Gene Patents and Collaborative Licensing Modelsassets.cambridge.org/97805218/96733/frontmatter/9780521896733_front... · The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food

Gene Patents and Collaborative Licensing Models

Concerns have been expressed that gene patents might result in restricted access to research and health care. The exponential growth of patents claiming human DNA sequences might result in patent thickets, royalty stacking and, ultimately, a ‘tragedy of the anticom-mons’ in genetics.

The essays in this book explore models designed to render patented genetic inventions accessible for further use in research, diagnosis or treatment. The models include patent pools, clearinghouse mecha-nisms, open source structures and liability regimes. They are ana-lysed by scholars and practitioners in genetics, law, economics and philosophy.

The volume looks beyond theoretical and scholarly analysis by conducting empirical investgation of existing examples of collabora-tive licensing models. Those models are examined from a theoretical perspective and tested in a set of operational cases. This combined approach is unique in its kind and prompts well-founded and realistic solutions to problems in the current gene patent landscape.

GEERTRUI VAN OVERWALLE is head of the Research Group ‘Gene Patents and Public Health’ at the Centre for Intellectual Property Rights of the Faculty of Law at the University of Leuven, Belgium. She has recently also been appointed Professor of Patent Law and New Technologies at the Tilburg Institute for Law, Technology and Society at the University of Tilburg, the Netherlands.

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Cambridge Intellectual Property and Information Law

As its economic potential has rapidly expanded, intellectual prop-erty has become a subject of front-rank legal importance. Cambridge Intellectual Property Rights and Information Law is a series of mono-graph studies of major current issues in intellectual property. Each volume contains a mix of international, European, comparative and national law, making this a highly significant series for practitioners, judges and academic researchers in many countries.

Series editorsWilliam R. CornishEmeritus Herchel Smith Professor of Intellectual Property Law, University of CambridgeLionel BentlyHerchel Smith Professor of Intellectual Property Law, University of Cambridge

Advisory editorsFrançois Dessemontet, Professor of Law, University of LausannePaul Goldstein, Professor of Law, Stanford UniversityThe Rt Hon. Sir Robin Jacob, Court of Appeal, England

A list of books in the series can be found at the end of this volume.






Gene Patents and Collaborative Licensing ModelsPatent Pools, Clearinghouses, Open Source Models and Liability Regimes

Edited by

Geertrui Van Overwalle






C A M B R I D G E U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi

Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521896733

© Cambridge University Press 2009

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2009

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Gene patents and collaborative licensing models : patent pools, clearinghouses,

open source models, and liability regimes / [edited by] Geertrui Van Overwalle. p. cm. – (Cambridge intellectual property and information law)

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-521-89673-3 (hardback) 1. Genetics–Patents. I. Overwalle, Geertrui van. II. Series: Cambridge intellectual property

and information law. [DNLM: 1. Genetics–ethics. 2. Genetics–legislation & jurisprudence.

3. Licensure–legislation & jurisprudence. 4. Models, Economic. 5. Patents as Topic–ethics. 6. Patents as Topic–legislation & jurisprudence. QU 33.1 G3256 2009]

QH438.7.G41155 2009 174.2´96042–dc22 2009006845

ISBN 978-0-521-89673-3 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.






v

List of contributors page viiiPreface xxiiiForeword: Jean-Jacques Cassiman xxvList of abbreviations xxix

Part I Patent pools 1

1 Patent pooling for gene-based diagnostic testing. Conceptual framework 3BIRGIT VERBEURE

2 Case 1. The MPEG LA® Licensing Model. What problem does it solve in biopharma and genetics? 33LAWRENCE A. HORN

3 Case 2. The SARS case. IP fragmentation and patent pools 42CARMEN E. CORREA

4 Critical analysis of patent pools 50JORGE A. GOLDSTEIN

Part II Clearinghouses 61

5 Clearinghouse mechanisms in genetic diagnostics. Conceptual framework 63ESTHER VAN ZIMMEREN

6 Case 3. The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). An example of an information clearinghouse 120JAMES L. EDWARDS

7 Case 4. BirchBob. An example of a technology exchange clearing house 125ESTHER VAN ZIMMEREN AND DIRK AVAU

Contents






Contentsvi

8 Case 5. The Public Intellectual Property Resource for Agriculture (PIPRA). A standard license public sector clearinghouse for agricultural IP 135ALAN B. BENNETT AND SAR A BOETTIGER

9 Case 6. The Science Commons Material Transfer Agreement Project. A standard licence clearinghouse? 143THINH NGUYEN

10 Case 7. The collective management of copyright and neighbouring rights. An example of a royalty collection clearinghouse 151JAN CORBET

11 Comment on the conceptual framework for a clearinghouse mechanism 161MICHAEL SPENCE

Part III Open source models 169

12 Open source genetics. Conceptual framework 171JANET HOPE

13 Case 8. CAMBIA’s Biological Open Source Initiative (BiOS) 194NELE BERTHELS

14 Case 9. Diversity Arrays Technology Pty Ltd. (DArT) Applying the open source philosophy in agriculture 204ANDRZEJ KILIAN

15 Critical commentary on ‘open source’ in the life sciences 213ARTI K. R AI

16 Several kinds of ‘should’. The ethics of open source in life sciences innovation 219ANTONY S. TAUBMAN

Part IV Liability regimes 245

17 Pathways across the valley of death. Novel intellectual property strategies for accelerated drug discovery 247ARTI K. R AI, JEROME H. REICHMAN, PAUL F. UHLIR AND COLIN CROSSMAN






Contents vii

18 Case 10. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). The Standard Material Transfer Agreement as implementation of a limited compensatory liability regime 289VICTORIA HENSON-APOLLONIO

19 Critical analysis: property rules, liability rules and molecular futures. Bargaining in the shadow of the cathedral 294DAN L. BURK

Part V Different perspectives 309

20 Gene patents: from discovery to invention. A geneticist’s view 311GERT MATTHIJS AND GERT-JAN B. VAN OMMEN

21 ‘Patent tsunami’ in the field of genetic diagnostics. A patent practitioner’s view 331JACQUES WARCOIN

22 Gene patents and clearing models. Some comments from a competition law perspective 339HANNS ULLRICH

23 Access to genetic patents and clearing models. An economic perspective 350REIKO AOKI

24 The role of law, institutions and governance in facilitating access to the scientific research commons. A philosopher’s perspective 365TOM DEDEURWAERDERE

Part VI Summary and concluding analysis 381

25 Of thickets, blocks and gaps. Designing tools to resolve obstacles in the gene patents landscape 383GEERTRUI VAN OVERWALLE

Index 465






viii

Contributors

REIKO AOKI is Professor at the Institute of Economic Research, Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo, Japan. She received her PhD in eco-nomics from Stanford University. She has published in American Economic Review, International Journal of Industrial Organization, Games and Economic Behaviour, Journal of Economics, Management and Strategy, Journal of Economic Theory and Journal of Japanese and International Economies. Her current research focuses on intellectual property clearing houses and exchanges, patents and other collec tive rights organ izations, technology standards and patents, and historic systems of innovation. She has undertaken research for Japan Patent Office, Japan Fair Trade Commission and the World Health Organization.

