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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Environmental Pollution is the unfavourable alteration of the
surroundings, wholly or largely as a by-product of man's actions, through direct or
indirect effects of changes in energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical and physical
condition and abundance of organisms. These changes affect man directly or
through his supplies of water and of agricultural and other biological products, his
physical objects or possessions, or his opportunities for recreation and appreciation
of nature [Anandavalli, 1986].
Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation destroy natural water
systems by the discharge of harmful eflluents into them, which bring about
unpredictable and deleterious changes in the fragile environment of the aquatic
organisms. Industries are of great concern and industrialisation contributing to
environmental pollution, especially water pollution, has reached to alarming
proportions. Less than five percent of the industries have provided adequate
measures for the treatment of eftluents and most of them have neglected this
totally (Tripathi and Pandey, 1990).
The water bodies of all sorts, l.e., seas, lakes, estuaries and rivers
have been used as sites for the disposal of wastes by virtue of their apparent
capacity to dilute and disperse the wastes dumped into them. Most of the
industrial eflluents, especially those from chemical industries, react with those
elements in the natural water systems and produce new compounds and new
environmental conditions.
Of the two types of industries, ViZ., dry process industries and
wet process industries, dry process industries cause less pollution because most of
them are engineering and assembling units, where as wet process industries
consume large quantities ofwater. Of the water used by these industries, the major
part is discharged as eflluent water, which gets access to the natural water systems.
1
These effluents are generally discharged into the neighbouring fields, rivers, lakes
and seas. The industrial effluents discharged into the neighbouring fields may even
be utilised for irrigation. Such effluents may contain chemicals that could stimulate
or retard the growth of crops (Rao and Nandkumar, 1981).
Pollution of the soil and water by the effluents is mainly due to toxic
chemicals, acidic and alkaline substances, suspended matter or by deoxygenation.
These affect the physical, chemical and biological factors of soil and water. The
industrial effluents may contain poisonous materialllike acids, alkalies, ammonia,
synthetic detergents, hydrogen sulphide, salts of heavy metals like copper, zinc,
lead, mercury, chromium, cadmium etc. Other pollutants may include dyes, oils,
radio active materials etc. Heat is another aspect of pollution which also seriously
affects the biota.
Today, many of the rivers of the world receive millions of litres of
sewage, domestic wastes, industrial and agricultural effluents with different
concentrations of pollutants. The estuarine systems and finally the seas are destined
to receive these massive loads of pollutants brought by the rivers. Though the vast
seas can, to a certain extent, withstand this immense load ofpollutants, the coastal
estuarine systems and the productive coastal marine waters are the most affected.
The Indian Peninsula has a coast line of over 6000 km. The fisher
folk of our country are dependent, for their livelihood, on the sea and other natural
water bodies. Fish forms the source of protein for a significant percentage of our
people. Majority of the industrial units in India, along the coast, discharge chemical
effluents into the coastal area. All the coastal states have contributed much for
polluting the estuarine and marine environments. A considerable amount of
polluting substances enter the Indian seas annually (Qasim et al., 1988).
Well known as the land of coconut trees, the state of Kerala is
situated on the south west coast of India between latitude 8° 18' and 12° 481 North
and longitude 75° 52' and 77° 2' East. The western ghats on the eastern border
2
protects the state from the hot, dry winds of the eastern plains of the Indian
subcontinent. The Lakshadweep sea on the western boarder has made Kerala a state
with hoary maritime traditions. The coast line of Kerala, extending to about
590 kIn, although highly irregular, exhibit varied and contrasting features like sand
bars, creeks, lagoons, lakes, sounds and cliff sections formed during the geologic
past (Anon, 1988). An outstanding feature of the Kerala coast is the presence of a
network of backwaters called 'Kayals' in the vernacular Malayalam language.
About 30 such Kayals are seen along the coast of Kerala. A few of them are
permanent estuaries, while others belong to the category of temporary estuaries
getting connected to the sea only during the period of heavy rain fall and land
drainage.
