Gender responsive strategiesfor assisting women experiencing long-termand recurrent homelessness

Didn’t feel hearddidn’t think I had a voice,didn’t feel safe:

Jane Bullen

A report for the Mercy Foundation

2019

Gender responsive strategies for assistingwomenexperiencing long-termand recurrenthomelessnessJaneBullenApril2019

Thankyoutothenineserviceproviderswhoparticipatedinqualitativeinterviewsandfocusgroupsforthisreportaboutserviceprovisionforwomenexperiencinglong-termandrecurrenthomelessness.Thanksagaintothetenwomenwhoparticipatedinqualitativeinterviewsabouttheirexperiencesofserviceprovisionwhilehomelessforstageoneofthisresearch,Meetingtheneedsofchronicallyhomelesswomen,conductedthroughtheSocialPolicyResearchCentre,UNSWAustralia(http://doi.org/10.4225/53/58d06e0ceb7f3).Theircontributionshavealsoinformedthisreport.Thanksaswelltothetwohomelessnessserviceproviderpartnersforbothprojects,BMilesWomen’sFoundationandtheHaymarketFoundationfortheirvaluableadviceandassistanceduringbothstagesofthisproject.ThisresearchwaspartiallysupportedbyagrantfromtheMercyFoundation.

©DrJaneBullen2019janebullenresearch@gmail.comPublisher:TheMercyFoundation,40RocklandsRd,CrowsNestNSW2065office@mercyfoundation.com.auSuggestedcitation:Bullen,J.(2019).Didn’tfeelheard,didn’tthinkIhadavoice,didn’tfeelsafe:Gender responsive strategies for assisting women experiencing long-term and recurrenthomelessness.CrowsNest,NSW:TheMercyFoundation.

Contents

1.Executivesummary..............................................................................................................1

2.Introduction..........................................................................................................................3

Chronichomelessnessorlong-termandrecurrenthomelessness:thehousingshortageandhiddenhomelessnesscontext?.....................................................................................3

Methodologyandbackgroundtothisreport.......................................................................4

3.Women’spathwaystolong-termandrecurrenthomelessness..........................................6

Women’shiddenhomelessness...........................................................................................9

4.Hiddenhomelessness:whataretheobstaclestousingservices?.....................................13

a.Stigmaandshame:historicalandculturalbeliefs:.........................................................13

Moralisingandjudgementalattitudes...........................................................................15

Underminingwomen’sautonomy..................................................................................17

b.Fear:unsafeandunsuitableenvironments....................................................................19

c.Didn’treceivethehelptheyneeded..............................................................................23

Inappropriatereferrals...................................................................................................23

Barriersforspecificneeds..............................................................................................23

Nohousingoutcome......................................................................................................27

d.Lackofknowledgeofservices........................................................................................30

5.Whatarethestrategiestomakeservicesbettermeetwomen’sneeds?..........................33

a. Astrongservicephilosophyinhomelessnessservicesthatishuman-centred,gender-responsive,flexible,respectful,strengths-basedandthatsupportsself-determination...33

b.Servicesaresafe,traumainformedandhome-like........................................................38

c.Womenreceivethehelptheyneed...............................................................................39

Specialistortargetedservices........................................................................................42

d.Informationaboutservices............................................................................................44

6.Monitoringchanges............................................................................................................46

7.Conclusion..........................................................................................................................48

References..............................................................................................................................53

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1. ExecutivesummaryThis is thesecondstageofaresearchprojectwhichaimsto identifyandassessgender-responsiveservice strategies and plans for assisting women experiencing long-term and recurrenthomelessness, andmonitoring of these responses. This report builds on the previous research byincluding recent literature and qualitative data from interviews and focus groups with ninehomelessness service providers who assist women experiencing long-term and recurrenthomelessness in the Sydney area. The report also draws on the interviews with ten womenexperiencinghomelessnesswhowereinterviewedforstageone.

Women’shomelessnessoccursinthecontextofwomen’sinequality,women’spovertyandviolenceagainst women. Women experiencing long-term homelessness have often experienceddisadvantage,violenceandtraumaoverthecourseoftheir lives,frequentlycompoundedbyotherfactors.Women’shomelessness inAustraliaalsooccurs inthecontextofaseverelackofavailablelowcostprivateandsocial rentalhousing. This impactsonbothwomenwhoseneedsother thanhousingare low,andwomenwithcomplexneeds.The longerwomenremainhomeless, themorelikelytheyaretodevelopnewproblemsandhavedifficultyresolvingtheirhomelessness.

There is a need to reconsider the diversity ofwomen’s homelessness, in particular homelessnessthat is not quickly resolved, because many women’s experiences of long-term and recurrenthomelessnessdonotfitthestereotypeinresearchandpolicyof‘chronichomelessness’;

• In contrast to the characterisationof ‘chronichomelessness’ as involvinghigh serviceuse,manywomenwhobecomehomelessactivelyavoidhomelessnessservices,insomecasesformanyyears;

• Insteadtheirhomelessnessishiddenorself-managed,andtheystaytemporarilywithfamily,friendsandacquaintances,stay inseverelyovercrowdeddwellingsorsleeprough,often inconcealedlocations,anddelayapproachingservicesuntilallinformaloptionsareexhausted;atthispointtheymaybelonger-termhomelessandexperiencingmorechroniccrisis.Theirhomelessnessisoftenunrecordedanditsextentisobscured;

• Inadditionthecurrentsevere lackof low-costhousinginAustraliahas ledtosomepeopleexperiencing longer term homelessness who do not have the type of complex needsassociatedwiththepolicyunderstandingof‘chronichomelessness’.

Womenwhoare concerned that servicesmightnotmeet theirneedsmay choose toavoid them.Fourkeyinterrelatedfactorsinformwomen’sexperiencesanddecisionsaboutusingservices.Theseare:

• widespread cultural beliefs that stigmatise women’s homelessness and that affect both women’s perspective on their homelessness and some service practices: for example, moralisingorjudgementalattitudes,helpthat isconditional,andpunitivemeasures,aswell as undermining independence and autonomy through excessive rules ormicromanaging women.Thesefactorsmayleadwomentoavoidservices;

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• fear and concern for safety in services: women fear and avoid situations where they arepotentially unsafe, including going to a homelessness service, and situations where theybelieve they risk physical violence, sexual assault, witnessing violence, events that triggerpast trauma, theft of belongings, difficult or unpredictable behaviour by others, negativeeffectsonchildren,stigmaandindignity.Sharedaccommodationbyverydiversecohortsisamajorsourceoffearandtraumaticexperiences;

• notreceivingthehelptheyneedmayleadtowomenleavingoravoidingservices.Examplesare inappropriate referrals, for example to services that donotprovide specialist help forthewoman’ssituation;barriersforwomenwithspecificneedsincludingthosewithcomplexneeds;andlackofahousingoutcomeaftercontactingaservice;

• lack of knowledge of services: women who become homeless for the first time, womenescapingdomesticviolence,womenfromaCALDbackgroundandyoungwomenaremorelikelyto lackknowledgeofservices.Womenwholackknowledgemayalsohesitatetofindoutaboutservicesiftheyaredistrustfulorfearful.Forsomewomenlackofknowledgeleadstolong-termhiddenhomelessness.

Factorsoutsidethecontrolofhomelessnessservicessuchasthelackofcapacityinservicesandthelackofaffordable rentalhousingmayalsobe translated in specificways, forexample indecisionsabout who is accepted into services, how support is provided within services and what housingoptionsareavailable.

Strategiestomakeservicesbettermeetwomen’sneedsare:

• A strong service philosophy in homelessness services that is human-centred, gender-responsive,flexible,respectful,strengths-basedandthatsupportsself-determination;

• Servicesaresafe,traumainformedandhome-like;• Ensuring women receive the help they need, in particular women with specific needs or

viewedas ‘complex’, includingmorespecialistor targetedservices so thatwomen receivehelp that is more specific to their needs and to reduce the likelihood of traumaticexperiences;especiallyintheareaofdomesticviolencebutalsoinotherkeyareas;

• Better informationaboutservices: thiswillonlybeeffective ifserviceschange inthewaysdescribedabove,andwomenarereassuredaboutthis.

Access to housing that is affordable and appropriate to the woman’s needs underpins thesestrategies.Thereisaneedforgovernmentactiontoprovideadditionalspecialistservicesandlow-cost housing. For some women, access to housing they can afford may be the only interventionneededtoendtheirhomelessness.Changes that requiregovernmentaction shouldbemonitoredbyexistingaccountabilitypractices,includingevaluation. Withinservices,philosophyand leadershiphaveakey role inensuringgoodpractice.Practicessuggestedtoassistserviceswithmonitoringgenderresponsivestrategiesincludeinternalfeedbackmechanisms,externalevaluation,alongwithstaffselection,stafftrainingandbothinternalandexternalstaffsupervision.ServicesinterviewedwhichhadparticipatedinaCommunityofPracticefoundthatthisenabledthemtosharechallengesandsuccessfulapproaches,andwasavaluablelearningandmonitoringmechanism.

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2.Introduction

This research occurred in the context of the recent targeting of new homelessness services inAustralia topeoplesleepingroughorexperiencing long-termhomelessness.Since2008arangeofnew services has been established nationally that aim to provide permanent housing to peopleexperiencingchronichomelessness,suchasStreettoHomeandCommonGroundprojects(Johnson&Kertesz2017). Inaddition,anumberofservicesalreadyexistedthatprovidedshortormedium-termaccommodationandsupporttopeopleexperiencinglong-termhomelessness.Themajorityofpeopleidentifiedasexperiencinglong-termorchronichomelessnessaremen(Lofstrand&Quilgars2016),andconsistentwith this, theoverwhelmingmajorityofpeopleassistedbymanyof the thenewservicesaremen(seeforexampleJohnson&Chamberlain2015,p.16).Whilesomeof theseserviceshavebeenevaluated,thereislittlegenderanalysiswithintheseevaluations.Thereisalackofspecific informationavailableabouthowwellcurrentservicesaremeetingtheneedsofwomenexperiencingchronicorlong-termhomelessness,andwhethersomeservicetypesorstrategiesaremore appropriate to women or lead to better outcomes. Research indicates that there aredifferences in the situations andneedsofwomenexperiencing long-termhomelessness, and thathomelessness service responses do not alwaysmeet the needs ofwomen (Mayock& Bretherton2016;Paradisatal.2012;PetersenandParsell2014;Watson2000;Golden1990).

Chronic homelessness or long-term and recurrent homelessness: the housingshortageandhiddenhomelessnesscontext?This research project was initially described as research into meeting the needs of womenexperiencingchronichomelessness.Thetermchronichomelessnessoriginated in theUS, referringspecificallytopeoplewithdisabilitiesexperiencinghomelessnessfor12monthsormore1.Apersonexperiencingchronichomelessnessisdescribedinliteratureashaving‘reachedthepointwhereheorshelacksthephysicalormentalhealth,skillsand/orincometoaccessand/ormaintainhousing’

1Thecurrentfulldefinitionis:Chronicallyhomelessmeans:(1)A‘‘homelessindividualwithadisability,’’asdefinedinsection401(9)oftheMcKinney-VentoHomelessAssistanceAct(42U.S.C.11360(9)),who:(i)Livesinaplacenotmeantforhumanhabitation,asafehaven,orinanemergencyshelter;and(ii)Hasbeenhomelessandlivingasdescribedinparagraph(1)(i)ofthisdefinitioncontinuouslyforatleast12monthsoronatleast4separateoccasionsinthelast3years,aslongasthecombinedoccasionsequalatleast12monthsandeachbreakinhomelessnessseparatingtheoccasionsincludedatleast7consecutivenightsofnotlivingasdescribedinparagraph(1)(i).Staysininstitutionalcarefacilitiesforfewerthan90dayswillnotconstituteasabreakinhomelessness,butrathersuchstaysareincludedinthe12-monthtotal,aslongastheindividualwaslivingorresidinginaplacenotmeantforhumanhabitation,asafehaven,oranemergencyshelterimmediatelybeforeenteringtheinstitutionalcarefacility;(2)Anindividualwhohasbeenresidinginaninstitutionalcarefacility,includingajail,substanceabuseormentalhealthtreatmentfacility,hospital,orothersimilarfacility,forfewerthan90daysandmetallofthecriteriainparagraph(1)ofthisdefinition,beforeenteringthatfacility;or(3)Afamilywithanadultheadofhousehold(orifthereisnoadultinthefamily,aminorheadofhousehold)whomeetsallofthecriteriainparagraph(1)or(2)ofthisdefinition,includingafamilywhosecompositionhasfluctuatedwhiletheheadofhouseholdhasbeenhomeless.(http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-12-04/pdf/2015-30473.pdf).

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(HomelessnessCommunityCapacityBuildingSteeringCommittee2008,quotedinKlodawsky2009,p.592)andasthosewho‘liveroughonthestreetsorcyclethroughfleetingperiodsofbeinghoused’(Bridgman2002,p.51).

