motivation motivation is the drive tois the drive to fulfill one’s potential. fulfill one’s potential.

Carl RogersCarl Rogers, the figure whose, the figure whose name is most closely associated with name is most closely associated with phenomenologicalphenomenological theories of personality, viewed authentic experience oftheories of personality, viewed authentic experience of one’s self as the basic component of growth and wellbeing.one’s self as the basic component of growth and wellbeing. This experience This experience together with one’s together with one’s self-conceptself-concept can become distorted when other people can become distorted when other people make the positivemake the positive regard we need dependent on conditions that requireregard we need dependent on conditions that require the the suppression of our true feelings. The suppression of our true feelings. The client-centeredclient-centered therapy therapy developed by developed by Rogers relies on the therapist’sRogers relies on the therapist’s continuous demonstration of continuous demonstration of empathy empathy and and unconditionalunconditional positive regard to give clients the self-confidence to expresspositive regard to give clients the self-confidence to express and act on their true feelings and beliefs. and act on their true feelings and beliefs.

AnotherAnother prominent exponent of the phenomenological approachprominent exponent of the phenomenological approach was was Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow, who placed self-actualization at, who placed self-actualization at the top of his hierarchy the top of his hierarchy of human needs. Maslow focusedof human needs. Maslow focused on the need to replace a deficiency on the need to replace a deficiency orientation, whichorientation, which consists of focusing on what one does not have, with aconsists of focusing on what one does not have, with a growth orientation based on satisfaction with one’s identitygrowth orientation based on satisfaction with one’s identity and capabilities.and capabilities.

Behavioral theory of personalityBehavioral theory of personality

The behaviorist approach views personality as a patternThe behaviorist approach views personality as a pattern of learned of learned behaviors acquired through either classicalbehaviors acquired through either classical (Pavlovian) or operant (Pavlovian) or operant (Skinnerian) (Skinnerian) conditioningconditioning and shaped by and shaped by reinforcement reinforcement in the form of in the form of rewards orrewards or punishmentpunishment. A relatively recent extension of . A relatively recent extension of behaviorismbehaviorism,, the the cognitive-behavioral approach emphasizes thecognitive-behavioral approach emphasizes the role role cognition cognition plays in the plays in the learning process. learning process.

CognitiveCognitive and social learning theorists focus not only on the outwardand social learning theorists focus not only on the outward behaviors people demonstrate but also on their expectationsbehaviors people demonstrate but also on their expectations and their and their thoughts about others, themselves,thoughts about others, themselves, and their own behavior. For example, and their own behavior. For example, one variable in theone variable in the general theory of personality developed by social learn-general theory of personality developed by social learn-ing theorist Julian B. Rotter is internal-external orientation.ing theorist Julian B. Rotter is internal-external orientation. “Internals” think “Internals” think of themselves as controllingof themselves as controlling events, while “externals” view events as largely events, while “externals” view events as largely outsideoutside their control. Like phenomenological theorists, thosetheir control. Like phenomenological theorists, those who take a who take a social learning approach also emphasize people’ssocial learning approach also emphasize people’s perceptions of perceptions of themselves and their abilities (a conceptthemselves and their abilities (a concept called “self-efficacy” by called “self-efficacy” by Albert Albert BanduraBandura). ).

AnotherAnother characteristic that sets the cognitive-behavioral approachcharacteristic that sets the cognitive-behavioral approach apart apart from traditional forms of behaviorism is its focusfrom traditional forms of behaviorism is its focus on learning that takes place on learning that takes place in social situations throughin social situations through observation and reinforcement, which contrasts observation and reinforcement, which contrasts with thewith the dependence of classical and dependence of classical and operant conditioning operant conditioning modelsmodels on on laboratory research.laboratory research.

DDevelopment ofevelopment of personality personality

Aside from theories about personality structure andAside from theories about personality structure and dynamics, a major area of investigation in the study ofdynamics, a major area of investigation in the study of personality is how it develops in the course of a person’spersonality is how it develops in the course of a person’s lifetime. The Freudian approach includes an extensivelifetime. The Freudian approach includes an extensive description of psychosexual development from birth updescription of psychosexual development from birth up to to adulthood. adulthood.

Erik Erikson outlined eight stages of developmentErik Erikson outlined eight stages of development spanning spanning the entire human lifetime, from birth tothe entire human lifetime, from birth to death. In contrast, death. In contrast, various other approaches, such asvarious other approaches, such as those of Jung, Adler, those of Jung, Adler, and Rogers, have rejected the notionand Rogers, have rejected the notion of separate of separate developmental stages.developmental stages.