DIRK AVAU has a Masters in Science and Engineering and a Masters in Business Administration. He has over 20 years experience in business to business sales in a high-tech environment. Over the years he has built an extensive worldwide network of contacts within the most prestigious organizations. He was researcher at IMEC (microelectronics), held dif-ferent positions in IBM for over ten years and subsequently worked in telecommunications for Belgacom. He has done consulting work for dif-ferent multinational companies and has recently been active in Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Greece and several states in the USA. His expertise is in sales and sales strategies in high-tech environment as well as stra-tegic business management. He is a speaker at various conferences. He can rely on a very broad corporate experience to help define strategies for multinationals to get more value from the sale of high-tech solutions and technologies. At present he is director of Birchbob (www.birchbob.com).

ALAN B. BENNETT is the Associate Vice Chancellor for Research at UC Davis where he manages InnovationAccess, an organization that is responsible for technology transfer, business development and tech-nology-based economic development in the region. He also serves as the founding Executive Director of the ‘Public Intellectual Property Resource for Agriculture (PIPRA)’, an organization comprised of






ixList of contributors

forty-six universities in thirteen countries dedicated to the collective management of intellectual property to support broad commercial and humanitarian uses of agricultural technologies. Bennett earned BSc and PhD degrees in Plant Biology at UC Davis and Cornell University, respectively, and joined the UC Davis faculty in 1983. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and of the California Council for Science and Technology (CCST).

NELE BERTHELS holds an MSc degree in Bio-engineering and a PhD degree in Biochemistry. She studied at the University of Leuven, Belgium and at Stellenbosch University in South Africa. After her stud-ies she worked briefly as a patent advisor. She currently performs inter-disciplinary research at the Center for Intellectual Property Rights and the Center for Human Genetics of KULeuven. Her current research focuses on patenting and licensing in the field of genetic diagnostics and implications on public health provisions. Her work also feeds into the evaluation of collaborative rights mechanisms such as patent pools and clearinghouses, in the field of genetics.

SAR A BOETTIGER is Director of Strategic Planning and Development at PIPRA (The Public Intellectual Property Resource for Agriculture, www.pipra.org). She is an agricultural economist with a background in intellectual property (IP). In addition to her work at PIPRA she publishes in the field of IP law and policy, is a member of the Board of Directors for the Institute of Forest Biotechnology, and works as a consultant for the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Her professional interests are focused on the design and implementation of practical services to support innovation and improve livelihoods in developing countries. Her research interests are in the law and economics of: IP rights and developing countries; open source in copyright and patents; innovative IP sharing mechanisms; US universities’ technology transfer systems; and the strategic use of patents in developed countries. Prior to her work at PIPRA she worked at the University of California Office of the President, Office of Technology Transfer. Sara Boettiger holds a BA, University of Arizona; MSc, University of California, Berkeley and a PhD, University of California, Berkeley.

DAN L. BURK is the Oppenheimer, Wolff & Donnelly Professor of Law at the University of Minnesota, where he teaches courses in Patent Law, Copyright, and Biotechnology Law. An internationally prom-inent authority on issues related to high technology, he is the author of numerous papers on the legal and societal impact of new technolo-gies, including articles on scientific misconduct, on the regulation of






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biotechnology, and on the intellectual property implications of global computer networks. Professor Burk holds a BSc in Microbiology (1985) from Brigham Young University, an MSc in Molecular Biology and Biochemistry (1987) from Northwestern University, a JD (1990) from Arizona State University, and a JSM (1994) from Stanford University. Prior to his arrival at the University of Minnesota, Professor Burk taught at Seton Hall University in New Jersey. From 1991 to 1993 he was a Teaching Fellow at Stanford Law School. He has also taught as a visitor at a variety of prominent institutions, including Cornell Law School, the University of California at Berkeley, the University of Toronto Faculty of Law, University of Tilburg, the Munich Intellectual Property Law Center, and the Program for Management in the Network Economy at the Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Piacenza, Italy.

JEAN-JACQUES CASSIMAN was born on 25 April 1943 in Brussels. After his training as an MD with specialty in Pediatrics, he spent five years at the University of Stanford, CA. Since 1984 he is full Professor of Human Genetics and since 1999, division head of the Center for Human Genetics in Leuven, Belgium. He is director of the laboratory for forensic genetics and molecular archeology and coordinator of EU projects on Cystic Fibrosis. From 1993–9 he was Secretary-General of the European Society of Human Genetics and from 2002 on he is liaison officer for the ESHG to the International Federation of Human Genetics Societies. He is secretary of EPPOSI (European Platform for Patient Organizations, Science and Industry) and vice-president of VIWTA (Flemish Institute for Science and Technological aspects of the Flemish Parliament). He is coordinator of the EU-funded net-work of Excellence EUROGENTEST, which aims at harmonizing and improving the quality of genetic testing in the EU. As from 2007 he is president-elect of the ESHG.

JAN CORBET was born in Antwerp in 1932. Doctor of law, Free University Brussels. Free University of Brussels: lecturer (intellectual property, media law) (1971); professor (1986): emeritus (1997). Belgian society of Authors, Composers and Publishers “SABAM”: legal coun-sel (1980); director, legal department (1975); director general (1983); retired (1997). Chairman, editorial board “Auteurs & Media”, Larcier, Brussels. Publications: “Auteursrecht”, in APR series, Brussels, 1991–2. Contributions in several Belgian legal reviews, among others in “Copyright”, Geneva; Revue internationale du Droit d’auteur, Paris; Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA, New York; Il Diritto di Autore, Milan; Journal of Law and Commerce, Pittsburgh; Temas de Propriedad Intelectual, Coimbra.