ManyAustralian researchers andorganisationsuse the termchronichomelessness to refer to ‘anepisode of homelessness lasting six months or more or having experienced multiple episodes ofhomelessnessovera12-monthperiodormore’(HomelessnessNSW2018;MercyFoundation2018;Chamberlain and Johnson 2000). While the Australian definitions are not as strongly linked topeople’s health anddisability, they generally note thatpeople experiencing chronichomelessnessare likely to have complex needs such as developmental or psychiatric disability, traumatic braininjury, serioushealthproblems,ahistoryofabuseand/or traumaandaddiction toalcoholand/ordrugs,andsuggestHousingFirstasaneffectiveresponse.Theterm‘iterativehomelessness’hasalsobeenusedtodescribethe‘repeateduprooting’(Robinson2003,p.3)associatedwithhomelessness.Howeverbothresearchandtheinterviewswithwomenandserviceprovidersthatwereconductedfor this researchsuggest that in thecurrenthousingcontextofa severe lackofavailable lowcostprivateandsocialhousingdiscussedinChapter3ofthisreport,manypeoplewhoarehomelessforsixmonthsormoreinAustraliadonotfittheprofileusuallyassociatedwithchronichomelessness.Further, theconceptof ‘chronichomelessness’ isassociatedwithhighand thereforecostlyuseofemergency servicesbut, as alsodiscussed inChapter3of this report,women’s experiencesdifferfrom this characterisation,withmanywomenavoiding services andhiding their homelessness forvery long periods. These factors indicate a need to reconsider the diversity of women’shomelessness, in particular homelessness that is not quickly resolved. For this reason, in thisdocument the terminology long-term and recurrent homelessness is used. This report’s focus isprimarily on thosewomenwhose homelessness ismost protracted, but it also acknowledges theimpactoftheunavailabilityofaffordablerentalhousingonallpeoplewhobecomehomeless.

MethodologyandbackgroundtothisreportThefirststageofthisprojectMeetingtheneedsofwomenexperiencingchronichomelessnesswasfundedbytheMercyFoundationandconductedthroughtheSocialPolicyResearchCentre,UNSW.Itinvolved a partnership between the researchers and two Sydney homelessness service providers,theHaymarket Foundation andBMilesWomen’s Foundation. Theproject aimed to contribute toreducingwomen’schronichomelessness,by:

• identifying gender-responsive service strategies for responding to women experiencingchronichomelessness;

• assessingtheeffectivenessofthesestrategies;• identifying and developing plans for implementation and monitoring of improved service

responsesforwomenexperiencingchronichomelessness.

Theprojectinvolved:

• a brief literature review to identify key challenges faced by women experiencing chronichomelessness and best practice in responding to their needs, to enablebenchmarking/comparisonwithwhat’shappeningontheground;

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• interviewswith 10womenwho have experienced chronic homelessness, in order to gaintheirperspectivesonservicestheyhadreceived.Thetwopartnerserviceprovidersputtheresearcherincontactwiththesewomen.

• Areport(Bullen2017),whichanalysedwomen’sexperienceswithhomelessnessandotherservices,andsetoutsomebroaddirectionsforserviceprovision.Thereportfoundthat:

o womenexperiencingchronichomelessnessrequireresponsiveandflexiblesupportthatisavailableaslongasneeded,safeaccommodation,otherrelevantservicesandpermanenthousing;

o it cannot be assumed that responses that work best for men also work best forwomen;

o womenexperiencingchronichomelessnessareaverydiversegroupandachoiceofservicemodelsthatwillmeettheneedsofdifferentwomenisneeded.Smaller-scalespecialistservicesaremoreappropriatethanlarger,generalistservices.

Thissecondstage,alsopartiallysupportedbytheMercyFoundation,buildsonthepreviousresearchby including recent literature and qualitative data from interviews and focus groups with ninehomelessness service providers that assist women experiencing long-term and recurrenthomelessnessintheSydneyarea.Providerswhoparticipatedarediverseandincludebothlargeandsmallservices;servicesforwomenandservicesthatassistbothmenandwomen;andservicesthatassistonetargetgroupandservicesthatassistmultiplegroups.Theparticipatingorganisationshaveexperiencewitharangeoftypesofassistanceincludingcrisisaccommodation,transitionalhousing,outreachandHousingFirst.ThediscussionguidesusedininterviewswithwomenwhohaveexperiencedhomelessnessandwithserviceprovidersareatAppendixAandB.Both the interviews with women experiencing homelessness and with service providers werefocussedinSydney,andmostbutnotalloftheserviceprovidersinterviewedarelocatedinthecityandthemorecentralsuburbs.Resourceconstraintslimitedboththenumberofwomenandservicesinterviewed,aswellastheirlocation.Inaddition,someserviceprovidersinvitedtobeinvolvedwerenotavailable.Furtherresearchthatincludedtheinsightsofawiderrangeofwomenandproviderswouldbevaluable.This report incorporates findings frombothresearchstages. Theprojectcouldprovideabasis forfurtherresearchinthearea.

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3. Women’s pathways to long-term and recurrenthomelessness

Untilthelaterpartoflastcenturyhomelessnessingeneralwasassociatedwitholderalcoholicmen,but over the last 50 yearswomen’s homelessness has been increasingly recognised (Jeromeet al2003).However,long-termhomelessnessandroughsleepingthatoftenaccompaniesitarestillseenasmainlymalephenomena,andincountsofthesegroupsmenarethemajoritywhoareidentified(Löfstrand & Quilgars 2016). Women experience long-term homelessness too, but malehomelessnesshashistoricallybeenhighlighted,andwomen’s long-termhomelessness isoftennotseen as a significant issue. Homelessness definitions and policies ‘exist on a gendered terrain inwhich women’s housing needs and experiences remain marginalised’ (Watson 2001, p. 159) andspecific, gendered factors contribute to women’s homelessness and their experiences ofhomelessness. Evidence from research is that women’s experience of longer term and recurrenthomelessness often differs to that ofmen (Pleace et al 2016).Women’s homelessness, includingwomen’slong-termhomelessness,occursinthecontextofwomen’soverall inequalityandpovertyincludingeconomicinequality;poorpositioninthehousingmarket;theimpactofgenderedviolenceincluding domestic violence, sexual assault and child sexual assault; and the limited nature ofwomen’straditionalroles(Darab&Hartman2013;Watson2001).Homelessness in Australia, includingwomen’s homelessness, is also currently framed by a severelackofavailablelowcostprivateandsocialrentalhousingwhichhasledtotheemergenceofanewcohortofpeopleinprecarioushousingsituations,whoriskbeingpropelledintohomelessnessbyanadverse event (Anglicare Australia 2018; Wood & Ong 2017). Sydney, where this research wasconducted,hasbeennamedasoneof themostunaffordablecities in theworld forhousing (Pash2016).Whilewomenwhoexperiencehomelessnessand theprecipitating factorsareverydiverse,dataonwomenusinghomelessnessservicessupportsotherresearchshowingpovertyandviolenceagainstwomeninthecontextofthescarcityofaffordablehousing,areprimaryfactorsinwomen’shomelessness.Domesticviolenceisafactorinseekingassistanceforoverhalf(51%)ofwomenusinghomelessnessservicesandthemainreasonforoverathird(40%)(AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare 2019). Women also frequently report accommodation problems including housing crisis(18%)andfinancial issues(15%)asthemainreasonsfor approachingservices(AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare2019).

Consistent with this Australian Institute of Health and Welfare data, one service providerinterviewee suggested a third [of the women using the service were homeless due to] basicallypovertyandlackofoptionsinminimumwagejobs[Serviceprovider4].ThelowlevelofNewstartandotherbenefitsisafactorinthissituation(Anglicare2018,Morris&Wilson2014).Serviceprovidersspokeofwomenbecominghomelessbecausetheycan’taffordcostlyprivaterentalhousingbutareforced to or want to stay in Sydney for a range of reasons including employment, and of olderwomen who had been renting privately but could no longer afford to do so when they were nolonger employed. This is compounded by the lack of access to social housing for womenexperiencing poverty for a range of reasons, including following domestic violence, at retirementandothersituationsdiscussedinthissection.ThestockofsocialhousingdwellingsinAustraliahas

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droppedfrom5.1dwellingsper100householdsin2007-8to4.6in2016-17(AustralianInstituteofHealthandWelfare2018).

Service provider interviewees for this research noted the general lack of affordable social andprivaterentalhousing,creatinganewcohortofpeoplebecominghomelessforfinancialreasons:

We get a lot more referrals through Link2home2, where people have been evicted fromprivate rental,because they just can’tpay the rental,or they losea flatmateor somethinghappens.[Serviceprovider3]

Serviceproviderintervieweessaidthereisalackofverylowcostprivaterentalhousingthatmeetstheneedsoffemales.Atthecheapestendofthemarket,boardinghousescouldprovideacceptableaccommodationformenwhowerehomelessduetopovertyandneededlittlesupport,butusuallywerenotsafeorsuitableforwomen,althoughtheymaybesuitableforsomemen:

GettingagoodoutcomeforamaleclientisaloteasierthanforafemalebecauseyouhavelotsofoptionswhereamanmightbecomfortablegoingtoaboardinghouseinDarlinghurstor somewhere like thatwhereas there’d be a lot of trepidation for a female to be in thatenvironment, and to be honest I would not feel comfortable referring somebody as well,mostofthetime.[Serviceprovider2]

This shortage of low cost housing also means that when people do become homeless it is moredifficult for themto findalternativehousing,and that those in temporaryaccommodationcannotexit intopermanenthousing, creatinga ‘bottleneck’ inhomelessness services, reducingaccess forpeople seeking to use services and thus reducing the effectiveness of services (AustralianGovernment2008;ColemanandFopp2014; Johnson2012).Consistentwith this, serviceproviderinterviewees noted that women who were homeless for the first time and who did not havecomplexsupportneedscouldtakemorethan12monthstofindstablehousingbecauseofbarrierstoexitingout [Serviceprovider4] intohousing.Forexampleoneserviceproviderassistingwomenwhoarehomelessforarangeofreasonssaid:

Wedohavealotofclientswhofitinthecategorywhomightbehomelessforlongerthan12months, but itmight be their first instance of homelessness and itmight be just that themainissueisthelackofaffordabilityandthelackofoptions.[Serviceprovider4]

Thissituationhasnegativeimplicationsforthosewhoseneedsotherthanhousingarelow,asthelonger people remain homeless, the more likely they are to develop new problems and havegreater difficulty resolving their homelessness (Johnson, Gronda and Coutts 2008; Busch-GeertsemaO’Sullivan,Edgar,&Pleace2010).Mostolderwomenwhoarehomelessdonotfittheprofileofchronichomelessnessastheyhavegenerallynotbeenhomelessbeforeanddonothave

2 Link2homeisatelephoneserviceoperatedbytheNSWgovernment,providingstatewideinformation,assessmentandreferraltospecialisthomelessnessservices,temporaryaccommodationandotherservicesforpeoplewhoarehomelessoratriskofhomelessness,aswellasinformationforserviceprovidersandadvocates.

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complexneedsrequiringsupport.Howevertheyfinditdifficulttoaccesshomelessnessservicesandpriority socialhousingandasa result theirhomelessnessmaybeprolonged (HomelessnessNSW2016).Thehousingshortagealsohasnegativeimplicationsforthosewithhigherneeds,discussedlaterinthisreport,asservicesexperiencingoverwhelmingdemandandlimitedresourcesmaygivelowerprioritytothosewhoneedagreaterinputtoachieveoutcomes.

Many women experiencing persistent homelessness have experienced long-term violence andtraumaoverthecourseoftheirlives,includingsexualassault,domesticviolenceandotherviolencein both childhood and adulthood (Owens 2005; Robinson 2005; Murray 2009), as well as otherfamily problems including child neglect and abandonment (Reeve 2018). Consistent with thisresearchand theAustralian InstituteofHealthandWelfaredataquotedabove, intervieweesalsoreporteddomesticandotherviolencetobeamajorcauseofhomelessness forwomenofallagesusing their services. Interviewees said older women may flee long-term domestic violence afterchildrenhavelefthomeormaydosoafterneworincreasedviolenceaftertheirpartnerdevelopeddementia.Domesticviolencealsooccursaselderabuseincludingsituationsof:youngergenerationswantingtokickpeopleoutandusetheirhomes,andtheycan’taccesshousingbecausetheyhaveanasset[Serviceprovider7].Domesticviolencenotonlycausesinjury,traumaanddislocationbutalsohas serious negative financial impacts, both immediately and over a woman’s lifetime (Cortis &Bullen2016).Womenescapingdomesticviolencewhohaveprecariousspousalvisasareespeciallylikely to experience prolonged homelessness as they do not have access to Centrelink,Medicare,housing products or temporary accommodation benefits.A service provider interviewee said thatmanyservicescan’tacceptthem:becausetheyaren’tabletotakeontheburdenofsubsidisingrentand providing an income until they can work on the immigration which being optimistic takes 6weeks to secure special benefit and get a bridging visa [Service provider 4]. This service providerdescribed this situation as: a huge barrier. It’s the biggest gap and the most vulnerable cohortbecause it’s very frightening particularly if they have children. Another service provider said thatworkingonvisaissuestakesmuchlongerthan6weeksandservicesarefindingattimesthereisnoenddatewhichiswhyhousingresourcesissodifficult[Serviceprovider1].ForAboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderwomen,pathwaysintohomelessnessmayinvolvefactorsthatresultfromimpactsofcolonialcontactincludingtheviolentandtraumatic‘StolenGeneration’policy,aswellastheeffectsof living in ‘Indigenous settlements and communities that have institutionalised andmarginalisedhistoriesdatingfromthelate1890stothe1980s’(Memmot2013,p.7).