There are 44 rivers in Kerala originating from the western ghats.
Of these, three are flowing to the east and merge to the Bay of Bengal and the
remaining 41 are flowing to the west to meet the Lakshadweep sea. Even though
there are 44 rivers and some fresh water lakes in Kerala, scarcity of drinking water
exists. This is due to the fact that the majority of them are polluted. Several million
litres of waste waters are discharged into these water bodies. Of this, a major
portion is being discharged without any treatment, while a minor portion with
partial treatment.
There are over 200 medium and large scale industries and about
2000 small scale industries which contribute to pollution of water bodies in Kerala
(Vijayamohanan, 1991). Approximately two third of the industrial eflluents
generated in the state is discharged into tidal waters. Majority of the industries in
Kerala are located in the banks of the river Periyar near Udyogamandal. These
industries are situated in a narrow zone and this has resulted in the concentration of
the eflluent in a limited area. Mass death of fishes and other aquatic organisms in
this region is common. The ingredients of these waste materials get settled at the
bottom of the river. From there it is carried to other places through canals
(Chandrahasan, 1988).
3
Efiluents from the Gwalior Rayon factory at Mavoor, about 21 km
from Beypore, Kozhikode, has created a pollution hazard in the river Chaliyar.
The pollution problem is especially acute during summer season when little dilution
of the efiluents occurs. A large scale fish mortality was reported by Venkataraman
(1966) which was attributed to highly putressible organic matter creating almost
anaerobic conditions in the river with very low or nil oxygen. The estuary has
been rendered unfit for fishing for a distance of about 22 km from the sea mouth.
The Muvattupuzha river is being polluted by the black liquor
discharged from the Vellur plant of Hindustan Paper Corporation. The Punalur
Paper Mills, formerly discharged large quantities of untreated efiluents into the
Kallada river. The Ashtamudi estuary of Kollam District receives efiluents from
the Lekshmi Starch Factory, Kundara; Parvathy mills, Kollam and several other
industrial units located on the banks of the estuary, in addition to those brought
in by Kallada river.
Available information on the status of water pollution along the
Kerala Coast is very limited (Vijayamohanan, 1991). A few preliminary studies
have been conducted in the vicinity of Cochin, which indicate degradation of marine
environment. The increasing loads of sewage and industrial wastes in the Cochin
estuary have created conditions which are extremely destructive to plants and
animals, (Quasim and Madhupratap, 1981). Azis and Nair (1978) investigated the
nature of pollution in the retting zones of the backwaters of Kerala. The Kerala
State Pollution Control Board had in 1985 studied the water quality in Cochin
Port area and reported that the industrial efiluents in the Cochin estuary have
created conditions which are harmful to animals (Vijayamohanan,1991). The
effects of industrial pollution ofthis area are clearly seen in the form of depletion of
biota especially benthic organisms, fish mortality and presence of ammonia in water
(Ouseph, 1988). Some information is also available with regard to the degradation
of the Beypore estuary. Studies on the residual mercury in the sediment of
Beypore estuary showed higher values (Muraleedharan Nair, 1994). Pollution
4
tolerant and indicator species of the benthos ofBeypore estuary had been reported
by Saraladevi (1994).
Limited information is also available from other estuarine tracts
and fresh water bodies in Kerala. George Abe and Jayakumar (1996) studied the
salinity level in the Muvattupuzha estuary due to the Muvattupuzha valley
irrigation project. Atjunan et al., (1996) worked on the algae in relation to BOD
reduction from starch industry waste in stabilisation ponds. Padma et al., (1996)
studied on the dissolved and sedimented forms of nutrients in the estuarine waters
around the National Thermal Power Corporation site, Kayamkulam, and reported
low values of nitrogen and phosphorus. Marykutty et al., (1996) investigated the
potential effect of fertilizer residue on algae of Kuttanad. Harikumar et al., (1996)
studied the water quality problems related to excess flouride in Alappuzha and
Cherthala regions. Sabu and Azis (1996) studied the variations of phytoplankton
abundance in Peppara reservoir. Dhevendran and Sally (1998) investigated the
bacterial diseases in the polluted Poonthura backwater.
TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY
Titanium dioxide is considered to be the whitest chemical known,
and is mainly used in paint industry. Titanium dioxide crystals are extremely minute
and can reflect almost all the rays ofthe visible spectrum. The crystals have the size
of 0.2 to 0.3J..l diameter. A very small quantity of titanium dioxide can spread to a
comparatively larger area. It is also extensively used in so many other industries
like rubber, textile, synthetic fibres, ceramics, paper and linoleum. Titanium dioxide
also acts as the base material for the extraction of Titanium metal for the
aeronautics and defence industries. The major portion of the chemical is used in
the paint industry (Pickaver, 1982). Titanium dioxide powder is an ideal addition
to paint due to the special surface properties of its pure white crystals. The non
toxic and fine structured chemical with its specifYing character makes face powder
ultrafine. The same property also makes the foundation creams inconspicuously
5
light. The application of Ti02 as a whitener replaced the highly hazardous lead
based derivatives which had previously been added to paints (Pickaver, 1982).
The ores used for the separation of titanium dioxide pigment are
ilmenite and rutile. Ofthe total ore resources of the pigment in the world, 12% is
in India. Ilminite was first discovered in Russia. 5 million tonnes are being mined
every year there. The world resources of these ores are spread over Australia,
America, Canada, Norway, Finland, Malaysia and India. The major exporter of
Ilmenite is Australia.
In India, the ores are distributed along the coasts of Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and West Bengal. Of the total Indian ore resources
(Dhanunjaya Rao et a/., 1989) 133 tonnes are estimated to be ilmenite and 7 million
tonnes rutile.
As per the estimates of Atomic Energy Commission, New Delhi, in
Kerala, along the coasts of Neendakara, Chavara and Kayamkulam of Kollam
District, there is a deposit of 17.5 million tonnes of ilmenite and 1.2 million tonnes
of rutile, spread over an area of 405 hectares ( Sachdeva, 1989). These ores are
more less in the superficial layer of the earth's crust. The ilmenite ores of Chavara
contain about 60% of titanium dioxide, which is the richest ilmenite ore found in
the world. In the rutile ore, the amount of titanium dioxide comes around 90-95%.
The other rare earths obtained from the ores of this area are monazite, zircon,
leucuxenes, silliminite etc.
It is estimated that a Titanium Dioxide Plant with a capacity to
produce 72 tonnes per day can function continuously for 60-70 years with the ores
obtained from this area alone. There are two methods for the production of Ti02
from their ores. The first method uses sulphuric acid and the second method uses
chlorine. Better quality products and higher profits are ensured by the second
method and hence it is being adopted by the modem units in the different parts of
the world.
6
The industrial production of titanium dioxide had begun way back in
the beginning of the twentieth century in Norway and America. Today the titanium
pigment has replaced almost all the other white pigments. The yearly per head
consumption of the product in America is 4830 g while it is only 91 g in India.
Even for such a low consumption the pigment had been importing completely till
the establishment of the first Titanium Dioxide Industry about 5 decades ago, in
Trivandrum, Kerala. Travancore Titanium Products (TTP), Trivandrum was the
sole manufacturer of titanium dioxide in India, till the second major Titanium
Dioxide Pigment Plant started functioning at Sankaramangalam in 1984.
Mis. F.X. Pereira and Sons (Travancore) Pvt. Ltd. were the
pioneers who established the first full fledged mineral separation industry in Chavara
area way back in 1932 using the dry separation process. They were mining and
separating the mineral sands into the various constituents like ilmenite, rutile,
leucoxene, silliminite, zircon and monazite. The first three, viz., ilmenite, rutile and
leucoxene are titanium bearing minerals and hence used for the manufacture of
titanium dioxide pigment and titanium sponge metal.