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CARMEN E. CORREA graduated as Attorney at Law from the Universidad Santa Maria Law School in Venezuela and received an LLM degree at University of Minnesota Law School, US. She also undertook the Tax Law Specialization at Universidad Central de Venezuela. After some years, she moved to the Netherlands where she studied for a masters in European and International Comparative law at Erasmus University of Rotterdam law school. During her career in Venezuela, Carmen worked as an in-house attorney for two large Venezuelan corporations and in a law firm as an associate in the areas of tax, employment and commer-cial law. After moving to the Netherlands, she worked in ViroNovative and other spin-off companies of ErasmusMC, including ViroScope (formerly CoroNovative). Recently, she moved back to the USA where she works as Contracts Manager for the Office of Industrial Liaison at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City.

COLIN CROSSMAN is a graduate of Duke Law School who has begun work on a PhD on Competitive Biology.

TOM DEDEURWAERDERE is Research Director at the Biodiversity Governance Unit of the Centre for the Philosophy of Law and professor at the Faculty of Philosophy, Université Catholique de Louvain. He is a graduate in polytechnical sciences and philosophy, with a PhD in phil-osophy. He is in charge of the direction of the global public goods sub-network of the European REFGOV network (6th framework program) and the biodiversity sub-network of Belgian Interuniversity network IUAPVI on democratic governance. Recent publications include ‘From bioprospection to reflexive governance’ in Ecological Economics and a special issue on the Microbiological Commons in The International Social Science Journal (fall 2006, vol. 188).

JAMES EDWARDS is the Executive Secretary of the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), an intergovernmental organization devoted to making biodiversity data freely and openly available via the Internet. He is also the Director of the GBIF Secretariat in Copenhagen, Denmark. He received his BSc (1967) and PhD (1976) degrees from the University of California at Berkeley. His research interests are the systematics and functional morphology of amphibians and fishes, and biodiversity informatics. From 1974–6, Dr Edwards was an Instructor in the Biology Department at Queens College of the City University of New York, and from 1976–82 he was an Assistant and Associate Professor in the Zoology Department at Michigan State University. In 1982, he took a position in the Directorate for Biological Sciences at the US National Science Foundation (NSF), which funds






xii List of contributors

the vast majority of non-medical biological research at US colleges and universities. While at the NSF, he served successively as Program Director for several programs (Systematic Biology, Biological Research Resources, Field Stations and Marine Laboratories, and Biotic Surveys and Inventories), as Deputy Division Director for Biotic Systems and Resources, and as Deputy Assistant Director for Biological Sciences. In the latter capacity, he was the second-in-command of a yearly budget of approximately $500 million. Dr Edwards served on several Federal task forces, and was the chair of an interagency steering committee on Biological and Ecological Informatics. He also chaired a working group on Biological Informatics of the Megascience Forum of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which in 1999 recommended the formation of the GBIF. Dr Edwards then chaired the Interim Steering Committee which developed the Memorandum of Understanding for the organization and recruited the requisite number of governmental members and funding to allow it to come into existence in March 2001. Currently, he is on a five-year leave of absence from NSF in order to serve as the Executive Secretary of GBIF.

JORGE A. GOLDSTEIN is presently the Managing Director of Sterne Kessler Goldstein and Fox, PLLC, a 250-person IP law firm in Washington DC. He is the Founder of its Biotech/Chem Practice and co-chair of its Nanotechnology Practice. Dr Goldstein has about twen-ty-seven years of experience in preparing and prosecuting patent appli-cations; contesting interferences, oppositions and arbitrations; litigating in District and Appellate courts, both as counsel and expert witness; and counseling clients on intellectual property portfolio strategies, trade secrets, due diligence, licensing and research agreements, evaluation of patent portfolios, and the IP aspects of mergers and acquisitions. He has lectured extensively on IP topics. Noteworthy among several appel-late cases, in 1988 Goldstein was lead counsel in In re Wands et al. 8 USPQ2d 1400 (Fed. Cir.), a pivotal decision on biotechnology enable-ment and deposit requirements. The Legal Times of Washington, after a poll of clients and peers, chose him twice as a ‘Leading Lawyer’ in Washington DC: In 2003 as one of the top IP Attorneys and again in 2006 as one of the top Life Sciences Attorneys.

VICTORIA HENSON-APOLLONIO has been a Senior Scientist in the Consultative Group on International Research (CGIAR), and the Manager of an office that assists all fifteen International Research Centers of the CGIAR, the Central Advisory Service on Intellectual






xiiiList of contributors

Property, since 2000. She has over sixteen years of experience in IP and technology transfer. She has a BSc in Animal Science and a PhD in Experimental Pathology; both degrees were awarded by the University of Florida. Her dissertation research in immunogenetics was carried out under the supervision of Dr E.K. Wakeland. Her subsequent post-doctoral training in mammalian genetics was performed at the Jackson Laboratory under the supervision of Drs. Joseph Nadeau and George Carlson. Dr Henson-Apollonio was an Assistant and Associate Professor in Biology at Purdue University where she carried out research on the immunobiology of the model fish, the Japanese medaka and Steelhead trout. She was also involved in characterizing the population genet-ics of the introduced alien plant species, purple loosestrife. Victoria was a consultant to the Argonne National Laboratory in the Legal and Technology Transfer Division and worked for Argonne as a Patent Agent, technology transfer specialist, and patent evaluator, for two years before taking her current job with the CGIAR System. She has numerous scientific publications, and has participated in the drafting of many patents in the biotechnology area.

JANET HOPE is an Australian Research Council Postdoctoral Fellow affiliated with the Australian National University’s Regulatory Institutions Network. A qualified biochemist and molecular biologist, she was admitted as a barrister and solicitor of the High Court of Australia in 1997 and spent several years as Counsel to the Australian Government Solicitor. In 2001, she left her constitutional law prac-tice to study for a doctorate in intellectual property law and policy under the supervision of Professor Peter Drahos. In January 2003, while still a PhD student, Dr Hope authored a substantial website on open source biotechnology at http://rsss.anu.edu.au/~janeth. This site now attracts more than a hundred requests for pages per day and has been cited in numerous publications, including The Economist. Dr Hope’s doctoral dissertation, titled ‘Open Source Biotechnology’, was completed in December 2004 and is available online. Her PhD examiners, Professors Yochai Benkler and John Barton, described her dissertation as ‘timely; indeed, ahead of its time’, ‘bringing intellectual order and rigorous analysis to an issue that has hitherto been the basis of speculation’. At RegNet, Dr Hope helps lead a vibrant group of young scholars in the Centre for Governance of Knowledge and Development, headed by Professor Drahos. The work of this centre is diverse, ranging from environmental and social sustainability initiatives to an investigation of the relationship between intellectual property and genetic resources access regimes in Andean countries.