Disabilities and health issues including mental ill health are factors that lead to, and impact onwomen’spathwaysintoandthroughhomelessness(RobinsonandSearby2005).ThevulnerabilityofwomenexperiencingpersistenthomelessnessisindicatedbyanalysisofsinglepeopleinSydneywhohad been contacting the then Homeless Persons Information Centre statewide telephoneinformationandreferralserviceforatleastayear,whichfoundthat76%ofwomencomparedwith45% of men were receiving the Disability Support Pension (Reynolds 2005, p. 11). One serviceprovideralsoreportedcontactwithalotofpeoplewithmentalhealthanddisabilitiesnotclassedasdisabledorhavingmentalhealthproblemseither.TheyslippedthroughtheNDIS…[Serviceprovider6].

Women with mental illness are vulnerable to homelessness when renting privately. A period ofillness can lead to job lossandasa result their tenancybecomesunsustainableand theybecome

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homeless.One intervieweewhohadpreviouslyexperiencedhomelessnessdue tobeingunable toworkexpressedherconcernforthefuture:

IfyoumeetmeyouwillneverbeabletotellthatIamlivingwithmentalillness,myillnessisepisodic. I'm livingwithabipolardisorder,soessentially, Icanhaveanepisode,and Icanendupunemployedandsubsequentlyhomelessagain…Overthepastoneyear,IhavebeenwellandIhavebeenworking.However,itdoesn'tmeanthatI'mnotindangerofbecominghomelessagain.[Woman4]

Alcoholanddrugproblemsarealsofactorsthatcontributetowomen’shomelessness(RobinsonandSearby2005).Drugandalcoholuseareoftenusedtoself-manageexperiencesofviolenceincludingsexualabuse,andtheexperienceofhomelessnessitself(Goodman,FelsandGlenn2011;Robinsonand Searby 2005). Interviewees noted that a lack of rehabilitation and other services forwomenmeantthesystemlackedcapacitytosupportwomenwithaddictionproblems.Researchsuggestsfamilyhomelessnessismorestronglylinkedwithpovertyanddomesticviolencethan with other support needs (Bretherton 2017). However, women experiencing long-term orrecurrenthomelessnessareidentifiedinresearchasalsomorelikelytobethosewithoutchildrenintheircare(Robinson&Searby2006),althoughwomenwithaccompanyingchildrenalsoexperienceprolongedhousinginstabilityandhomelessness(Hulse&Sharam2013).Womenwithchildrenwhoarehomelessarefrequentlyseparatedfromthemeitherbecausemothersplacechildrenvoluntarilyin the care of other family members or because authorities remove them (Reeve 2018). Thesewomenareoftenreferredtoas‘single’womenandtreatedassuchbyservicesystemsevenwhenthey continue to view themselves as their child’s primary carer. For example, one womaninterviewedsuggestedthat itwouldbehelpful ifhomelessnessserviceswouldorganiseoutingsoractivitiesforwomenandtheirchildrenwhowerenotintheircare.Long-termhomelessnessoftendevelopsasaresultofadverseeventsthathaveacumulativeeffectin people’s lives. For some women, adversity, violence and abuse starting in childhood andcontinuing in adulthood have led to compounding trauma, homelessness and disadvantage(Robinson2010).Thesewomenfacemultipleandcomplexdifficulties.Oneserviceprovidersaidthatwithpeopleexperiencingchronichomelessnessit’sanumberofstepsoveralongperiodoftimethatleaduptothembeinghomeless[Serviceprovider4].

Women’shiddenhomelessnessWomen are using homelessness services at record numbers, but many women who becomehomelessavoid services.Australiandatacollectionsabouthomelessnessprovide little informationon lengthofhomelessness.Wedoknow that thenumberof femalespresentinghomeless, ratherthanatriskofhomelessness,(57,043in2017-18)hasnowovertakenthenumberofmales(54,139)(Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2019). Sixty percent of SHS clients in 2017-18 werefemale,and66%ofunassistedrequests forservicewereby females (Australian InstituteofHealthand Welfare 2019). Despite these high numbers of women both using services and being turnedaway,womenwhobecomehomelessoftenadoptstrategiestohidetheirhomelessnessandmanageitthemselves(Klodawsky2009;Mayocketal.2015b;Robinson&Searby2005).Womenandservice

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providers interviewed for this research confirmed these findings, saying that while some womenapproach services soonafterbecominghomeless,manyothers spend longperiodsnot contactingservices, only approaching services when other options are exhausted, and instead stayingtemporarily with family, friends and acquaintances, staying in severely overcrowded dwellings orsleepingrough(Brethertonetal2016).Thisisreferredtoasself-managedhomelessnessorhiddenhomelessness. Some research has found thatwomen’s experience of rough sleeping is almost asextensive as that of men (Bowpitt et al 2011). When sleeping rough, women use ‘strategies ofinvisibility’ (Reeve 2018, p 168): either selecting concealed places that they assess to becomparativelysafeorbeingpubliclyvisiblebutdisguisingtheirhomelessness.Thisinvisibilitymeanstheirhomelessness ismore likely tobeunrecorded,obscuring itsextent.The followingcommentsare from an interviewee experiencing homelessness and describe how she sought safe sleepinglocations:

[Iwas]alwaysoutonthestreets,hereandtherewhereverIcouldfind,sometimesonaroofofabusshelterorwhereverIcould…acoupleoftimesIsleptonthesideofhighways,nearfarms…Iwasonthestreets,parksorwhereverIcouldfindaplace…ifIcouldn’tfindanyplacewhereIthoughtIcouldbesafeIdidn’tstaythere.TherewerequiteafewtimeswhenIjust walked all night long trying to find a place. Also I think I was fairly safe because Iwatchedwhenthegeneralpopulationwenttosleep,whichwasabout11-ishandonlythenwould I staybehindabush thatwasneara roador somewhereelse thatprovidedagoodshelterandgotosleepthere.Alsomysleepwasreallyfunny.EverynoiseIwouldwakeup.SoIseemedtobeveryalertandiftherewassomebodyaroundIwokeup.Butstillitenteredmy thoughts many times that’s its dangerous because you can get bashed, raped, yourthroatcouldbeslashedwhileyou’resleepingandyouwouldn’tevenknow.[Woman3]

Womenwhosehomelessness ishiddenmay lackbasic survival resources,andmaybe lessable toaccessmainstreamservicesbecausetheydon’taccesshomelessnessservicesthatwould linkthemtothese(Brethertonetal2016).Theyaremorereliantonwhateverinformalsupporttheycangetand on services not targeted to homeless people which may be less accessible to womenexperiencinghomelessness. Insomecases,stayingwithothers isanarrangement involvingsexforshelter, is unsafe or is otherwise exploitative while in others it is not, but it is neverthelesstemporaryandinsecure.Bothserviceprovidersandwomenintervieweessaidthatwomenwhoareconcernedthatservicesmightnotmeettheirneedsaremorelikelytoavoidapproachingthem.Womenwithcomplexneedssuchasmentalhealthproblemsmayavoidservicesandsleeprough.Somewomenwhohavebeeninprisonmaycommitcrimestoavoidhomelessness.Serviceproviderintervieweessaidthatyoungerwomenaremorelikelytostaywithfamilyandfriendswherepossible,becauseoftheriskofsexualassaultwhilesleepingrough.Theyalsosaid that transgenderwomenareparticularly likely tostaywithfriendsnotonlybecauseofthesafetyissuestheyexperienceinsleepingroughbutalsobecauseof the riskofpoor responsesby servicesand institutions.Olderwomen includingboth thosewithlowandhighsupportneedsaremorelikelytoattempttoretainsomeelementofindependenceandpridebysleepingintheircars,stayingininadequatebutexpensiveaccommodationwithoutsecuretenancyorsleepingrough:

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Itsprideaswell,they’vebeenaproviderfortheirfamiliesforsolong,andthenallofasudden…they’renothingtosocietyorthemselves,theyfeelthey’vefailed.[Serviceprovider6]

Services said some women who have a roof over their head do not consider themselves to behomeless, even when the situation is severely overcrowded, squalid or unsafe, until thearrangementbreaksdownandtheyhavetoleave.Somewomenwerereportedtobepayingrenttosleeptentoaroom,onacouchortwotoabedandtobefrequentlytoldtomovebetweendifferentproperties. Interviewees reported vulnerable women, in particular women from culturally andlinguistically diverse backgrounds, including olderwomen andwomenwith no income, staying insituationswheretheyarechargedexorbitantrentorexperiencedomesticservitude.

The older CALD women that have been staying here come from the situations of beingchargedexorbitantrent,domesticservitude,thatsortofthing,andIthinkthat’sapatternforwomen who over the last 10-15 years their support has dropped off, from their family orwhoever,havebeenputonNewstartwhichhasn’tchangedinhoweverlong,andrentshavegoneupsosituationsforwomenwhereverthey’re living,wouldhavejustgottenworseandworseuntil finallytheyendup inhospitalorsomething likethatandthesocialworkersayswehavetocallLink2home,youdon’thaveanywheretostay,andtheyendup inaservice.[Serviceprovider2]

A service provider said that older women: don’t want to rock the boat. So they make all theseconcessionsalongtheway[Serviceprovider1].Similarly,an intervieweewhohadbeensleeping inhercardescribedhowshevieweditasher‘house’andsodidn’tthinkofherselfashomeless:

[A policeman gaveme a cardwith the number of Link2home on it.] I kept it, thinking ohthat’sausefulthing.I’llkeepthat.That’sgood.Doesn’treallyapplytomethough.I’vegotmyhouse.BecauseIstillhadmylicenceandcar.SolikeIkeptitmoretobeabletopassitontootherhomelesspeoplethatI’dencounteredatthefoodvanorwhatever…[Woman1]

Hidden homelessness may prolong the experience of homelessness and increase its impact,includingthelikelihoodofexperiencingviolencewhilehomeless,adversephysicalandmentalhealthimpacts and increased isolation (Gelberg, Browner, Lejano, & Arangua 2004; Novak et al. 1999;Mayocketal.2015b).Bythetimethesewomendoseekassistancetheyarelikelytobeexperiencinglonger-termhomelessnessandbeinmorechroniccrisis(Robinson&Searby2005).

Bothmenandwomenmayexperiencehiddenhomelessness,but research indicates it isagreaterissue forwomen.Researchhascharacterisedpeopleexperiencing long-termhomelessnessashighusers of services such as homeless shelters, hospital emergency departments, drug and alcoholservicesandjails,andsomeresearchhasfocusedonthecostsincurredbythisdisproportionateuse(Culhane,Metraux,&Hadley2002;Larimeretal.2009).Forexample,itwasestimatedthat‘MillionDollar Murray’, a long-term homeless inebriate, used services estimated to cost a million dollars(Gladwell2006).Thisstereotypehasinfluencedthedevelopmentofservicesforpeopleexperiencinglong-termhomelessness.

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Manywomen’sexperiencesdiffer fromthis literature.Whileanumberof thewomen interviewedreportedmental health problems and had used psychiatric services, and some had usedmultipleservices,manywomenexperiencinglong-termhomelessnessdidnotreportthetypeofintensiveuseofmultiplepsychiatricservicesorotheremergencyservicesovertheirperiodofhomelessnessthathasbeendescribedinthisliterature.Ifwomendidusehomelessnesstemporaryaccommodationonmultipleoccasionsthiswasoftenbecauseoftheshort-termnatureoftheaccommodationofferedandsometimesbecausetheychosetoleaveorwereaskedtoleaveforarangeofreasons.Reasonsforwomenleavingaccommodationarediscussedlater inthisreport.Researchshowshowwomenmay become ‘trapped’ in homelessness if only repeated short-stay accommodation is offered(Mayock,Parker&Sheridan2015a,p.25).Ontheotherhand,manywomenusedfewornoservices;indeed,onewomanwhowas interviewedreportedcouchsurfingforsevenyearswithoutbeing incontactwithhomelessness services.Thisdoesnotmean that therearenowomenwhohavehighserviceusesimilar tothosedescribedaboveandassociatedwith ‘chronic’homelessness,butdoesshow howwomen’s long-term homelessness is not limited to this stereotype. The findings aboutwomen’sstrongrelianceoninformalarrangementsindicateachallengeforservicesinrespondingtothe initial period of many women’s long-term homelessness. Women’s different pathway intohomelessness alsomeans that the actual extent and impact of their homelessness is likely to beunderstated(Pleace,Culhane,Granfelt&Knutagard2015).

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4. Hidden homelessness: what are the obstacles tousingservices?