This firm was taken over by the state government of Kerala in 1972
and renamed as The Kerala Minerals and Metals Ltd. (KMML). The company
received a letter of indent in 1974 for the production of titanium dioxide pigment
(TiOz) using the cWoride technology.
KMML entered into technical collaboration with Mis. Benelite
corporation and Mis Kerr Molayee Chemical Corporation of U.S.A. and
Mis. Woodall Duckham of U.K. for the supply of basic technology for the above.
The Metallurgical and Engineering Consultants (India) Ltd. (Mecon), a Government
ofIndia undertaking did the detailed engineering.
The Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant construction was started in
1979 and commissioned in December 1984. It is one of the few such pigment plants
7
in the world based on the more recent chlorination-cum-oxidation route. The main
toxic and or flammable chemicals stored, handled or processed in this factory are
chlorine, liquid petroleum gas, liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, titanium tetra
chloride, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, caustic soda, methanol etc.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Titanium dioxide pigment manufacturing process of KMML based
on chloride technology consists of the following steps:
1. Reduction and leaching of the raw ilmenite containing 55-60% TiOz to obtain
beneficated ilmenite of90-92% TiOz content (ilmenite benefication).
2. Regeneration of spent hydrochloric acid.
3. Conversion of beneficated ilmenite into TiOz pigment (chlorination, oxidation
and finishing)
1. Dmenite Benefication Plant (ffiP)
Raw ilmenite containing 55-60% TiOz is beneficated to 92% TiOz
which is the raw material for the pigment production plant. The ferric oxide in
raw ilmenite is first subjected to high temperature reduction to ferrous oxide in
presence of lecofines in a rotary roaster at a temperature of 850°C and the reduced
ilmenite is then cooled to 50°C. The cooled reduced ilmenite is sent to the digesters
where it is leached with 18-20% HCI. During leaching the ferrous oxide and other
impurities are dissolved in HCI. The spent leach liquor is sent to the storage tanks.
The leached ilmenite after washing and filtering is calcined at 550°C to remove
moisture and volatile matter. This calcined product is the beneficated ilmenite.
Chemical reactions ofthe reduction and leaching process are :
2C+Oz ~2CO
2CO + Oz ~ 2COz
COz+C ~2CO
FeZ03 + 2HCI ~ 2FeO + COz
FeO + 2HCI ~ FeCh + HzO
FeZ03 + 6HCI ~ 2FeCh + 3Hz
8
2. Acid Regeneration Plant (ARP)
This plant is designed to regenerate HCI from spent leach liquor
containing some free HCI and metallic chlorides obtained from the digesters after
leaching. The spent leach liquor from the pre-concentrator is processed in a spray
roaster in which the liquid spray entering the furnaces heated by fuel oil decomposes
to metal oxides and HCl. The HCI vapour is first cooled in the pre-concentrator
and then absorbed in the wash water generated in the IBP to get. 18% HCI, which
is recycled back to IBP:-
2FeCh + 2H20 + 'l1 O2 ---+ Fe203 + 4HCI
2FeCh + 3H20 ---+ Fe203 + 6HCI
3. Pigment Production Plant (PPP)
Pigment production plant consists of three units, namely:
1. Chlorination plant
ii. Oxidation plant
iii. Pigment surface treatment and finishing plant.
i. Chlorination Plant
In this plant, beneficated ilmenite from IBP is chlorinated to produce
TiC4. Chlorine reacts with Ti02 and other metallic oxide impurities in the
beneficated ilmenite in the presence of petroleum coke at a temperature of about
900°C in a fluidised bed chlorinator to produce chloride of titanium and other
impurity metals. The chlorides of the impurity metals are removed and TiC4 is
condensed in crude form. This TiC4 is further purified to obtain pure TiC4 liquid
which is stored in the storage vessels.