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The group’s common interest is in the interaction between knowledge f lows and development, interpreted broadly to include both capacity building and the lifting of restrictions on the ability of individuals and groups to pursue their own projects.

LARRY HORN is CEO of MPEG LA, world leader in alternative technol-ogy licences enabling users to acquire worldwide patent rights neces-sary for a technology standard or platform from multiple patent owners in a single transaction. Horn has directed MPEG LA’s licensing and business development since the company began operations in 1997. Prior to joining MPEG LA, Horn was Head, Business Development, Marketing and Sales for Martek Biosciences Corporation (1994–97); President and Owner of HKM Corporation (1985–93); Senior Vice President and General Counsel of Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) where he also managed human resources, labour negotiations and con-ference services while the board searched for a new president (1978–85); Attorney with the US Securities and Exchange Commission’s Office of General Counsel (1975–8); with a Washington, DC law firm; and Adjunct Professor of Chinese Law, Georgetown University Law Center (1974–75). Lorn graduated from Yale University (BA, Chinese Studies) and Columbia University (JD) where he was awarded the law school’s highest honour for writing.

RICHARD JEFFERSON obtained a PhD in Molecular Biology at the University of Colorado, followed by an NIH fellowship at the Plant Breeding Institute in Cambridge where he was responsible for creat-ing and distributing amongst the most widely cited and licensed plant biotechnologies. Jefferson is the founding father of CAMBIA, an inter-national non-profit institute based in Australia founded in 1991, and is dedicated to development of tools and enabling technologies to promote equitable life-sciences-enabled innovation worldwide. Richard Jefferson has worked and taught extensively in the developing world, supporting the Rockefeller Foundation’s biotechnology network for over ten years, and has worked as senior staff for the FAO, and consultant for other UN Agencies. He has been profiled in media including The Economist, Newsweek and Nature. Biotechnology and Red Herring. CAMBIA’s work has recently featured in cover editorials in most major life sciences journals. In 2003 he was named by Scientific American in the List of the World’s Fifty Most Influential Technologists, cited as the World Research Leader for 2003 for Economic Development. Richard is an Outstanding Social Entrepreneur of the Schwab Foundation, for which he is a regular panelist at the Davos meetings of the World Economic Forum.






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ANDRZEJ KILIAN is the founder and Director of DArT P/L. He is leading the company, contributing primarily to business and technology develop-ment. A significant part of his role is the promotion of DArT and DArT P/L both in Australia and internationally. He has delivered nearly a hun-dred seminars and presentations, including plenary talks at international conferences. Andrzej’s commitment to the broadest possible delivery of DArT is fulfilled primarily through his efforts towards building the DArT Network. Andrzej is active in graduate and postgraduate educa-tion mainly as a supervisor of several PhD candidates registered at the Australian National University, Charles Sturt University and University of Sydney. After completing his PhD on population genetics of Arabidopsis thaliana at the Silesian University, Poland, Andrzej spent a year (1988) as a Postdoctoral Fellow funded by the FAO/IAEA at the Plant Breeding Institute (PBI) in Cambridge, England. He was working with Dr Mike Gale on comparative RFLP mapping of barley and wheat, contributing to the first indication of extensive RFLP map colinearity among cereals (synteny). While at PBI, he also collaborated with Dr Richard Jefferson in the first field release and analysis of a genetically engineered food crop. After two years (1989–90) as an Assistant Professor of Genetics at Silesian University, Andrzej spent several years as a visiting profes-sor at Washington State University (Andy Kleinhofs lab) in the North American Barley Genome Mapping Program. While in the US, Andrzej cloned barley Telomere Associated Sequences that allowed genetic map-ping of almost all barley telomeres. He was the first to report telomerase activity in plants and to show that the enzyme is developmentally regu-lated. Andrzej’s research in the early 90s provided the first comprehensive proof of microsynteny among cereal genomes. In 1996 Andrzej worked as a Visiting Fellow at the Rice Genome Project in Tsukaba, Japan, continu-ing the research on rice-barley microsynteny.

GERT MATTHIJS (1963, PhD) is the Head of the Laboratory for Molecular Diagnostics at the Center for Human Genetics of the University of Leuven, Belgium. He is a molecular geneticist, involved in the diagnostics of inher-ited diseases since 1994. He became Assistant Professor at the University of Leuven in 1997, Associate Professor in 2000 and Professor in 2003. His major research interest is in Congenital Disorders of Glycosylation (CDG), a group of rare inborn errors of metabolism. He is one of the lau-reates of the Körber European Science Award 2004. At the national level, he has been a driving force for a revision of the reimbursement system for genetic tests. He chairs the Patenting and Licensing Committee of the European Society of Human Genetics (ESHG), but is also actively involved in the European opposition against the BRCA patents.






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THINH NGUYEN is responsible for advising on legal issues relating to Science Commons and for implementing its strategy and operations. He joined Science Commons after working as licensing attorney, and then corporate counsel, for Business Objects, a maker of business intelligence and reporting software. He also worked as licensing attorney for Crystal Decisions, Inc., prior to its acquisition by Business Objects. Before that, he practised as an associate in the Technology Transactions Group of Wilson, Sonsini, Goodrich & Rosati, a Silicon Valley law firm, where his work focused mainly on licensing transactions involving strategic collaborations and joint ventures, particularly in life sciences. Nguyen received a BA in chemistry from Harvard University in 1996 and a JD from Harvard Law School in 1999. He is admitted to practice in California.