Sowhydo somewomen self-manage their homelessness rather than seeking help? The evidencesuggests fourkey interrelated factors that informwomen’sexperiencesanddecisionsaboutusingservices. These are: widespread cultural beliefs that stigmatise women’s homelessness and thataffectbothwomen’sperspectiveontheirhomelessnessandsomeservicepractices;women’s fearand concern for safety in services; not receiving the help they need; and lack of knowledge ofservices.

a. Stigmaandshame:historicalandculturalbeliefs:

There are widespread historical and cultural beliefs about women’s homelessness that operatebeyondthehomelessnessservicesystem,andsometimeswithin it, thattendtoblamewomenforbeing homeless and characterise them as deviant (O’Sullivan 2016). While factors includingpatriarchal attitudesand institutions, violence,povertyand theoperationofwelfare systemsmayoperate to remove agency and autonomy from women who experience homelessness, there isevidence that women’s avoidance of services is often a choice (Bretherton 2017). For women,homelessness carries a particular stigma in addition to the experience of deprivation, and carriesspecific meanings of failure, shame, self-blame and disempowerment, particularly when it hasinvolved separation from children (Mayock & Bretherton 2016). Service providers and staff ofservices are not necessarily immune from these pervasive preconceptions. Both literature andinterviewees for this research project state thatwomenmay avoid services in order to avoid thestigmaassociatedwiththesehistoricalandculturalbeliefsandstigmaaboutwomen’shomelessnessandwithaccessingservices;thatwomenmayalsointernalisethisstigmaasshame;andthatservicesneed to acknowledge and proactively address these issues (Mayock et al. 2015a). The historicalassociation of homelessness with men rather than women, and women’s association with home(Lofstrand&Quilgars2016)arealsocontributingfactorstothesebeliefs:

I thinkWestern culture tends to blame awoman for being homeless and thatmight be amother who has children. I think society still thinks it’s men who are homeless becausewomenarehidden,so there’sastigmaofactuallyaccessingservicesandwhenyouaccessthere’sfurtherstigma.[Serviceprovider2]

Intervieweessaidstigmaandshameresulted inwomennotwantingto letothersknowtheywerehomeless or speak about it, or not realising or acknowledging the severity of their situation, andgaveanumberofexamplesoftheseeffects.Notably,theseexamplessuggestthatwomen’sshameinbecominghomelessnesscanoccur regardlessof thecircumstances, forexample in situationsofdomesticviolence:

WithalotoftheCALDwomenwe’vehadsomanyofferstododifferentthingswhereyou’dbeidentified,and it’sabsolutelynoway,withtheshameonthecommunity, theshameonthefamily, the adult children, the same adult children who’ve actually caused you to be

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homeless, because you’ve had an argument or something like that. But I think the wholeshamethingforpeoplecanlookreallydifferent,butIthinkit’sabitofboth,untilI’monthestreet,I’minvisible.[Serviceprovider3]

…someolderwomen,they’representingtousandwe’rethinking-you’reactuallyhomeless,it’s thecircumstances they’re living in…and I think there’sbothsides -not seeingyourselfandnotwantingtoseeyourself…abitofboth.[Serviceprovider4]

It’s very much women among themselves don’t want to communicate each other’shomelessness. A lot of women are coming from a domestic and family violence situation.Somewomendisclose to their employerbutoftenwomenhave to leave their jobsbecausetheperpetratorknowswhere theywork.There’sdefinitelya shamearoundbeinghomelessandIthinkthat’safemalething,it’smyfault.Ithinkwomenoftenblamethemselvesforthepredicament they get in, because they are the multitaskers … there’s immediate shamethey’velostcontroloftheir life. It’s likeaself-stigmatisingperpetuatingthing.Weadvocatethatitcouldhappentoanybodybutnoonethinksitwillhappentothem,andwhenitdoestheyarecompletelyshockedandthinktheyshouldhavedonesomethingdifferentlyalongtheway.[Serviceprovider4]

Sothere’ssomanydifferentbarriers,andforcomplexwomenusingdrugsandalcoholwithahistory of domestic violence, do you really want to sit through and spill that out. Somewomendothat,andsomewomencan’tdothatbecauseit’stootraumatisingandsometimesthatcanbeyears.[Serviceprovider3]

Thebackgroundofculturalbeliefsaboutwomen’shomelessnessnotonlyaffects theresponsesofwomenwhobecomehomeless,butcanalsoaffecthowtheservicesystemand individualservicesrespond.Thecultural stigmaand shame forwomenassociatedwithbecominghomelessandwithaccessing services may also sometimes exist in the culture within homelessness services asexperienced by women who are homeless, and is a potential obstacle to service use. Culturalexpectationsandassumptionsmayframehomelesswomenasundeserving,inparticularthosewhohave complexneeds,whoarenotaccompaniedby childrenand/orwhosehomelessness is longerterm(MayockandBretherton2016).Theseassumptionsmaynotbeexplicitinhomelessnessservicephilosophiesandpracticesbutresearchindicatesthatwomenusingservices‘quicklybecomeacutelyawareof thediscourses and ideologiesunderpinning the rules and regimeswithin various servicesettings’(MayockandBretherton2016),andthisawarenessnegativelyaffectstheiruseofservices.Researchindicatesthatwomen’savoidanceofservicesandthehiddennatureoftheirhomelessnessis not only due to lack of knowledge and lack of access to services, but also due to ‘perceivedoppressive practices on the part of the staff within homelessness services’ (Lofstrand & Quilgars2016,p.63;Mayocketal.2015a,b;Paradisetal.2012;Thörn2001).DatafromintervieweesforthisprojectsupportsthisandprovidesadditionalinformationonhowthisimpacthasplayedoutinthelivesofwomenusinghomelessnessservicesinAustralia.

Factors such as the lack of capacity in homelessness services and the lack of affordable rentalhousingmayalsobetranslatedinspecificways,forexampleindecisionsaboutwhoisacceptedintoservicesandhowsupportisprovidedwithinservices.Stigmaaffectshowwomenrespondifservices

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fail to provide the support needed, either because of capacity constraints or other factors. TheexperiencesofwomenwhodidnotreceivethehelptheyneededarediscussedlaterinthisChapter.Serviceproviderssaidthatbothpastnegativeexperiences inservicesandfearsbasedonnegativeaccounts of serviceswhether based in fact or not (in some cases by violent partnerswhodo notwant the woman to leave) have a continuing deterrent effect on women’s service use. Wherewomenhaveusedservicespreviouslybutdidnotreceivehelpthataddressedtheirneeds,theymaydecidethereisnopointinfutureengagementwithservices.

Where women have felt the impact of service attitudes and practices that were unhelpful,disrespectful,undermineddignityor leftwomen feelingunsafe,womenmayavoid thoseservices,and in some cases all services. For women who already feel the stigma and indignity of beinghomeless, actions by providers that cause fear or disempowerment, even if unintentional, caninflamethesefeelingsofdisrespect.Issuesraisedbynegativeexperiencesinservicesthatareraisedin research and by interviews with service providers and women using services are summarisedbelow.Thesefindingspointtoaneedforfurtherresearchintowomen’sownreasonsforleavingorrefusing to reside in both mixed and women-only services, and services’ reasons if they excludethem.

Moralisingandjudgementalattitudes

Bothinternationalliterature(Mayockp.270,Paradisetal.2012)andinterviewsconductedforthisresearch indicate that notions of deserving and undeserving women experiencing homelessnesspersistinsomeservicesoramongsomeindividuals,andwomenmaybejudgedandblamedfortheirhomelessness, for examplewhen it is considered to be linked tomental illness, drug and alcoholproblemsorbadchoices.ThegenderdivisionsdescribedinAustraliaas‘dammedwhoresandGod’spolice’,(Summers1975,Arrow2015)orintheUSas‘ladyversuslowcreature’(Golden1990)havenotcompletelydisappeared.

Service provider interviewees said that women who experience long-term or recurrenthomelessnessareparticularlylikelytobejudgednegatively.Inparticularhelpmaybeconditionalonbehaviour that fits with preconceptions of femininity and responsibility, and punitive measurestakenagainstwomenwhodonotmeetthesepreconceptions.Homelesswomenwhoaremothersmaybejudgedagainsttraditionalideasoffemininityandmothering,andthemotherhoodofwomenwith children not in their care is poorly recognised by welfare and homelessness systems. Thesewomenareofficiallyreferredtoas‘single’.Homelesswomenwhoareseparatedfromtheirchildrenexperience shame, guilt, disempowerment and reduced self-esteem, while those with children intheir care find it difficult to parent due to the insecurity of their situation (Mayock& Bretherton2016).Womenmaybejudgedfordrugandalcoholuseorpastmistakes(Mayock,Parker&Sheridan2015a).Otherwomenwhomaybeviewedastransgressingcertainmoralcodes,suchastransgenderwomen,lesbianwomen,womendoingsexwork,womenwhohavebeeninprison,andwomenwhohaveleftandreturnedtoaviolentrelationship,arealsoparticularlyvulnerabletomoraljudgement.Forexampleoneintervieweespokeof:

… that moralising that goes on around women who’ve lost their children with drugs andalcohol,arestillusingdrugsandalcohol,asiftosaytheystillhaven’tlearnttheirlesson,that

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kind of judgement and moralising, particularly women who’ve had multiple housingtenancies,they’vehadlotsofdebt,allthatmessyhistory.[Serviceprovider3]

Societalattitudesthatblamewomenfortheirhomelessnessareassociatedwithresponsesthataimto ‘fix’ individualwomen (Paradis2012,p.7), focusingonhow individualproblemscontributed tohomelessness at theexpenseof focusingon theproblems thewomanhas alreadyovercome, thestructural social and economic factors that cause homelessness, the impact of disadvantage andtraumaandtheinadequacyofassistance.Anintervieweedescribedtheimpactofnegativeattitudesandmessagesconveyedbythisapproach:

Andwe’llrescueyouifyoudeserveit,notempoweringyou.Theytalkthelanguagebuttheydon’tactuallypracticeit,thatmodelofempoweringpeopletohavechoices…Makingpeoplefeel like they’re helpless and hopeless and don’t have any strengths. Making people feelashamed.Judgingwomenonthedecisionsthey’vemade.Like:‘Wellyou’renotgoingtodothisunlessyoudothat’.Soyou’retheexpertandyou’regoingtotellthepersonwhattheyneedtodo,whethertheywanttodothatornot.[Serviceprovider3]

Previous research has found that this type of stigma in services may lead to women leaving oravoidingservices(Paradisetal2012;Lofstrand&Quilgars2016).Anintervieweedescribedhowthiswaspartofsystemsabuse:

Thereare somepeople thatpractice inoldwaysandcontribute to the systemsabuse thatpeopleexperience.Soifpeoplearebeingtreatedaslessthanoracharitycase,orinthepastIhadpeoplesaying‘don’tmaketheplacelooktoonice,they’llneverwanttoleave’.[Serviceprovider7]

Serviceprovider intervieweessaid that itwas important tohaveprofessional staff,and that therewere stilluntrainedgatekeepersat someserviceswhobringunquestionedprejudicesorbeliefs totheir work, and who may be punitive [by] saying no to somebody getting even through theassessmentstagetoenterservices[Serviceprovider1].

Somewomenavoidservicesrunbyparticularorganisationsorthesectorasawholebecausetheywishtoavoidorganisationsthatoperatetheseservices.Oneserviceproviderintervieweesaidthatsometimeswomenareputoffbyoverlyreligiousservices…andthere’sanexpectationthatI’mgoingto have to act in a certain way, that has been an issue in the past [Service provider 5]. Anotherserviceprovideralsosaidthatreligiousapproachescoulddetersomewomen,includingwomenwhohadexperiencedabuse in in religiouschildren’s institutions, some Indigenouswomenandwomenwho felt judged by religious perspectives, including lesbian and transgender women. Thisinterviewee said thatwomen reported that they experienced a sense of being undeserving,whichencroached on their sense of self-worth [Service provider 1]. Literature also suggests that wherewomen have had negative past experiences in institutions, this may deter them from usinghomelessnessservices.Manyhomelessnessserviceoperatorsalsorun institutionsforchildrenandinternationalresearchhasfoundthisisanobstacleforsomewomen:

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Somewomenexpressedprofounddistrust in thehomeless service sectorbecauseof theirpastnegativeexperiencesofinstitutionaland/orotherStatecaresettingsandthis, inturn,impacted their willingness and ability to access and engage with services and serviceproviders.Forexample,Rosiespokeabouthowshewasreluctanttoaccesssupportserviceswhenshebecamehomelessafterrunningawayfromacaresettingattheageof14,optinginsteadtosleeproughinacity-centrelocation(Mayocketal2015a,p.27).

Underminingwomen’sautonomy

Even where not accompanied by an identifiable moral judgement, some services may operate inways thatunderminewomen’s independenceandautonomybymicromanaging them, infantilisingthemoroperatingservicesinawaythatisregimentedorwherethereareexcessive,unreasonableorarbitraryrules(Lofstrand&Quilgars2016;Mayocketal.2015a,b;Paradisetal.2012).Servicesmay make decisions on behalf of women rather than consulting them, leading to feelings ofdisempowerment. (Mayock& Bretherton 2016);Mayock et al 2015a). One interviewee said thatserviceshavebeenaboutrulesandtryingtoensuresafetyandmovedawayfromautonomy[Serviceprovider 2]. Another interviewee said that common themes in situations where women gavenegativefeedbackaboutserviceswere:didn’tfeelheard,didn’tthinkIhadavoice,didn’tfeelsafe,becauseofthewaysomethingwashandled[Serviceprovider4].Thisintervieweesaidthesewomenfeltliketheyhadtohandovercontrol.