Ti02 (Impure) + 2Ch + C ---+ TiCl4 + CO2
Ti02 (Impure) + 2C + 2Ch ---+ TiC4 + 2CO
ii. Oxidation Plant
In this plant TiC4 is vapourised, pre-heated and oxidised with
oxygen to produce raw Ti02 at a temperature of about, 1080°C. The raw Ti02
9
obtained from this plant is slurried with H20 and· pumped to storage tanks for
surface treatment in the finishing plant. The chlorine liberated while oxygen reacted
with TiC4, as shown in the following equation, is recycled back to the chlorination
unit.
iii. Surface Treatment and Pigment Finishing Plant
The Ti02 slurry from oxidation unit storage tanks is pumped to the
treatment and finishing unit for sand milling, classification, surface treatment,
filtration, washing, drying and micronisation. In the treatment section Ti02 pigment
is surface treated with various chemicals such as sodium aluminate and sodium
silicate. The optimum particle size ofTi02 pigment (0.28 micron) is obtained by
micronising the filtered, washed and dried pigment. The micronised product is
bagged in paper bags of25 kg capacity.
The production capacity of the plant IS 72 tonnes per day
(22000 MTA), when it was commissioned in 1984. The yearly actual production
for the last eleven years from 1984-85 to .1994-95 is given in Table-l (personal
communication).
Table-I Yearly production data from 1984-85 to 1994-95
Year Production (MTA)
1984-85 1459.001985-86 4443.751986-87 4646.001987-88 6860.001988-89 9250.001989-90 . 5150.001990-91 9000.751991-92 10011.001992-93 9652.501993-94 14707.001994-95 18042.00
10
Most of the research on the effect of titanium dioxide eflluents on
the biology of aquatic organisms had been done abroad. Redfield and Walford
(1951) and Ketchum et al., (1958) had reported the harmful effects of titanium
dioxide eflluent during the disposal in the Atlantic ocean by United States factories.
Kinne and Rosenthal (1967) conducted experiments on the effects of sulphuric acid
water pollutants on fertilization, embryonic development and larvae of the herring,
Clupea harengus. They incubated the eggs in the presence of the waste under
laboratory conditions. Halsband (1968) and Kinne and Schumann (1968) separately
carried out laboratory tests which demonstrated toxic effects on adult fish which
were dependent upon the concentration ofFeS04.
Physical and chemical investigations on marine pollution by wastes
of a titanium dioxide factory by Weichart (1972) revealed a reduction in the pH of
the sea water and marked increase in the CO2 partial pressure. The ferrous
sulphate increases the iron concentration, and the Fe2+ is oxidised to Fe3+ and
precipitated as hydroxide. This reaction caused an oxygen deficit in the water.
Rachor (1972) studied the influence of industrial waste containing H2S04 and
FeS04 on the bottom fauna offHelgoland (German Bight). The animals observed,
produced mucus substance and showed iron flakes affixed to the mucus, and some
tests of the gut content of polychaets indicated a high proportion of iron shares.
Long term laboratory experiments were conducted by Winter (1972) on the
influence of Ferric hydroxide flakes on the filter feeding, behaviour, growth, iron
content and mortality in Mytilus edulis L. At higher application of the Fe(OH)2
flakes, the total amount of ferric hydroxide flakes was disposed of as pseudo
faeces. At higher concentrations the shell movements were clearly associated with
frequent ejections oflarge quantities of pseudo-faeces. The dry weight of soft parts
decreases with increasing application of ferric hydroxide flakes. Ferric hydroxide
flakes caused 75% mortality of animals within three months.
Field investigations have shown that the eflluent is deleterious to
bottom dwelling organisms and to the fishes (Seppanen and Shemmikka, 1972).
11
George et al., (1973) conducted laboratory studies on the effects of acid waste on
copepods and found that substantial mortality of copepods occurred at
concentration of acid waste producing pH of approximately 6.5 and lower.