ARTI R AI is an expert in patent law, law and the biopharmaceutical industry, and health care regulation. Her recent publications include ‘Open and Collaborative Research: A New Model for Biomedicine’, in Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Biotech and Software (AEI-Brookings Press, 2005); ‘Finding Cures for Tropical Diseases: Is Open Source an Answer?’, Public Library of Science: Medicine (2004) (with Stephen M. Maurer and Andrej Sali); ‘Collective Action and Proprietary Rights: The Case of Biotechnology Research with Low Commercial Value’, in International Public Goods and Transfer of Technology under a Globalized Intellectual Property Regime (Cambridge University Press, 2005); and ‘Engaging Facts and Policy: A Multi-Institutional Approach to Patent System Reform’, 106 Columbia Law Review (2003). Professor Rai joined the Duke Law faculty in 2003. In the fall of 2004, Rai was a Visiting Professor at Yale Law School. Prior to joining Duke, she was on the faculty of the University of Pennsylvania Law School, where she was also a visiting professor in fall 2000. Rai graduated from Harvard College, magna cum laude, with a BA in bio-chemistry and history (history and science), attended Harvard Medical School for the 1987–8 academic year, and received her JD cum laude from Harvard Law School in 1991.

JEROME H. REICHMAN is Bunyan S. Womble Professor of Law at Duke Law School. He has written and lectured widely on diverse aspects of intellectual property law, including comparative and international intel-lectual property law and the connections between intellectual property and international trade law. His articles in this area have particularly addressed the problems that developing countries face in implementing the World Trade Organization’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement). On this and related






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themes, he and Keith Maskus have recently published a book entitled International Public Goods and Transfer of Technology Under a Globalized Intellectual Property Regime (Cambridge University Press 2005). Other recent writings have focused on intellectual property rights in data; the appropriate contractual regime for online delivery of computer pro-grams and other information goods; and on the use of liability rules to stimulate investment in innovation. His most recent articles are: ‘The Globalization of Private Knowledge Goods and the Privatization of Global Public Goods’ (co-authored with Keith Maskus), 7 Journal of International Economic Law 279–320 (2004); ‘A Contractually Reconstructed Research Commons for Scientific Data in a Highly Protectionist Intellectual Property Environment’ ( co-authored with Paul Uhlir), 66 Law and Contemporary Problems 315–462 (2003); and Using Liability Rules to Stimulate Local Innovation in Developing Countries: Application to Traditional Knowledge (with Tracy Lewis) in International Public Goods and Transfer of Technology Under a Globalized Intellectual Property Regime (2005). Professor Reichman serves as special advisor to the United States National Academies and the International Council for Science (ICSU) on the subject of legal protection for databases. He is a consultant to numerous intergovernmental and nongovern-mental organizations; a member of the Board of Editors, Journal of International Economic Law; and on the Scientific Advisory Board of il Diritto di Autore (Rome).

MICHAEL SPENCE is Vice-Chancellor and Principal of the University of Sydney. He is a consultant to the London law firm, Olswang. Michael has a comparative perspective on the law of intellectual property. His work includes articles and books on both intellectual property law and the law of obligations, with a critical focus on suggested ethical and eco-nomic justifications of the existing regimes.

ANTONY TAUBMAN was appointed Acting Director and Head of the Global Intellectual Property Issues Division of WIPO in April 2002, with responsibility for programmes on intellectual property and ge netic resources, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions/folklore, the life sciences, public health, agriculture, and related public policy issues. After a diplomatic career with the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) from 1988, in 2001 he joined the newly-formed Australian Centre for Intellectual Property in Agriculture, at the College of Law at the Australian National University, teaching and researching on international IP law. From 1998 to 2001, he was Director of the International Intellectual Property Section of DFAT, and in that capacity was engaged in multilateral and bilateral






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negotiations on intellectual property issues, domestic policy develop-ment, regional cooperation, and TRIPS dispute settlement. He has taken part in many training and capacity-building programmes on intellectual property law and TRIPS in Australia and a number of Asian countries. He joined DFAT in 1988 as a career diplomat, and his ser-vice included disarmament policy and participation in the negotiations on the Chemical Weapons Convention, a posting in the Australian Embassy in Tehran as Deputy Head of Mission, and a posting to the Hague as Alternate Representative to the Preparatory Commission for the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and Chair of the Expert Group on Confidentiality. He previously worked for WIPO from 1995 to 1998, his duties then including development cooperation in Asia and the Pacific, and the development of the revised WIPO pro-gramme and budget and associated policy development. A registered patent attorney, he worked in private practice in the law of patents, trade marks and designs in Melbourne in the 1980s.

HANNS ULLRICH born Jena 1939, law studies Berlin, Munich, Tübingen, Paris; Referendar 1964, Assessor 1970, Dr jur. (Freie Universität Berlin) 1969; M.C.J. (N.Y.U. 1975); Dr jur. habil. (Ludwig Maximilians Universität, Munich 1982); professor Universität der Bundeswehr Munich 1985 (civil law, commercial law and business law), ordinarius 1992 (retired 2004); visiting professor College of Europe since 1991; chair for competition law and intellectual property law, European University Institute, Florence (2003–6); Rédacteur-en-chef Revue Internationale de Droit Economique. Part-time assistant to Prof. Dr E. Steindorff (LMU-Munich 1964–1969); member of the research staff and head of department Max-Planck-Institute for Foreign and International Patent-, Copyright-, and Competition Law, Munich, 1971–85; mem-ber of the Bar of Munich 1970–85; research fellow University of Cambridge 1992; guest professor University of Technology, Changsha, China, 1998–2003; part-time professor European University Institute, Florence 2000–1; visiting professor Duke University School of Law (Durham, NC) 2005. He is consultant to the German Government and to various international organisations (including the EU, WIPO, and UNCTAD). Ullrich is author and editor or co-editor of comparative law monographs on antitrust and private litigation, standards of patentabil-ity, legal issues of publicly funded research, software licensing, infor-mational goods, international antitrust; numerous articles on various issues of national, European and international antitrust and intellectual property, on research contracts and research cooperation, technology policy, corporate law and international trade law.






xixList of contributors

PAUL F. UHLIR, JD is Director of the Board on Research Data and Information at the US National Academies in Washington, DC. He also directs the Inter Academy Panel on International Issues (IAP) Program on Digital Knowledge Resources and Infrastructure in Developing Countries. Uhlir’s area of emphasis is on issues at the interface of sci-ence, technology, and law, with primary focus on information policy and management. Prior to that, Uhlir worked in the following capacities at the National Academies: Director of the Office of International Scientific and Technical Information Programs, 1999–2008; Associate Executive Director of the Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, 1991–1999; and senior staff officer at the Space Studies Board, 1985–1991, where he managed projects on solar system explor-ation and environmental remote sensing programs for NASA. Before joining the National Academies, he worked on remote sensing law and intergovernmental cooperation in meteorological satellite programs at the general counsel’s office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the US Department of Commerce. Uhlir has pub-lished and lectured widely, and has been involved in numerous consult-ing and pro bono activities. He holds a BA in history from the University of Oregon, and JD and MA degrees in international relations from the University of San Diego.