Responsesthatundermineautonomyortreatwomenaslessthanfullyadultmaymakewomenfeeldisempowered (Mayocketal. 2015a) and lead towomendecidingnot touse services: ‘[t]hewaytheyaddressyou,it’slikeachildwhodoesn’tknowanything.Thewaytheyspeaktoyou,it’sbetterjustleaving’(Paradisetal.2012p.11).Forwomenwhoarealreadyvulnerable,beingtreatedinthiswaybuildsuponahistoryofreducedautonomy,forexamplewomenwhohavebeeninprison:

Forwomen in prison, that’s absolutely the environmentwhere they’ve come from, peopletalkabout themasgirls, you’vegotno control, you’vegotnopower,andpeople feel veryjudgedbymanyservices.[Serviceprovider8]

Servicesandindividualsmaytakethispositionbecausetheyviewwomenasvulnerable(Lofstrand&Quilgars2016)oraspartofattemptingtomanageserviceoperation:

Providing a crisismixed accommodation service to peoplewho have been sleeping on thestreetisanopportunitytobeveryregimented...Thingslikeacurfew,mealtimes,thatsortofthing,showertimes,thisishowthingsgetdone,thisishowyouwashyourclotheshere,wecangiveyouthisshampoohere, Igaveyouoneyesterdaywhere’sthatonegone,allthosepractical things. I thinksomemenrespondto thatsortof regimentedstructureand I thinktheoppositeoftentimeswouldgoforthewomenwehavestayinghere. Itstriggeringtobetoldhowtowashyourclothes,andwhenyoucanhaveacoffeeinthemorningandallthatsortofthing.[Serviceprovider2]

Curfews and other regimented responses may be experienced by services as useful operationaltools,butmaybeexperiencedbywomenasunderminingtheirautonomy.Oneserviceprovidersaid

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women’sreactiontocontrolsofthistypewas:ImightbehomelessbutIstillhavemylicencetocomeandgo[Serviceprovider5].Someserviceproviderintervieweessawregimentationasunavoidable,whileacknowledgingsomeofitsnegativeeffects:

Therehastobequiteabitofregimentaroundpeoplesharingaplacesothatinitselfisabitpaternalisticaboutwho’sdoingthechoresandwho’sdoingthisandyou’vegottobehomeatacertaintime,youknowacurfew.Wehadawomanattendingoureveninggroupbecauseshe was working during the day, and she got back to her refuge too late so she wasn’tallowedtocometotheworkshopbecauseshecouldn’tgetbackincurfewtime.Nowthiswasto come to a therapeutic group for domestic violence. A lot of refuges do have a curfew.[Serviceprovider7]

Anotherprovideroperatedacurfewforsafetybutdidsoflexibly.Resourcingdictatedtheextentofthisflexibility:

Wedohaveacurfewbutifsomeonewasgoingtoagroup,we’dbeveryflexibleaboutthat.Weneedto lockthedoorbecausethere’sanalarmthatgoesoffthroughthemiddleofthenighttomakesurethatpeoplearen’tletinfromoutside.Sothestaffmemberwouldstayupto not activate the alarm to let thewoman in.Other servicesmight not have the staffing.[Serviceprovider9]

Micromanaging may also be associated with limited resources in other ways, for example whereservicesfocusononeareaoftheperson’sneedattheexpenseofawholisticapproach:

If we have five or six women at the service who have such a depth of so many issues,domesticviolence,longhistoryoftrauma,mentalhealthdiagnosis,currentdrugandalcoholuse, there’sa tendencytomicromanagewomen in that instancewhenyou’re tryingto findsomebodyahousingpathway.There’sprobablyatendencytoblock9outof10thingsthataregoingonforthewomanbecauseit’stoomuchatthemoment.Wecan’thelpyouwithallthatstuffrightnow,we’retryingtofindyousomewheretolive.Soallthatstuffthatyou’retellingmeabouteverydayisjustwaybeyondwhatIcanassistyouwith,soI’mjustgoingtomanageyouinawaythatIthinkIcankeepyouhereuntilwehavesomethingappropriateforyou.Ithinkitwouldbefrustratingbecauseseekingassistanceforallthethingsthataregoingonintheirlife,andeverydaytheyaretryingtoresolvesomeoftheseissues,andattheendoftheday–I’mnotsurewhythisis–itjustsohappensthewoman’sonlyreceivingsupportfor one thing. If you’re in amental health service, I’m sure that is the focus. Beinga crisisservice,thisisahousingpathwaysortofhousingfocus.SoI’msurethatdoesn’tworkforalotofwomenunfortunately. Iknowthat’stodowithresourcesandtimingandstaffingandallthatstuff.WhatI’mtryingtosayisthereisdefinitelyatendencytomicromanagewomenincrisisservices.[Serviceprovider2]

This analysis is supported by other research (Mayock et al. 2015a) which found that manyhomelessness services were not equipped to address the multiple support needs of needs ofwomen,andthatwomenhadoftenbeenviewedthroughmanyprofessionalperspectivesbuthad

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nevertheless not received the assistance they needed. This led to women feeling services to bedisconnectedtotheirownassessmentoftheirneeds,anddiscouragedthemfromusingservices.

b. Fear:unsafeandunsuitableenvironments

Violence,fearandtraumaarenotonlypathwaysintohomelessnessformanywomen,theyarealsofeaturesofbeinghomeless (Robinson2005;Murray2009).Violencewhilehomeless canoccuronthe street, in informalaccommodationwith familyor friends, inother temporaryaccommodationsuchasboardingandroominghouses,andinhomelessnessservices(Murray2009;Brethertonetal.2016;Watson2016).Womenmayavoidsituationswheretheypotentiallyfeelunsafe.Theprofoundimpact of complex trauma from lifetime repeated experiences of violence, while having receivedsome attention, is still insufficiently acknowledged and is an issue that the homelessness sectorneedstocontinuetointegrateintopractice(Robinson2005).

Experiencesof fear and lackof safety in servicesmayalsodeterwomen fromusing services. Thisfear is both physical and psychological. It may include fear of: physical violence, sexual assault,witnessingviolence,events that triggerpast trauma, theftofbelongings,difficultorunpredictablebehaviour by others (for example people with mental illness or drug and alcohol problems) andtraumaticandothernegative impactsonchildren. It canalso involve fearof stigma, indignityandpunitive service approaches that undermine autonomy and link to past trauma. Indeed, someresearch found that, for some women, going to a homelessness service represented ‘end of theroad’ homelessness because of fears of unknown crisis accommodation and stigma (Robinson &Searby 2006). Fear in homelessness services, particularly shared environments, was raised bymultiple interviewees for this research, both service providers and women who experiencedhomelessness:

There is a fear that only people with drug issues or mental illness go into homelessnessservices.…Alsoifit’sasharedenvironmentpeoplefreakoutaswell.[Serviceprovider4]

Whatwe’veseenispeopleareterrifiedtocomeintoahomelesspersons’service.Thewomenweworkwithgenerallyare.Fearof itbeingunsafe, fearofviolence…Whatare theotherserviceusersgoingtobelike,howsafewillIbe,howwillstaffmanagethat.Willpeoplebebreaking into my bedroom at night and stealing my things. There’s a real fear. [Serviceprovider6]

Thefearfactorisunderstandableespeciallyinsomehomelessnessservicesthathavealargemixofmenandwomenstaying inthesameservice,you’vegotpeoplewhoarechronicallyunwell,peoplewhoareusingice– itwouldbereallyscary.Sometimesits justifiedfear, it’snotjustperception.[Serviceprovider9]

Womenmayfearandavoidhomelessnesshostelsdesignedformen(LofstrandandQuilgars2018;MossandSingh2015)andserviceshousingbothmalesand females (Mayocketal.2015).Severalwomen interviewed spoke of being afraid of some homelessness services where people were

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crowdedoutside,beforeevenhavingentered.Womeninterviewedforthisresearchsaidthatmixedgenderservicescouldbefrightening:

Itwasmixed… Ididn't feel safe… I left thereand that'swhen Iwenthomeless. I thoughtanything'sbetterthanstayinginthere…Idon'tbelieveinmixed,Ithinkthat'snotgoodforsomeone.[Woman7]

Icouldn’thavegoneanywherewherethereweremen.I’vehad–I’vebeenrapedacoupleoftimes,three–fourtimesinmylife.Acoupleofthemwerequitenastyonesso,yes,Iwouldhavefoundthatveryhard.Youcomeoutofhospital,you’revulnerable,they’regettingyourmedsright.[Woman9]

Similarly, service providers and women who had experienced homelessness said single sexenvironments where people from very different situations and with differing behaviours werehousedtogethercouldbefrightening:

Sometimes I feel [unsafe]. She [another woman in shared unsupervised accommodation]meetspeopleinthestreetandshebringsthem,men,women,anybody.Shelivesrightnexttomeandtogooutshehastowalkpastmywindowandshe’satroublemaker,andbecauseI’mrightnexttoheryouseeheryellingandslammingdoorsandbringingpeopleandusingdrugs.[Woman2]

Interviewees said thathousingdifferent client groups together in the samebuilding could lead tosituations that were traumatic, and shared environments with others who are unwell or withchallenging behaviours could be very traumatising. What one service provider referred to as‘overlapping trauma’ couldmakegeneralisthomelessness services traumatising. Services said thatalthough they knew thathousing verydiverse groups togetherwasproblematic, theywereunderpressuretodosobecauseofalackofmoreappropriateoptions:

Anytimeyougointoasharedfacilityandyou’vegottraumatisedpeople,unlessyou’vegotreallygoodstaffmanagingthat,andalotofplacesdon’t,thenyou’regoingtohaveconflictsandthere’sgoingtobefearandthatfeelingofbeingunsafe.[Serviceprovider5]

Sometimesphonereferrallinesbegservicestotakereferralsthatareunsuitableforexamplea service targeted to peoplewith long-term histories of homelessness and complex needsbeingpressed to takewomennot in this situationbutescapingdomesticviolence. [Serviceprovider1]

Somewomeninterviewedsaidtheirexperiencesinserviceswithdiversepeoplehadinvolved:

…alotofdramabutthat’swhatyougetwhenyoubunchofabout50oddpeopleinasmallenvironment.You’regoingtohavedrama.Yeahandplussomeofthemwereondrugs,someofthemhadmentalhealthissues,someofthemjustcameoutofrehabortryingtogiveupahabit.[Woman10]

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A serviceprovider said thatoneperson ‘runningamok’has resulted inothers leaving the service,withonewoman reportedly texting I’d ratherbeon the street thanhere [Serviceprovider3], andanotherserviceproviderexplainedthatinsomecrisisservicesmultipleviolentorfrighteningeventscouldoccuratthesametime:

Unfortunately in crisis services, particularly ones with shared rooms, there’s no denyingthere’ssomenegativeexperiencesforwomenwho’veaccessedtheseservices.Unfortunatelyitdoesdependonthemixofclientsyouhavehereonanygivennight,andunfortunatelyawomancouldwalk intoaservicesuchasthis,andbychancecomeonanightwhenthere’sthreeorfourthingshappening:there’sapaddywagonoutthefront,there’sanambulanceatthe side gate, there’s somebody chucking a knife and fork around, there’s an argumenthappening over here. So I think it makes sense that there are women accessing homelessservicesthatwouldchoosenottoaccesshere.[Serviceprovider2]

Someintervieweessaidthatwomenwhowerefirsttimehomelessmightbeparticularlyimpactedbytraumaticevents inservices.Onewomanwhowasusingservicesforthefirsttimewasshockedbytheevidenceofdrugtakingshesaw:

…thefirstmorningIwillalwaysrememberthat,IsawaneedleandtheonlyneedlesI’veeverseenareneedles in thehospital and I hadno ideaand Iwas justabit grossedout from itbecause I’m like, that is so disgusting. Like you can get Hep C, HIV and all this from justgettingprickedbyitandthat’sjustsounsafe.[Woman10]

Theftandlackofprivacyareotherfactorsthatmaymakewomenfeelunsafeanddistrustful:

IhadtosharearoomwithfourotherwomenandIhadnoprivacyanditwasachallenge...[Woman10]

Ithink[adifferentsortofrefuge]wouldhavebeenbetterbutittaughtmealotofvaluablelessons likenever trustanyone you know,always keepyour eyeon your things. Like theymaypretendtobeyourfriendsbutIhadalotofthingsstolenthereandjustlikealwaysbeawarethatpeoplewhoareondrugs,they’renotthemselves.Youcan’tblamethemforhowtheyactandthat’smyinput.[Woman10]

Inaddition,pastservicepracticesthatinvolvesummarypunishmentmayhavelonglastingtraumaticeffectsonwomenwhohaveused thoseservices in thepast,on their childrenandonotherswhoheartheseaccounts:

I’vecomeacrosswomenwho’vebeeninandoutofrefugessincetheywerechildrenandcanrememberthetypesofthingsthatwouldgoon,andthekindofstaff…usedtotreatpeoplereally,reallybadly.Ithinkthoseexperienceswhenpeopleweren’taffordedanydignity…andI think some poor practices, untrained staff … And women kicked out on the street fromrefuges, like literallyyourbagspacked,call thecops,you’reout.Andnotbeingabletotalkaboutthisisn’tworking,whatshallwedo.[Serviceprovider3]

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Otherssimilarlyemphasisedthedevastatingeffectofprolongedexposuretotrauma.Theimpactofpast trauma affects women who have been in institutions including state care for young people,prisonor psychiatric institutions, aswell as thosewhohavehadbadexperiences in homelessnessservices:

Ithinkthoseexperiencesinthepast,orthinkingthat ifyoucomeintoarefugeandyouarebeingobserved, I’mgoingtoendup inhospital, so I’mnotcoming intoanykindofservice,because you might have warrants, you think you’re going to go back to jail, if you thinksomethinglikethatisgoingtohappen,itfeelsinstitutional-like,ifyou’vegrownupinhomesorrefugesorthingslikethat.[Serviceprovider3]

Anintervieweewhohadbeenhomelessdescribedhertraumaticreactiontobeingsearchedenteringa service, illustrating how punitive practices that undermine autonomy can connect to earliertrauma,andleadtowomennotusingservices:

TheyweresearchingmewhenIwent[intotheservice].IwalkedinthedoorsandIfeltlikeIwasgoingbackintoMindaorReibyforbeinguncontrollablewhenIwasakid.Straightoutthe doors again, running. [Was the atmosphere there different to here?] Very much so.[Woman6]

Some interviewees stressed that their practicewas to not referwomen to boarding and roominghouses as the unsupervised mixed gender arrangement was unsafe for women. Some localitieswherehighneedspeoplewereconcentratedtogetherwerealsofrightening:

Alotofourtransitionalpropertiesarein[suburb],whenyoumentionthatareapeoplefreakoutandsayIcan’tgothere.Everybody’sgoingtobeondrugs,there’salotofassumptions.[Serviceprovider4]

Serviceproviderssaidthattheexperienceoftakingchildrentosomehomelessnessservicescouldbefrightening, with one saying that some women with children don’t want to go to homelessnessservicesbecausetheybelievethatcouldharmtheminsomeway[Serviceprovider7].Therearealsopracticalissuesrelatedtohavingchildreninhomelessnessservices.Intervieweessaidthatthiswasnowcompoundedbythelackofchildren’ssupportworkersinNSWservices.