Nespital (1973) and Rachor and Dethlefsen (1973) independently
demonstrated that the concentration of iron in the sea water increases at TiOz
dump sites. Wilson and White (1974) kept flounders (Platiehthysjlesus) in cages
in Hamber estuary where the TiOz industrial effluent is discharged, and noted the
mortality. The acute toxicity of the effluent to various aquatic organisms, both
vertebrates and invertebrates, have been tested by Baggie and TIus, 1975. They
showed that the diluted acid in situ after dumping is still strong enough to dissolve
phytoplankton, kill zooplankton and causes a major shift in the buffer system.
Viopio and Neimisto (1975) in laboratory studies showed that the
perch (Perea fluviatilis) and white fish (Coregonus lavaretus) died after 96 hours
incubation at various concentrations of the effluent. They demonstrated that even
at a distance of 12 km from the point of discharge at Vourikemia in Finland, death
occurred when bottom dwelling species were used. Lehtinen (1975) reported that
upto a distance of 25 km and including an area of 250 km-z, herring catches in the
Baltic sea were reduced by 50% and bottom dwelling fish were absent. The reason
was attributed to the floating ferric hydroxide. Isotalo and Hakkila (1978) reported
that the Fe(OH)3 precipitate that forms as a result of dilution has negative effects
which appear gradually and bring about changes in the local fauna. The work of
Hakkila et aI., (1978) shows that Fe(OH)3 was found absorbed to the shell of the
marine bivalve Maeoma baliea. A direct correlation was obtained between the
amount of ferric hydroxide present, and the degree to which the shell was corroded
and the inability of the mollusc to reproduce. There existed a relationship between
the concentration of TiOz, and overall species variety and biomass, i.e., increase in
waste concentration leading to decrease in species number and biomass. Karjala
(1980) caught flounders with gill precipitates from a TiOz factory waste dumping
area. Larson et al., (1980) while investigating the biochemical and haematological
12
effects of a titanium dioxide industrial eftluent on fish found that the eftluent caused
significant dose-dependent reductions of sodium chloride concentrations as well as
the osmolality in the blood plasma. The blood glucose and blood lactate level also
increased. Increased values of haematocrit, haemoglobin content and number of
erythro blasts were also noted.
Lehtinen (1980) worked on the effects on fish exposed to eftluents
from a titanium dioxide industry and tested with rotary flow technique. He
displayed a statistically significant decrease in ability to compensate for torque in
the rotating current. The most viable effect of the eftluent was a brown precipitate
on the gills.
Milligan and Wood (1982) while studying the disturbances in
haematology, fluid volume, distribution and circulatory function associated with low
environmental pH in the rainbow trout, Salma giardneri observed a progressive
increase in heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure and haematocrit. Jarvinen (1982)
linked the effect of Fe(OH)3 to a disease of the eye in herring. Lehtinen and
Klingstedt (1983) have demonstrated that the gill precipitate also co-precipitated
with sulphur, potassium, phosphorus and calcium which interfere with the gaseous
exchange of the gills. He stated that the uptake of the metals on to the gill tissue is
temperature dependent with more being precipitated at lower temperatures.
Dethlefsen (1985) reported that since 1969, 45000 to 750000 tonnes
of wastes from titanium dioxide production were annually dumped into an area off
twelve nautical miles north west of the island of Helgoland within the central
German Bight of the Southern North sea. Increased heavy metal concentrations in
sea-water, sediments and epidermal tissue of dab (Limanda limanda) on the one
hand and increased prevalances of dab aftlicted with epidermal papilloma on the
other hand were found in the vicinity of the dumping area of wastes of titanium
dioxide production. He found a casual relationship existing between elevated
disease rates and the wastes dumped into the sea.
13
Jones et aI., (1987) reported that the fishes were initially hyper
active but become hypoactive with continued exposure in acid stress medium.
Feeding intensity and attraction to food extract were depressed throughout the
exposure period. Haematocrit, protein, cortisol and glucose increased, while
osmolality and Na+ decreased in acid exposed fish. Hughes and Nemcsok (1988)
conducted experiments on the effects of low pH alone and combined with copper
sulphate on blood parameters. They found that acidification significantly
potentiated the toxicity of copper sulphate to fish, causing serious disturbances in
physiological and biochemical processes.