GERT-JAN B. VAN OMMEN PhD, (1947) is head of the Department of Human Genetics of Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC) and founder of the Leiden Genome Technology Center (LGTC), a prin-cipal genomics facility in the Netherlands. His major research inter-ests include: neuromuscular and neurodegenerative diseases (with a focus on Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, DMD, and Huntington Disease); development and application of genome research and diag-nostic technology for disease study, diagnosis, therapy and preven-tion, including the societal aspects of genetic advances. Members of his department have contributed to the finding of the gene defects and disease mechanisms underlying Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Huntington Disease, Polycystic Kidney Disease, Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy, Hereditary Neuropathies, Fragile X, Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome, Familial Hemiplegic Migraine, Episodic Ataxia. He has pioneered the development of several mapping techniques, gener-ating the first megabase map of a human gene (DMD), and of mutation detection techniques, including the development of multicolor FISH for cytogenetics and the Protein Truncation Test (PTT), which is now widely used in cancer diagnostics. Professor Van Ommen is past president and vice president of HUGO (1998–2003), the European






xx List of contributors

Society of Human Genetics (2002–4) and the Dutch Society of Human Genetics (1993–2000) and Editor-in-chief of the European Journal of Human Genetics (1997–present). He is present and past member of several National, EU and HUGO committees in the fields of Genetics, Innovative Health Care, Genomics, Bioinformatics, Ethics and IP aspects. He is the Director and Principal Investigator of the Center for Medical Systems Biology (CMSB), one of the four Centers of Excellence established in 2003 by the Netherlands Genome Initiative. The CMSB is a joint activity of Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden University, Free University Medical Center and Free University in Amsterdam, TNO Leiden and Erasmus MC Rotterdam, aiming to improve diagnosis, therapy and prevention of common diseases and rare variants thereof.

GEERTRUI VAN OVERWALLE (Dr Iur., 1995, Leuven) is head of the research group ‘Gene Patents and Public Health’ at the Centre for Intellectual Property Rights at the University of Leuven (Belgium). She has recently also been appointed Professor of Patent Law and New Technologies at the Tilbury Institute for Law, Technology and Society at the University of Tilburg (the Netherlands). Her fields of research are patent law, plant breeder’s rights law, patents and biotechnology, IP and biodiversity, and IP and ethics. She is author of numerous articles and monographies in the field of patent law in a national and inter-national context. She has recently published a book on Gene Patents and Public Health, Brussel, Bruylant, 2007. Professor Van Overwalle teaches Intellectual Property Law and Patent Law at the University of Leuven, the University of Brussels and the University of Liège (Lüttich). She has been visiting Professor at the United Nations University (2000–3) and Monash University, Melbourne (2003). Geertrui Van Overwalle is a member of the national High Council for Intellectual Property and of the national Council for Bioethics. She is a member of the European Commission’s Expert Group on Biotechnological Inventions and she contributed as an expert to the Report Policy options for the improvement of the European patent system commissioned by the European Parliament. She has recently also undertaken research for the European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies (EGE) and the Japan Patent Office. Geertrui Van Overwalle has also been appointed as a member of the Board of Appeal of the Community Plant Variety Office at Angers.

ESTHER VAN ZIMMEREN is a research fellow of the Research Foundation-Flanders (FWO) at the Centre for Intellectual Property Rights (Faculty of Law, University of Leuven, Belgium) (October 2006–present). Her research covers patent law, trademark law, competition law, international






xxiList of contributors

trade law and governance issues. Her PhD research project focuses on the interface between patent and competition law, in particular in the biomedical sector. In this framework she has published a number of articles in peer-reviewed journals on licensing models in the field of medical biotechnology. In 2004, she joined the Centre for Intellectual Property Rights as a research fellow in a project called ‘Gene Patents and Public Health’. Before she worked for two years as a legal assistant for Judge A.W.H. Meij at the Court of first instance of the European Communities in Luxembourg in the area of European trademark and competition law. She studied European & International Law, with a strong emphasis on European competition law (Master in Laws, University of Tilburg, The Netherlands, 2001), Dutch Private Law (Master in Laws, University of Tilburg, The Netherlands, 2001) and did an LL.M. in EU Law and Intellectual Property Law (Master of Laws, University of Leuven, Belgium, 2002).

BIRGIT VERBEURE is post-doctoral research associate at the Centre for Intellectual Property Rights of the University of Leuven, Belgium. Her research focuses on empirical patent surveying and the study of licensing models, both in the field of medical biotechnology. In this framework she has published a number of articles in peer reviewed journals. In 2004, she joined the Centre for Intellectual Property Rights as a research fellow in a project on ‘Gene Patents and Public Health’. At the same time, she works as a patent engineer in private practice. Before, she worked for two years as a post-doctoral researcher at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the MRC, Cambridge, UK. She obtained her PhD at the Rega Institute for Medical Research, University of Leuven, Belgium, in the field of Medicinal Chemistry.

JACQUES WARCOIN is a partner of Cabinet Régimbeau, Paris, since 1983. He is a chemist (graduated in chemistry) and he is a European and French Patent Attorney. He has considerable experience in the patent field, with emphasis in life sciences, especially biology. He has been involved in many international litigations, licensing negotiations and IP evaluations before IPO. He is a member of various national and international professional organisations, among which the AIPPI and the EPI. He is an expert with the French ministry of research (ACI) and has given many lectures with international organisations such as OECD, UNESCO, in particular on the strategic aspects of industrial property. He is also Visiting Researcher, Bio IP Course, Department of Medical Genome Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, in charge of licensing lectures in ‘Sciences Po’ in Paris and in CEIPI in Strasbourg.






xxiii

At present the genetics community is increasingly concerned that patents might lead to restricted access to research and health care. Thought-ful observers are increasingly expressing concerns that the exponential growth of patents claiming human DNA sequences may lead to patent thickets, royalty stacking and, ultimately, to a ‘tragedy of the anticom-mons’ in the genomic field. An anticommons effect may also arise from blocking patents. Concerns have also been voiced with regard to down-stream research as new genetic inventions might not find their way into products and a translational gap might emerge.