There’sbeennospecificchildsupportworkerssincethereforms3,unless theservice itself isputting thebudget towards that.There’s very few trainedchild supportworkers thatknowhow to work with children and understand children’s development, whereas prior to thereform I had two child support workers. If you’ve got to go to work, or you’ve got olderchildren,allofthesethingsarecomplexitiesaroundstayinginarefuge.Youcan’tleavethe8-year-oldwiththe14-year-oldtogetofftoschool,ontheirown.Youmightdothatinarentalproperty but you can’t do that in a refuge. If you’ve got to startwork or leave homeat 6o’clockinthemorning…whattimedoyouopenyourdoor?[Serviceprovider7]

3GoingHomeStayingHomereformsthatoccurredin2012-14(NSWGovernment2018)

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c. Didn’treceivethehelptheyneeded

Women can experience lack of help at any stage of contact with homelessness services: at firstcontact and referral, while attempting to access services, while using services and while seekingpermanenthousing.Wherewomenhave contacted servicesbutnot received thehelp theyneed,theirview,describedbyaserviceprovidermaybecome:I’mstillhomeless,noonecanhelpme,whybother,I’mgoingtogiveup[Serviceprovider4].Thisprovideralsonotedthat,ifwomenhaveafirstexperienceofahomelessnessproviderand it’sabadexperience, theyassumeeveryone’s likethat.Failuretoassistinatimelywayislikelytoexacerbateproblemsandprolonghomelessness(Johnson,Gronda and Coutts 2008; Busch-Geertsema, O’Sullivan, Edgar, & Pleace 2010). Interviewees alsonotedthis:Everytimesomeone’shomeless,itsfurthertraumatisingforthem[Serviceprovider1].

Inappropriatereferrals

Anintervieweesaidthatevenwherewomendidseekhelptherewereissues,inparticularinrecentyears,aboutcoordinationinthehomelessnessservicessectorthataffectedreferralsforwomenwhowerehomeless.

Therehavebeenquiteafewchangesinthewaythingsoperate…theredoesn’tseemtobethesamesysteminplace,andalotofpeoplearefallingthroughthegapswherethatwasn’thappening as much previously. I think its lack of communication between services, or noteven communication, lack of coordination … lack of the initial referral pathway as well …Thesedays…wedogetalotofreferralsforcompletelyinappropriateclients,orclientsthatmightnotbeinourarea…Thesystemic issueispeoplegettingtherightreferralpathways.[Serviceprovider5]

Itwassuggestedthatthechangesinreferralprocessesandhighstaffturnoverinthisareahadmadeitmoredifficult togetgoodoutcomes,and that itwas important tohaveclearpathwaysbetweenservices,peopleneedtoknowwhateverybodydoes,arealisticunderstandingofwhataservicecando...[and]areallystrongcentralreferralservice[Serviceprovider5].

Barriersforspecificneeds

There is a history of barriers in service provision for specific groups of women experiencinghomelessness(NSWOmbudsman2004).Serviceproviderssaidmanybarriersremainedandinsomecaseswereexacerbatedbycurrentopposingpressuresonservices:theneedsofpeopleexperiencinghomelessness toaccess insufficientplaces in serviceson theonehand, and the lackofhousing toenable people to leave those services on the other hand. Interviewees said there was a lack ofhousingpathwaysforwomenwithmorecomplexneeds,andthatthereductioninhousingoptionsand the strong competition for available housing and services, meant that the move to outcomemeasurementwashavingunintendednegativeeffectson serviceprovision for this cohort, suchasthosewhohadexperiencedlong-termandrecurrenthomelessness.Thesefactorstogetherprovidedan incentive to give lower priority to assisting thosewhose level of needwould require a greaterinvestmentofresourcestoachieveoutcomes:

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With the push for tangible outcomes and KPIs that is changing an industry, let’s just behonest,peopledon’twanttoworkwithcomplexneedswomenthat’sdifficultortangibleorgoing tohave tobemeasurable. It’s expensive so it’s not attractive toworkwith complexwomen,let’sfaceit.There’sgoingtobealotofbarriers.[Serviceprovider1]

More recent changes have increased the pressures on providing specialist responses to women.HomelessnessservicesinNSWareamixofservicesthatspecialiseinassistingonetargetgroupandservices that target multiple groups (NSW FACS 2014). In recent years changes to homelessnessservicesinNSWhavemeantthatsomeservicesthatpreviouslyassistedonlyonecohortofhomelesspeople were changed to assist multiple groups (valentine et al. 2017). In particular this changemeantgreater ‘mainstreaming’of services forwomen, so thatwomenand their childrenwhoareescapingdomesticviolence,andwomenexperiencinghomelessnessforotherreasonsarenowmoreoften accommodated together, and that services that previously specialised in assisting womenescaping violence and serviceswithout a background in domestic violence both now support thisbroader cohort. The result of this is the effective closure ofmany stand-alone domestic violencerefuges (Andrew 2018). This change was accompanied by changed access arrangements wherepeople contacting a service receive initial services including information, advice and referral fromthat service, and services collaborate to rapidly facilitate access to crisis or other accommodation(NSWFACS2014).

Intervieweessaidtherewasaparticularlackofspecialistservicesforwomenwhohaveexperienceddomesticviolencewithonefromawomen’shomelessnessservicesayingthat:outofourclientsthatcome through our transitional properties, up to 70% of our clients have experienced domesticviolence at some point in their lives [Service provider 4]. Research shows that domestic violencerefuges and other small women-focussed services often emphasise empowerment and buildingconfidence,andthatthisisparticularlyvaluedbywomenusingtheseservices(Mayocketal.2015a,p. 30).

Theresearchshowedacomplexrelationshipbetweentheneedforwomentogetspecialisthelpandavoid traumatic experiences where very diverse cohorts are accommodated together; and theimperativetofindaccommodationforwomenneedingsomewheretogo.Inprinciplethispotentialtension can be resolved by services working together to find the right assistance. However thegeneral shortage of places in homelessness services and the particular lack of specialist servicesmeansthatinpracticethereisinadequatesystemcapacitytoenablethistooccur.Informationfromserviceprovidersshowsthistensionandtheworkthatindividualservicesdotomeetallneedsinthecurrentcontextwhereawomanisreferredtoaserviceandthereisnowhereelseforawomantogoiftheydon’ttakeher:

Wetrytogetthereferrertounderstandwherethey’resendingthatwoman.Wealsotryandgetthewomantounderstandwhereshe’scoming.Sometimeswecanaddresstheneedveryquicklybutoftenwefindthere’ssomanyunderlyingissuesthereit’snotaquickreferral.Wehave thedomestic violence linebeggingus to takewomenwhen there’s no space.We sayplease–wepushbackandsayit’sreallynotagoodreferral,thisisnotagoodoption,andwe

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saythesameforyoungpeople.Wehavepeoplebeggingusandwesayasalastresortyes.[Serviceprovider1]

…therearegreatservicesthattakepeoplethatnooneelsewilltake,that’sreallyvaluable,but I think when women pit stop in those services briefly, they are exposed to trauma,violence,assault,peopleareonice–there’sallsortsofthingsthatarereallyscary,andit’sthatfear...[Serviceprovider6]

…serviceswhoworkwiththehardestclientgroup,they’lltakeanybodyintotheirservice…Thatcanbeagoodthingandalsoanegativething.I’vehadclientssayingwho’vebeentherebeforeIfeelunsafeherebecauseIfeelabitthreatenedformysafety.Butthere’saneedforthat…[Serviceprovider5]The paramountwould be not excluding anywoman from the service but it’s necessary fortheretobespecialistservicesouttheresoIthinkwhat’simportantinthatscenarioisthere’sarelationship between services that results in a woman being able to find the appropriateserviceforher.[Serviceprovider2]

Examplesof thesesystemicbarriers includedsomeservicesbeing ‘hesitanttotakewomenseenascomplex’.Oneprovidersaidthattheoveralldemandforservicesmadeiteasierforthemtorefuseanindividualwomanwhoseneedsaremorecomplex:

A lot of services, managers and case managers struggle with those ethical decisions.Sometimesaviolentincidentcanbeaveryblackandwhitereasonfor[adecisiontoexcludeawomanfromaservice],butthentheconsequencescanbedifficult.Peoplearestillstrugglingwiththatandtheseareservicesthataretryingtoincludewomen.[Serviceprovider1]

Servicessaidtherearemultiplebarriersforwomenwithaddictionproblems,anda lackofservicesandpathwaysforthesewomen.There isa lackofsoberingupshorttermaccommodationservicesforwomentogointowherethere’sanaccesspointforthemtoseekhelp;alackofrehabilitationforwomen, resulting inwaiting listswhichare anobstacle to goodoutcomes; anda lackof addictionservices thatwillacceptwomenwhoarecomingstraight fromprison.Womenwithbothdrugandalcoholproblemsandmentalillnessmaybeexcludedfromservices:theycan’tattendthedrugandalcoholservicebecauseoftheirmentalillnessorcan’tattendthemedicalservicebecausethey’vegotan active addiction [Service provider 8]. There is a lack of services specifically for this group.Intervieweesalsoidentifiedalackofservicesforwomenwhohaveanykindofanyhistoryofviolenceeven ifminor or in self-defence: for a lot of ourwomen that’s belting the guy that’s been beltingthemupforyears,buttheywon’tbeabletogetintoarefuge[Serviceprovider8].Thereisalsoalackofservicesforvulnerablewomeninactiveaddictionthatservicescan’taccommodatebecausethey’reon ice or intoxicated because it’s not suitable forwomen’s refugeswhere there’s children [Serviceprovider4].Anintervieweewhohadamentalillnessanddrugaddictionsaid:

Ifelt likeIdidn'tqualifyforalotofthings. If Ihadmental illnessandbecauseI'vebeentorehab, italmost felt likesometimes itwas themsaying, "Actuallyyouneed togoanddealwith that firstor youneed todealwith themental illness firstbeforewecan lookat your

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thing."Thathasn'tbeensaidinmyfacebutthat'swhatitfeltlikewhenIwastryingtofindhousing.[Woman8]

Service provider interviewees noted a number of other groupswith diverse needswho aremorelikelytomissoutintheassessmentandreferralprocesses,andwhomaynotaccessservicesduetocapacity constraints andother issues.Olderwomenmaynot get into ahomelessness service andmayfeeluncomfortablecohabitingwithadiversehomelesspopulation.Transgenderedwomenarenot accepted by some services and the services they receive may not be responsive to theirsituations and needs. Women without permanent residency escaping domestic violence are notentitledtokeyservicessuchasCentrelink,Medicareandhousingassistance.Thesewomenincludethose who are on a temporary bridging, spousal, student or tourist visa, have arrived from NewZealandafter2001orhavefleddomesticviolenceinPapuaNewGuineaandfledtoThursdayIsland(Kristal2001).Thesewomenhavehighandspecialistsupportneeds;manyhaveyoungchildren;andthereare significantchildprotection issues (O’Brien2018).Theyarewithout incomeandmaynotreceiveassistanceasservicesinmoststates includingNSWarenotfundedtoassistthemandasaresultmaynotassistthemormayrationhowmanywomentheycanaccept.Thereisnopathwaytoresolve their situation. There is a long history of women with disabilities including mental illnessbeing excluded from homelessness services and of services failing to offer appropriate help forexampleingettingtoandusingservices,havinginaccessiblephysicalenvironmentsandservicesnotbeingstructuredtomeettheneedsofwomenwithdisabilities,inareassuchaspolicies,proceduresand programs (WomenwithDisabilities Australia 2008). In addition,workers in servicesmay lackawareness of the situations and precipitating factors affecting women with disabilities, may beinfluencedbystereotypesormaylackawarenessofissuesofaccessibility(WomenwithDisabilitiesAustralia 2008). Interviewees noted that these experiences of exclusion were retraumatising,prolongedwomen’shomelessnessandwerenotcosteffective. Riskassessmentscanbeusedtoexcludepeopleratherthantounderstandthebestwaytoassist.Intervieweesreportedthatservicesstillexcludepeoplewhohavementalhealthordrugandalcoholproblems,despite theNSWOmbudsmanhaving reportedonconcernsaboutsuchexclusions fromhomelessnessservicessomeyearsago(NSWOmbudsman2004).Servicesmayexcludepeoplebasedon worker safety, but some interviewees said that by modifying their approach, homelessnessservicescouldrespondtotheneedsofwomenwithcomplexneeds,althoughaspectsofthisthiswillrequireadditionalresourcing.TheseissuesarefurtherdiscussedinChapter5:

Idon’tthinktheindustry’sreallycaughtupwithhowtobeflexibleandkeepsomeonesafeand there be dignity and trauma-informed care in terms of responding to thosewomen’sneeds.Intermsofthereallyendcohort,there’sgoingtohavetobesomeriskmitigationintermsofaservice’sresponsetothatwoman.Itdoesn’tmeanitcan’tbeflexible…Ifservicesdon’tchangethat ideologyfromthat firstpointofcall, there’sgoingtobea lotofwomenhavingthatbarrier.[Serviceprovider1]

Inappropriate rules may also serve to exclude vulnerable people. One interviewee who hadexperiencedhomelessnessdescribedtheeffectofaruleaboutCentrelink:

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[When I arrived at the service] they just said oh are you on Centrelink and at that timethere'dbeenagapwithCentrelinkandIsaid"noIhavetogobacktoCentrelinkto…",andtheysaidohyoucanonlystayonenight,becauseIwasn'tonCentrelink,becausethat'showtheygetpaid[Woman7].