In India, studies on the effects of titanium dioxide industrial
effluents on biota including the aquatic organisms are very scanty. Nair and Rajan
(1974) made some observations on the effect of effluents from the Titanium
Dioxide Factory at Trivandrum on the interstitial fauna. They examined the
magnitude of environmental deterioration and the resultant effects on the sand
microfauna. Rajan and Nair (1974) examined the effect of effluents from
Travancore Titanium Products, Trivandrum on mematodes, archiannelids and
polychaets collected from the sandy beach on varying concentrations. Madhupratap
et aI., (1979) studied the toxicity of effluents from Titanium Dioxide Factory on
certain marine animals. Menon et al., (1979) studied the faunal density and
distribution in a near-shore environment at Trivandrum into which effluents from
the titanium dioxide factory is discharged. Vijayamohanan (1991) held detailed
studies on the effect of effluents from TTP, Trivandrum, on the biology of fishes
and mesofauna. Bijumon et al., (1998) assessed the environmental degradation of
marine ecosystem at Veli due to the discharge of TTP effluents.
With regard to the toxicity of the effluents and their effects, nothing
IS known from India for a cWoride routed titanium dioxide industry. KMML
Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant at Sankaramangalam is the first and the only one of
its kind in India and hence the present study assumes great importance.
14
THE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS OF CHAVARA-PANMANA AREA
SURROUNDING THE KMML TITANIUM DIOXIDE PIGMENT PLANT
The Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant of Kerala Minerals and Metals
Limited, is situated, facing the national high way 47 in between Kollam and
Kayamkulam at Sankaramangalam (9° 5' Lat N; 76° 31 1 Long E) and is 15 kIn
north to Kollam town (Fig. 1). It falls within the Panmana panchayat of
Karunagappally Taluk, Kollam District. Panmana, Thevalakkara, Thekkumbhagom
and Neendakara form the adjoining panchayats in the north, east, south east and
south respectively. The Lakshadweep sea forms the western boundary of the
panchayat. The factory is located on the western side of the national highway and
is in the midst of a thickly populated area. Part of the Trivandrum-Shomur canal
(T.S. canal) in this area is about 1 kIn behind the factory compound and it connects
the main Ashtamudi estuary in the south and the Vatta kayal in the north. The
Vatta kayal forming part of the Ashtamudi estuarine system, falls within Panmana
and Karunagappally panchayats. In between the T.S. canal and the sea there is a
narrow strip of coastal area which is also thickly populated.
Though the Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant of KMML started
functioning only in 1984, serious pollution problems had been raised by the public
and media during the period 1984-1992. It has been pointed out that the pollution
caused by the gaseous and liquid effluents from the factory is grave. The
production oftitanium dioxide from the mineral ilmenite through the chloride route
results in huge quantities of waste liquor consisting of dilute hydrochloric acid and
ferrous chloride.
A portion of the effluent, which is treated to some extent, is pumped
to the sea. The underground pipe which takes out this effluent (hereafter referred
to as effluent I[EF ID opens on the sea wall (Fig. 2), in the sea shore. Estimation
of the rate of flow by standard method showed that the hourly discharge was
33.33(± 12.75)m-3 h-l. The whole area appeared reddish brown due to the
15
1Figure 1 The KMML Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant at Sankaramangalam,
Kollam, ~erala
Figure 2 Effluent I pipe opening to the sea I
deposition of iron salts. Mild discolouration of the sea water was also noticeable
in the shore area. There were not much adverse visible effects along the coast.