In an attempt to capture and comprehend these recent developments, and to reflect on potential remedies, the Centre for Intellectual Property Rights of the University Leuven (Belgium) organised a two-day inter-national workshop on ‘Gene Patents and Clearing Models: From Concepts to Cases’ on 8–9 June 2006. This workshop took place in the framework of a research project on ‘Gene Patents and Public Health’ sponsored by the Fund for Scientific Research Flanders (FWO, Belgium – Grant number G.O120.04), EuroGenTest (a Network of Excellence set up under the European Union Framework Programme 6 – Contract num-ber 512148) and the Vancraesbeeck Fund (K.U.Leuven, Belgium). For the research that led to the workshop and the present book, as well as for the workshop, we are very grateful to those organisations.

The workshop aimed at exploring models designed to render patented genetic inventions accessible to further use in research and to diagnosis and/or treatment in further depth, and to investigate alternative mod-els. The models include patent pools, clearinghouse mechanisms, open source models and liability regimes. There is a clear need to examine in more depth to what extent these schemes can be tailored to meet the needs of promotion and protection of innovation in human genetics.

The workshop aimed at combining both theoretical concepts and practical issues involved in applying these models in genetics, by invit-ing academics as well as business people and practitioners. The work-shop equally aimed at developing a multidisciplinary point of view, by

Preface






Prefacexxiv

confronting the views of legal scholars, geneticists, economists and phi-losophers.

The present book contains all papers presented at the workshop, as well as a few contributions by scholars not present, which were added later. In covering the various models the same format is followed in the first four parts of the book. First, the model is described and the con-cepts underlying the model are explored in depth. Then, a few cases are offered where the model has been put to work in practice. Finally, a critical analysis of the potential of the model for application in the genetic field is developed. In the fifth chapter the various models are examined from a wide panoply of perspectives: a clinical geneticist’s view, a patent practitioner’s perspective, through the lens of competi-tion law, an economic perspective and an institutional perspective. The sixth and last chapter recapitulates the major findings and tests them against a set of pre-assumptions.

The present book moves beyond theoretical and scholarly analysis into empirical investigation of existing examples. Collaborative licens-ing models are first examined from a theoretical perspective, where-upon the findings are tested in a set of operational cases. This combined approach is unique in its kind and may prompt both well founded and realistic solutions to the current problems in the current gene patent landscape.

We hope that this volume thus reflects our ambition to step ‘beyond the veil of ignorance’1 into open, reflective, critical and constructive ‘model mongering’,2 an enticing exercise in which we would like to invite all our readers to participate.

GEERTRUI VAN OVERWALLE

1 Rai, A.K., Reichman, J.H., Uhlir, P.F. and Crossman, C., ‘Pathways across the valley of death. Novel intellectual property strategies for accelerated drug discovery’, Chap-ter 17 of this volume p. 270.

2 Hope, J., ‘Open source genetics. Conceptual framework’, Chapter 12 of this volume p. 172, with reference to John Braithwaite.






xxv

At the start of this enticing book, allow me to take you through a few considerations, which may be more philosophical than genetic.

The first thing is to agree on definitions. Indeed, this is more than semantics. If you want to be understood by people from other disci-plines you must be sure to speak the same language. To give you an example: the contributions in the present book all deal with ‘patents’. For me as a medical doctor, patent means open as in a patent foramen ovale, a hole in the heart. I understand that in IPR circles, patent also mean open, but did this book not come about in an attempt to keep them patent to access?

Anyway, ‘interdisciplinarity is a type of academic collaboration in which specialists drawn from two or more academic disciplines work together in pursuit of common goals’ (a definition found in Wikipedia). Interdisciplinary programmes may arise from a shared conviction that the tra ditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address important problems. They can also arise from new research developments, such as nanotechnology, which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. In our field, bioinformatics is a nice example, since it combines molecular biology with computer science.

Interdisciplinary research should be distinguished from transdisciplinary research. According to the Swiss National research fund, it is intended to make a contribution towards solving socially relevant issues and involves practitioners from beyond the realm of science. I guess what we are doing in the Eurogentest Network of excellence is transdisciplinary, since we involve patient and family representatives in our activities.

Now, there are varying degrees of interdisciplinarity. In multidisci-plinarity, researchers from two or more disciplines work together on a common problem, but without altering their disciplinary approach or developing a common conceptual framework.

True interdisciplinarity can only be claimed when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so

Foreword

Some thoughts on the multidisciplinary approach to the study of patents and health care






Forewordxxvi

that they are better suited to the problem at hand. There is a holistic aspect in true interdisciplinarity. Indeed the researchers accept from the outset the idea that all the properties of a given system (biological, chemical, social, legal etc.) cannot be determined or explained by the sum of their component parts alone. The system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave. Aristotle already recog-nised this when he said: ‘The whole is more than the sum of the parts.’ A holistic approach has become a necessity in many disciplines. In biology, we know that cells, tissues and organs are more than the genes and pathways which they express. Systems biology has indeed become a trendy phrase. In philosophy, sociology and psy chology holistic approaches are also well known. In medicine holism is almost synonym of psychosomatic medicine. Alternative medicine has capitalised on this since it recognises that emotional, mental, spiritual and physical elements of each person comprise a system, and that the whole person must be treated, the symptoms as well as the causes of the illness.

Reductionism is the opposite of holism. Scientists may need to have a reductionist approach to extract a particular mechanism from a com-plex biological problem. This is a well-known successful approach in science. Nevertheless, in the back of their minds, good scientists will remain aware of this necessary, but temporary reductionist approach.

Let us go back then to inter- and multi-disciplinarity and analyse how these principles are being applied in the present collection and in the genetics field in general. Does the study of IPR issues in genetics by lawyers and geneticists constitute an example of multidisciplinary or a true interdisciplinary approach?

If we consider the sex of the investigators, we have to conclude that the approach is definitely multidisciplinary. Females and males work on the same issues. Their perspective, timing, emotions and approaches will be different. To become truly interdisciplinary the investigators would have to learn to find a common ground and appreciate the qualities and shortcomings of the sex of their colleagues. For obvious reasons I will not go into this issue any further.

The second issue is the difference in scientific approach. Geneticists place emphasis on qualitative and quantitative ‘rigour’ and as a result may think that their approach is ‘more scientific’ than that of their colleagues from the humanities. In addition, they are used to face the unexpected outcome from an experiment. Lawyers may associate quan-titative approaches with an inability to grasp the broader dimensions of the problem. On the other hand their approach is just to make sure that the unexpected is covered by the texts.