Theissueofserviceexclusionorhesitancyinworkingwithwomenwhoseneedsaremorecomplexisnot new, with previous research highlighting this problem (NSW Ombudsman 2004; Robinson &Searby 2006). A shortage of crisis and other accommodation, and of funding for support staffimpactsmostonthemostvulnerablebecauseservicesrespondbyprioritisingthosewithlowerneedwhereprovidersaremostlikelytoachievegoodoutcomes(Robinson&Searby2006).RobinsonandSearbynotetheironythatwomenarelikelytobecomevisibletoservicesatthetimetheirsituationhasdeterioratedanditisatthispointthattheyaremorelikelytobeexcludedfromservices.Despitesome attention to this issue in the sector, and evidence of strong efforts by some services inassistingthosewithcomplexneeds,thereisevidencethatthemostvulnerableremainlesslikelytoreceivehelp. Nohousingoutcome The shortage of housing that would be affordable for people experiencing homelessness framesinterviewees’commentsabouttheoperationofhomelessnessservices:Theobviousfrustrationswiththe lackofaffordablehousingandeverythingbeingtooexpensive.We’retryingtomoveclientson,everyone is experiencing that [Service provider 5]. This lack of both housing and crisisaccommodation means that there is a ‘tightening up’, with more competition for every housingopportunity.Forexampleapplicants forsocialhousingnowhavetoprovewhytheycan’tstaywithfamilymembers[Serviceprovider6].Thiscanputpressureonwomentoacceptthetypesofunsafe,overcrowded or inappropriate situations described by interviewees. It also means that eachhomelessperson is ingreatercompetitionwithothers,andalso thatagreater levelofadvocacy isneededforsomeonetoaccesshousingassistance:

Ithinkthere’sbiggapsinthesystem.Thesector’scompetingforoneproperty,andthere’s5peoplecompetingforit.Soit’sreallywhohasthebestevidenceandwhocanadvocateatahigher level … they’re all competing with each other for the biggest need so that’s olderwomen,youngerwomen,womenwithdisability–allofthatcontext.[Serviceprovider1]

Womenneedincreasinglysophisticatedadvocacytohelpthemprovideevidencethattheirpersonalcharacteristics and situation fit eligibility criteria. Service providers reported that there is greaterrelianceonthenetworksandskillsofstaffthatenablethemtopresentthehomelessperson’scase:You’reonlyasgoodasyourcasemanageradvocating,navigatingthesystem,gettingtheevidence[Service provider 1]. In this situation, competition for resources results in decisions about whichwomenreceivehelpthatarebasedontheworkingsoftheservicesystemratherthanbeingbasedonlyonneed:thewomanneedstobestableenoughtomaintainatenancybutcomplexenoughtobeprioritised–thatnavigationtakesanexpertandsomemissout[Serviceprovider1].The ‘bottleneck’ inhomelessness servicesdescribed inChapter 3 contributes to anoverall lackofcapacityinservices,resultinginpeoplebeingturnedawayorplacedinmotelsfor28daysunderthe

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TemporaryAccommodation(TA)program.PlacementinTA(oftenahotel,althoughrecentchangesmean somewomenare accommodated in aunitmanagedby ahomelessness serviceprovider) isfrequently the first response to a woman’s request for help with homelessness including afterfleeingdomesticviolence,andmaybeaveryproblematicandinadequateresponse:

Evenbeforetheycomeintocrisis[accommodation],becauseassoonastheygetthroughtoLink2home,they’reputinahotel,andsomeofthehotelsareprettybad.There’sdruguseandespecially domestic violence women and families, they’re stuck in the hotel watching it,they’vegottokeepthekidsinsideallthetime,becauseofdrugandalcoholinfrontofthem.Thepeoplewhoworkinthehotelknowthey’rehomelesssotheylookdownonthembecausehousing’spayingforthem.[Serviceprovider6]Ifyou’reinahotelwithnocookingfacilitiesandnomoneyforfood,whatdoyoudowithyourchildren?[Serviceprovider7]

Itwasterrible, itwasfullofcockroachesandthekitchenwasdisgustinglydirty;everythingwasdirty…Iaskedforaglassoracuptogetsomewateranditwasabigissuetogetacup…TherewasaroomdownthecorridorfromwhereIwaswithalotofmeninoneroomandtheyhadthedooropen,andtheywereplayingmusicanddrinking.Idon’tknowIjustdidn’tfeelsafe.[Woman2]

ServicessaidthatthelackofoptionsalsomeansthatifawomanreceivesTAsheislikelytoreturntothe streets when this finishes despite a government policy to ensure people leaving governmentservicesdonotexitintohomelessness[NSWGovernment,2018).OnewomaninterviewedhadbeenhomelessandcouchsurfingforalongperiodandeventuallycontactedHousing.Shewasplacedinahotel:

SoinsomewaysIdidn’tfindthatreallyhelpfulbecauseit’sreallyhardtofindaplacein28daysandyouknow,when28daysisup,it’slikewheredoIgofromhere?[Woman10]

Thedifficulty inaccessinghousingalsomeans thatwomenmayremainhomelessevenafterusinghomelessness services. Interviewees raised a number of issues, described below, that createdobstacles for women to access housing, that prolonged their homelessness. Most services tookvarioussteps to improveoutcomes forwomenbut these issues requireaddressingatgovernmentlevel.Concerningly,somewomeninterviewedforthisresearchreportedthatservicestheyhadusedhadbeenslowtoassist themtoapply forsocialhousing.Otherresearch inSydneyhasalsofoundthat some service providers failed to help women apply for social housing, in some cases afterpromisingtodoso(Schetzer,2017).

Women exiting crisis accommodation may be accommodated on an interim basis in TransitionalHousingpropertieswhile they try to findongoinghousing.While governmentpolicy requires thatthere are no exits into homelessness, transitional housing guidelines for Community Housingproviders state that this is available for up to 18 months only (FACS 2018a), despite this beingshorterthanwaitingtimesforsocialhousing.Serviceproviderssaidthattheinstabilityofthefinite18-month period could be traumatic for vulnerable women: it’s the fear of homelessness - what

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happenstomethen[Serviceprovider9].Oneserviceprovidersaidtheyregularlyhadtoappeal toCommunityHousingProviderstoextendthistimebecausewomendidnotyethavesomewheretomoveto.OtherserviceproviderssaidCommunityHousingProviderstheyworkedwithwerenotabletomakesuchextensions.

Women with disabilities such as mental illness and cognitive impairment are eligible for priorityhousing, and thewaitwas reportedby services tousuallybearound two to twoandahalf years.However service providers described situations where women had a disability and received noassistance:

Wesawa48-yearoldwoman,absolutelyhomeless,shegottwonightsTA.Ihadtoadvocatethroughhousing.Shehasadisability,buttheyclasseditwasn’tadisability,sheonlycomesundertheTAproject.Ihadtokeepaskingandaskingwhereisshegoingtogo–she’sgoingon thestreets, shecan’t functionon thestreets.Theysaidshe’llgetnothing, she’sautistic.Shehadahouse,her family took itoverandkickedherout,elderabuse, thenshecouldn’tapplyforhousingbecauseitwasclassedasanasset.[Serviceprovider6]

Somewomenhavefluctuatingillhealthandthiscanmeantheyareneitherabletomaintainprivaterentalnorqualifyforsocialhousing:

The women we find most challenges working with are women who cycle in and out ofrecoveryandbeingquitewell,theyreturntotheworkforceonshorttermcontracts,they’rethereforsixweeks,theystarttobecomeunwellandget letgo,andtheykeepnotmeetingthesocialhousing incomethresholdso they’renoteligible tobeon thewait list, so they’retakenoff,theybecomehomeless,wegetthemback-it’sachallenge,that’sprobablyabout10%ofthewomenweworkwith.[Serviceprovider9]

Women escaping domestic violence may be ineligible to apply for social housing despite beinghomeless.Wheretheyareable,domesticviolenceservicesassistwomentoreceivefinancialsupportforuptothreeyearstorentprivatelythroughtheStartSafelyschemeiftheymeetcriteriaincludingbeingeligibleforsocialhousingandbeingabletodemonstratethatthey‘willbeabletoaffordtheprivatemarketrentalafterthesubsidyperiodends’(NSWFACS2018b).Meetinghousingcriteriaisnotnecessarilystraightforwardhowever:

Someofthewomenweseearehomeless,someatriskofhomelessness,somehavehadtheirhouse sold from under them, so they’ve got an asset, but it’s not an asset because itsmortgaged to thehilt.Quite trickyaboutgoing toHousing.Once it’s soldand thebills arepaid there’ll be nothing, so what are we doing to pre-empt her not being on the street.[Serviceprovider7]

Women were unable to access social housing if their only need was poverty. Indeed, a serviceprovider interviewee said FACSHousing askedolderwomenwhohad lived in amarriage all theirlives to prove why they couldn’t stay with family, or advised them to rent privately or go into aboarding house. However living with family was often inappropriate and sometimes unsafe,althoughthiscouldbedifficulttoprove.Thesewomencouldnotaffordconventionalprivaterental

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andasdiscussedaboveboardinghousesdonotprovideappropriatehousingforthiscohort.Manywomeninthissituationarelikelytoremainhomeless:

The age group has changed for homelessness, they’re older, over 55. There’s a lot morewomen,they’rehomelessnowbecausetheirchildrenhavegrownup,they’veleftadomesticviolence situation, they have experienced child sexual assault when they were younger,there’s a lot are on Newstart, they’re no longer in the marriage, it just fell apart, they’resleepingincars,noneofthechildrenwanttoknowbecausethey’rewithfathersoI’veseenquiteafewinthatagebracketnow.It’shardforthemeventoacknowledge,Ihelpthemputinahousingapplicationbuttheywon’tgetpriority.They’vegottoprovewhytheycan’tstaywithfamilymembersetcsoit’salotharderforthem.[Serviceprovider6]

Wherewomenseekprivaterentaltheymayreceiveassistancethroughseveralprograms.Howevertheoverall lackofaffordableprivaterentalmeansthatwomenmaynotbeabletofindapropertythatisaffordableevenwithassistance.Thismaybethecaseevenforwomenwhoareemployed,iftheyareinlowwagepositions.Thisisparticularlythecaseforyoungerwomen.

d.Lackofknowledgeofservices

Someserviceprovidersinterviewedforthisresearchdidnotemphasiselackofknowledgeofservicesasanissueforwomenexperiencinglongertermorrepeatedhomelessness,althoughotherssaidthatwomen escaping domestic violence,women from a CALD background, youngwomen andwomenwhowerefirsttimehomelessweremostlikelytolackknowledgeofservices.

We find thenumberone reasonpeoplehaven’t accessed services is lackof informationorevenunderstandingwhat’soutthere,especiallyculturallydiverseclients.[Serviceprovider4]

Some interviewees who had experienced homelessness also highlighted this issue. Their lack ofknowledgeonfirstbecominghomelessmeantthattheyreliedonfriends,relativesoracquaintancesorsleptrough,andtheseresponsescontinued,insomecasesformanyyears.Thissuggeststhatforsome women, longer term homelessness might be avoided if they had been aware of availableassistance initially.Other researchhas also recorded that somewomenhadno information aboutwheretoseekassistancewhentheybecamehomelessandthatevenforwomenwhohadpreviouslyusedservices,changesinservicesinNSWmeantthattheinformationtheyhadwasnolongercurrent(Schetzer2017).OneintervieweenotedtheexistenceofonlineresourcessuchasAskIzzyandHSnet,but said thathomelessness servicesaresooverwhelmedwithdemandthat there is little timeandresourcestoinvestinthemarketingsideofthehomelessnesssector.Inquirieshavealsofoundthatalack of knowledge by women without permanent residency about the Family Violence Provisionsunder the Commonwealth Migration Regulations 1994, and fear of deportation are obstacles forthemseekinghelpandleavingviolentpartners(O’Brien2018).Whilemanywomenescapingviolencewhodonothavepermanentresidencyarenoteligibleforanyassistanceduetotheirvisastatus(seeChapters3and4),therecanbeapathwaytopermanentresidencyforthoseinAustraliaonapartnervisa,butfewareapproved(Kristal2018;O’Brien2018).