Acidic eftluents, other than eftluent I were coming out of the factory
compound through other outlets. There was a well built straight canal with strong
walls on either side (hereafter referred to as eftluent II canal), which runs out of the
factory compound (Fig. 3) on the western side to open to the T.S. canal. The
eftluent (hereafter referred to as eftluent II[EF II]) coming out through this canal
was whitish at times due to the presence of titanium dioxide powder. At times,
there were discharges which were highly toxic resulting in fish mortality in
T.S. canal. The rate of flow was found to be 20(± 7.85)m-3 h-l. The eftluent II
canal opens on the eastern side, after traversing the factory compound and then the
NH through a culvert, to the paddy fields and other wet lands, thus contaminating
the soil and water of the neighbouring areas. Another well built canal (eftluent III
canal) also drained effluent (hereafter referred to as eftluent III[EF III]) from
the factory compou~d on the northern side (Fig. 4) to Vatta kayal which is
1.5 km north of the factory. The rate of eftluent flow was found to be
23.05(± 12.55) m-3 h-l through this canal. The region of the kayal which received
the eftluent appeared brownish and there were signs of pollution. In the eastern
side of the factory, i.e., the highway side, towards the northern side of the factory
compound, there was another outlet which was nothing but an outflow (hereafter
referred to as eftluent IV[EF IV]) from the eftluent neutralisation pond situated
within the factory compound. This outlet channel formed a small pond (eftluent
IV pond) in between the NH and the factory compound (Fig. 5). It is connected
to a sti11larger pond at the eastern side of the NH through a culvert (Fig. 6). Both
these ponds, get access to the nearby fields and water logged areas during monsoon
and post monsoon periods. Thus, the eftluents stored in the neutralisation ponds
within the factory compound had direct access to the surrounding areas. In
addition to these outlets, there were occasional overflow from the eftluent settling
ponds situated towards the north eastern side within the factory compound, to the
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Figure 3 Effluent II canal opening to the T.S. canal
Figure 4 Effiuent III canal within the factory compound - view from outside
Figure 5 Effluent IV pond in between the factory compound andthe national highway
Figure 6 Emuent IV pond (larger) at the eastern side of the national highway'
Figure 7 View of the effluent contaminated a.'ea in summer at the northernside of the factory compound
Figure 8 View of the effluent contaminated area in summer at the northwestern side of the factory compound
nearby areas. When these areas got dried up in summer they also appeared
reddish brown (Fig. 7 and 8). Massive destruction of vegetation was seen in all
these areas showing the lethal nature ofthe eflluents.
The environmental scenario of Chavara-Panmana area was definitely
not the same after the commissioning of the KMML Titanium Dioxide Pigment
Plant at Sankaramangalam as the eflluents had started exerting a pollution load on
T.S. canal, Vatta kayal, the coastal marine waters and on the land and atmosphere
around. The fisher folk who depend on Vatta kayal for their livelihood, complained
that their catch from the kayal has come down to a mere 10% of their normal catch
they had before the functioning of the KMML Titanium Dioxide Pigment Plant
(personal interview). The agricultural area surrounding the factory especially
northern side has turned acidic. The nearby wells of the local residents have already
became useless due to acidity. The agricultural loss to the nearby residents were
enormous during the period 1984-1992, due to the over flow of the eflluents from
the settling ponds inside the factory compound (apart from EF IV mentioned earlier
there is no overflow now as on December 1997, as one more eflluent settling pond
has been newly constructed). During the occasions of overflow and loss of
agricultural crops, the factory management used to settle the issue by compensating
the farmers (personal interview).
Thus it is evident that the eflluents from the KMML Titanium
Dioxide Pigment Plant at Sankaramanagalam pose grave environmental problems
which affect the local biota directly and indirectly. Hence, a detailed investigation
was carried out to elucidate the magnitude of environmental deterioration caused
by the eflluents discharged into the surrounding water bodies and on land. The
present research work was carried out for a period of three years starting from
October, 1992. The whole investigation is presented in four parts.
Part I deals with the analysis of the four eflluents to find out their
physicochemical characteristics and assess the toxicity. The analysis was done on
a montWy basis for a period of2 years from October, 1992 to September, 1994.
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