Foreword xxvii

While geneticists are very keen to determine the sequence of a piece of DNA with great accuracy, by repeating the exercise a few times, they will readily accept that a well-written scientific text has a clear and obvious meaning. They have a kind of holistic approach when it comes to interpreting texts. Lawyers on the other hand make a living finding different interpretations of the same word, the same sentence or the same text. It is not clear, however, whether at the end the patent still covers what it is supposed to cover. One also wonders sometimes if a patent could ever be written and submitted if more than one lawyer worked on it. One also wonders why some patent applications, written by geneticists, could stand any challenge by lawyers.

A third issue is the difference in autonomy that the two parties may enjoy. Biomedical research is known to be expensive and to drain a good part of the budgets reserved for research. Legal investigations, with the exception of the legal fees, are cheap, require access to a library and a PC and are funded accordingly. As in other situations in society, the rich and the poor may not have the same ambitions and goals.

Is a multidisciplinary or even true interdisciplinary approach of IPR issues in genetics/diagnostics therefore even possible? It is clear that if left only to geneticists or lawyers, we may end up as already said: with something quite useless. ‘To be aware of one’s shortcomings, is the first step towards improving oneself,’ as Socrates used to say. Therefore, combining the expertise, even in a ‘multidisciplinary’ approach, will create a more holistic approach, which will be much more useful to all parties involved and to the aim of the collaboration.

One has to keep in mind, however, that even if multi- and interdisci-plinarity is very trendy in our universities, it may be less obvious when one applies for funding. We all know examples, where multidisciplinary projects have not received the expected financial support. The quanti-tative scientist will have judged that the project is too descriptive, while the qualitative scientists will have found it poorly written or not under-standable.

In conclusion, I guess there is only one way in which this collab-oration could become truly interdisciplinary and that is by becoming a discipline itself. If it succeeds, it might even solve the problem of its research funding, make even its own tenure and promotion decisions. Other examples of such integrations do exist: neuroscience, biomedical engineering and bioinformatics, to cite only a few examples, have been successful in this, here or in other places in the world. Whether the academic authorities will follow in this particular topic, I would not be too optimistic.






Forewordxxviii

In any case, I would like to congratulate all contributors to the pres-ent book in trying to talk to each other and even to try to understand each other’s language, and to grow into a multidisciplinary approach. Of course my congratulations also go to the organiser of the workshop and the editor of the present volume, Geertrui Van Overwalle, for being the necessary catalyst in this process.

JEAN-JACQUES CASSIMAN






xxix

3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership ProjectACMG American College of Medical GeneticsAD Alzheimer DiseaseAFLP Amplified Fragment Length PolymorphismAFJ2 Second Amended Final JudgmentAI artificial intelligenceAIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency SyndromeAIPPI Association Internationale pour la Protection de la

Propriété IndustrielleALRC Australian Law Reform CommissionASCAP American Society of Composers, Authors and

PublishersASTP Association of European Science & Technology

Transfer ProfessionalsAUTM Association of University Technology ManagersBCLC Breast Cancer Linkage ConsortiumBSD Berkeley Software DistributionBIEM Bureau International des Sociétés Gérant les

Droits d’Enregistrement et de Reproduction Mécanique

Biotechnology Directive EU Directive on the Legal Protection of

Biotechnological Inventions, 1998BiOS Biological Innovation for Open SocietyBMI Broadcast Music, Inc.BRCA Familial Breast and Ovarian Cancer (gene)BRT Belgische Radio- en TelevisieomroepBSD Berkeley Software DistributionBUMA Dutch Association for Performance RightsB2B business-to-business

Abbreviations






xxx List of abbreviations

CAMBIA Centre for Applications of Molecular Biology in International Agriculture

CBD Convention on Biological DiversityCC Creative CommonsCCS Copyright Collection SocietiescDNA complementary DNACF Cystic Fibrosis (Mucoviscidosis in some

languages)CFTR Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance

Regulator (gene and protein)CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural

ResearchCH clearinghouseCIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement

CentreCISAC Confédération Internationale des Sociétés

d’Auteurs et CompositeursCJ Court of Justice (EU)CMM (detection) Chemical Mismatch (detection)CMT-1A Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, type 1ACPC Community Patent ConventionCRO Collective Rights OrganisationCRUK Cancer Research UKCSCE Conformation Sensitive Capillary ElectrophoresisDArT Diversity Array TechnologyDG Directorate GeneralDGGE Denaturing-Gradient Gel ElectrophoresisDH Department of Health (UK)DHPLC Denaturing High-Pressure Liquid

ChromatographyDMD Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (disease, protein

and gene)DNA Desoxyribonucleic AcidDOJ Department of Justice (US)DRM Digital Rights ManagementEBI European Center for BioInformaticsEBoA Enlarged Board of Appeal (EPO)ECJ European Court of JusticeEC Treaty Treaty of the European CommunitiesEEA European Economic AreaEGE European Group on Ethics in Science and New

Technologies






xxxiList of abbreviations

EMD Enzymatic Mismatch DetectionEMEA European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal

ProductsEPC European Patent Convention, 1973EPIPAGRI European Collective Management of Public

Intellectual Property for Agricultural Biotechnologies

epo ErythropoietinEPO European Patent OfficeESGH European Society of Human GeneticsEST Expressed Site TagEU European UnionFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationFDA Food and Drug Administration (US)FIPC French Intellectual Property CodeFMF familial Mediterranean feverFRAND Fair Reasonable and Non-DiscriminatoryFS free softwareFSF Free Software FoundationFTC Federal Trade Commission (US)FTO freedom to operateGATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (WTO)GBIF Global Biodiversity Information FacilityGBS Global Bio-Collecting SocietyGCP Good Clinical PracticeGEMA German Gesellschaft für musikalische

Aufführungs – und mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte (Germany)

GFP Green Fluorescent ProteinGM genetically modifiedGMS Genetic MicrosystemsGNU recursive acronym for ‘GNU’s Not Unix’, the

name for the complete Unix-compatible operating system

GNU/Linux Linux kernel (see ‘Linux’) together with other operating system elements supplied by the GNU-project

GPL General Public LicenseGRDC Grains Research and Development CorporationGuidelines EPO Guidelines for Examination in the European

Patent OfficeGUS glucuronidase






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Gene Patents and Collaborative Licensing Modelsassets.cambridge.org/97805218/96733/frontmatter/9780521896733_front... · The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food