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Somewomen completely lacked knowledgeof services, andothers lacked knowledgeof themostappropriate services to contact to give help or referral. Somewomen had contactwith generalistservicessuchasthepoliceorhospitalsandwerenotreferredtohomelessnessservices.Forexamplepolicehadarrangedforonewomanintervieweewhowassleepinginhercartobesenttohospital,but the hospital discharged her without providing other assistance and she had to walk a longdistancebacktothecar.Somewomentriedtophoneservicesorfindthemontheinternetwithoutsuccess.Howeverkeepingthephonechargedandwithcreditischallengingwhensleepingrough:

Iwaslookingupstuffonline.WhenIhadphonecreditIwaslookingforthingsonlineandIfoundlikethefoodvansandstuff,soIwasabletogoandgetfoodsometimesfromthefoodvans.Butintermsoflocatingwomen’srefugesandthingslikethat,theydidn’treallycomeup.Ifoundthemverydifficulttofind.[Woman1]Iwentto[homelessnessserviceprovider].Theywereveryhelpful,theonlyproblemwasthatmyphonewasflatandIcouldn’tuseitbecauseIhadnowayofrechargingit,Iwasjustoutonthestreets.IsaidthatIwantedtogetoffthestreets.TheywereveryhelpfulIcan’tfaultthematall. Theyalreadymadeappointmentsaswell,butmyphonewasflatandshesaidwell you could charge it while you were here, but I would have only been there for tenminutesandit'snotenoughto.Sothatspoiltit[Woman3].

A provider also confirmed these experiences, pointing out that homelessness services have notnecessarilymadeiteasytocontactthem:

…inanageoftechnology,homelessnessserviceshaven’tkeptupwiththechangingneedsofpeople.Everyone’sgotaphone,anyonewho’shomelesshasaphone,buthowdifficultitistonavigateandunderstandwhataserviceisandfindservices,it’sveryverydifficult.Ifyouhaveadisabilityoramentalhealthproblem,howareyousupposedtonavigateorunderstandthattherearesomeservices.Sothat’sreallyshit.[Serviceprovider1]

Lackofknowledgeofservicescouldalsoleadtofearaboutwhatmighthappentowomeniftheydidapproachservices:

Link2home,Iwasdistrustfulofit…IwasjustconcernedthatLink2home,Iwouldendupinaninstitution…[Woman1]

The stigmaofhomelessnessdiscussed in theprevious section,and theembarrassment involved inseekinghelpcreatedanobstacletoseekinginformation:

Iwasreallystressed,verydepressedandhadanxiety,stressabouteverything.Iwaskindofembarrassedtotellsomeone Iwashomeless. So itwasa longprocessofnotdealingwiththe issue that I need togetmyownplace. Itwasprettymuch just like stayingat friends,tryingtofigureoutwhereIwasstayingthenextnightandthenextnightforlikesevenyearswhichwasalongtime.[Woman10]

While it is important for women to be able to easily gain information about services, these twoexamplesofcommentsfromwomenwhowerehomelessshowthenuance inwomenseekingand

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acting on information. Both women lacked information. In the first example the woman had thenumberofLink2homebutlackedinformationabouthowserviceswerelikelytorespondtoher,andas a result shewas distrusting and fearful that shemight end up in an institution. In the secondexample the woman lacked information about services generally but was hesitant to seekinformationbecauseshewasembarrassedaboutbeinghomeless.Theseexamplesshowsomeofthebarrierstowomencontactingandusinghomelessnessservices.Serviceprovidersnotedtheimportanceofhavingcontactwithappropriateservicesinshowingyoureligibilityandaccessingassistance:Ifyoudon’thavetheevidenceandaccesstherightadvocatethenyou’ve got no options … [Service provider 1]. Not knowing about services meant that womenremainedcouchsurfingandvulnerabletohavingnowheretogoatanytime:

Wellwhen Iwas16, Ihadno ideatherewas refuges. So I justusedtostayatmy friends’housesand just couch surf forawhileuntil I foundaplace that I could staybut then thatdidn’tworkoutandthenIjustdecidedtolivewithmyboyfriendforawhileuntilthatblownoverandjustcouchsurfingagainuntil2000and–Iwaslike,IhadaplacelikeIwasalwaysrentingwith someone. So ifwe had a blue Iwas up shit creek because theywere on thelease,Iwasn’t.[Woman10]

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5. Whatarethestrategiestomakeservicesbettermeetwomen’sneeds?While the lack of affordable housing and capacity in homelessness services and the low levels ofwelfarepaymentsremainmajorfactorsinwomen’slong-termhomelessness,aswithhomelessnessmore generally, the evidence is that there is much that homelessness services, and the servicesystemthatsupportsthemcandotobettermeettheneedsofwomenandpreventorendlong-termandrecurrenthomelessness.Respondingtowomen’shiddenandpersistenthomelessnessisnotjustamatterofgettingwomenintoservicesandimprovingaccesstohousing,becausetheevidenceisthat services and the service network will need to change and work differently with womenexperiencing long-term and recurrent homelessness in order tomeet their needs. These changesinclude service philosophies that are more human-centred, gender-responsive, strengths-based,flexible,respectfulandthatsupportself-determination;servicesthataresafe,trauma-informedandhome-like;ensuringthatwomenreceivethehelptheyneed,inparticularwomenwithspecificneedsorviewedas‘complex’;morespecialistortargetedservicessothatwomenreceivehelpthatismostspecifictotheirneedsandtoreducethelikelihoodoftraumaticexperiences;andbetterinformationabout services, targeted to those women who are more likely to be unaware of what help isavailable.

Therearefederallegislativeandpolicyimplicationsregardingtheincomeandothereligibilitystatusof women who are escaping domestic violence and homelessness who have visa issues (O’Brien2018). Some State governments have also implemented limited assistance to women in thissituation (Kristal 2018;O’Brien 2018), but the state government inNSWwhere this researchwasconductedhasnotyetdoneso.Thereisanurgentneedformoreactiononthisissue.

a. A strong service philosophy in homelessness services that is human-centred,gender-responsive, flexible, respectful, strengths-based and that supports self-determination.

Serviceproviderintervieweessaidthatinordertoworksuccessfullywithwomenexperiencinglong-term and recurrent homelessness, the most important strategy was to have a strong servicephilosophytoattractandguidestaff[Serviceprovider1],committingtheservicetorespondinawaythatsuits theperson– thatadapts to thewoman, insteadofheradapting to theservice.Servicesneededtoworkinawaythatistraumainformed,flexible,adaptable[Serviceprovider1];tobeveryflexibleandnon-judgementalandunderstandingoftheirsituationanddon’tpurporttoknowwhat’sbest forawoman [Serviceprovider2];and to usehumancentreddesignwhere the servicemoveswiththeperson’schangingneeds[Serviceprovider1].Whereservicesdon’tworkinthisway,womenfind it difficult to stay within a service or if they leave they can’t come back, so there’s still thatpunitive approach in the system [Service provider 1]. Similarly, women highlighted the value ofservicesthatwerenon-judgemental:

Iwasn’tjudged...itwasterrific…Iconsidermyselfveryluckytohaveendedupat[service].It's theway that you're being treated, theway that you're being supported, theway that

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you'relookeduponassomeonewhoisexperiencingdifficulties,butthey'reonlytemporary.Havingtheabilitytoseethroughit,andaccommodatemyneeds.[Woman4]

Intervieweesnotedthatthisisnotanewwayofworking,haslongbeenpromotedbygovernmentandisconsistentwithafeministapproach:

It’s really that model, FACS’s language around client-centred, strengths-based, supportingtheclientasneedsshift, it’snotanewwayofworking, it’salways inall theresourcesyouhaveinfeminist-basedservices,thatworkfromfeministprinciples[Serviceprovider3].

Thesectiononclient-centredresponsesintheSpecialistHomelessnessServicesPracticeGuidelinesmoduleonservicedeliverysetsthisout:

Aclient-centredapproachtoservicedesignmeansthateachserviceresponseisbuiltaroundtheneedsoftheindividualclientratherthanaprogrammaticorpredeterminedserviceoffer(NSWFamilyandCommunityServices2014).

Intervieweesnotedthatsome in the fieldbelievedthat thisapproachdoesn’twork for thiscohort[women experiencing long term or recurrent homelessness], but stressed that if you want to besuccessfulandnot traumatise thewoman, it’sgot towork [Serviceprovider1]. Services said thatlackofresourcescouldmakethisapproachdifficult.Howeverthevitalmessagearisingfromthisandother research is the importance of self-determination and that services need to ensure that thenatureofthesupportofferedfitswiththewoman’ssenseofwhatsheneeds(Mayocketal.2015a).

Service provider interviewees gave some examples of this flexible, non-judgemental approachwithwomenexperiencinglong-termorrecurrenthomelessness,andwithcomplexneeds,oncetheyareatahomelessnessservice.Somewomenmayneed24-hoursupport.

At theoutset, services’ philosophies and approachesneeded tobebasedon anunderstandingofwhy women may find it difficult to engage with services. In some situations this may meansmoothingtheprocessforwomenbeingreferredtoanotherorganisation:

Services have to nurture the way with like-minded organisations that make the pathwaysofterforthosewomen.That’saboutnetworkingandbeingprofessional.Youmighthavetofindways to–not cut red tapeexactly,butmake it softer.Thatgoesacross thegamutofmentalhealth,legal,everywhere…[Serviceprovider1]

Services could use a range of approaches to contact women, such as outreach and technology.Warmreferrals,wheretheserviceinvitesthewomantocomeoverandseetheservice,andtellsherabouttheexpectationsandresponsibilitiesweremosthelpful.Howeverriskassessmentsneededtofocusonhowtheservicecanhelpandnotonidentifyingwomentobeexcluded:

Weaskparticularquestionsthatwemakesuretheseareallthingswecanassistyouwith,andwejustwanttoknowthebestwaywecanassistyouandsupportyouandtheymightbequestionsabouthavinglegalissuesandwarrantsandcourtthingscomingupordebtsandall

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sortsof stuff. If youareactivelyusing somethingwecanstillworkwithyouandofferyousomething,wejustneedtoknowwhatwe’reworkingwith.[Serviceprovider3]

While there may be women a service cannot support, services could remain in contact with thewoman to assist her to gain support. Having staff with a good overview perspective andunderstandingofthehomelessnessservicesectorandgoodtrainingsupportedthisapproach.

I think the service, as it has shifted towards that trauma informed philosophy, has really,reallyimprovedonthat,andweallworktogetherquitewellandoftenyoukeepworkingwiththe person and particularlywithmore training and upskilling aroundpersonality disorders,services are getting much better at managing those challenging behaviours and adaptingagreementsaroundthatstuff.[Serviceprovider1]

Servicesnoted that It’sdifficult thoughandsometimeswestruggle tomake thosedecisions, tobehonest[Serviceprovider1].Thelackofoverallcapacityinthehomelessnessservicesystemformsacontextwheretherearenotalwaysgoodsolutions.Howeverrelationshipswithotherservicesalsoassistthiswayofworking,particularlyservicesthathavecompatibleapproachesandwhichcanformpartofawoman’spathwayoutofhomelessness:

Whatwe’vehadtodo,we’vehadtobrokerindividualrelationshipsthroughourreputationofstickingwithwomen.Otherservicesrecognisethat,theyunderstandthatwewantaqualityoflifeforcomplexwomen,sotheyunderstandwe’retransparentandweworkwiththem...We’re gaining our reputation by being professional but also seeing the complexities andbeingadaptive.That’swhywecancrosssectors,wecanworkwithhealth,wecanworkwithotherservicesandtheyknowthatandtheycantrustus.Sotrustintheindustryisimportant.Wewillgetlike-mindedservicesandwewillnutthemoutasbestwecanforthegoodofthatwoman.[Serviceprovider1]

Ontheotherhandhomelessnessservicessometimeshadtonegotiatestronglywitharangeofotherservicestoensureinclusion:

Theclientnomatterwhatthepresentingstuffis,alldeserveareallyprofessionalstandardofservice.Andthat’swhereyouhavetobetoughwithareahealthpeoplewhoclosethebookson clients, won’t let them in – or there’s bars on them coming into the hospital becausethey’vedonesomethingtherebefore.Orwewon’tseethemunlessyou’reintheroomandallthisreallyrestrictivestuff.[Serviceprovider3]

Service provider interviewees also stressed that it was important not to have women, includingthosewithcomplexneeds,exittheservicetohomelessness,andtoprovidesupporttoenablethemtoretainhousing.Offeringthissupportdoesnotnecessarilymeandeferringthewomanmovingtopermanent housing - as support may be offered together with housing under a Housing Firstapproach-butinsomecasesdoesmeanthewomanstaysinthehomelessnessservicelongerifthisiswhatshewishes.Oneservicenotedthatitmightseemtosomepeopletobeaproblemifaservicedidn’t ‘closeoff’thesupportrelationshipwithawomanwhohadbeenusingtheservice.Howeverthisprovidersaidthatcontinuingtobeavailabletosupportawomancouldbekeytoasuccessfuloutcome:

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Wehangontopeopleforalongtime,wewon’tsetpeopleuptofail.Youjusthavetoworkwithpeoplelongerandbereallytoughaboutadvocatingforthemtogetahousingtenancy.[Serviceprovider3]

A formerly homeless interviewee who had received support from a different service also spokeabouthowimportant ithadbeentoherthattheservicehadn’twithdrawnitssupporttooquickly.Thiswomancreditedhernowstablesituationwith the fact thatsupporthadbeenavailablewhileshe needed it, combined with the respectful approach, the small home-like atmosphere of theserviceandthequalityofsupportoffered:

Iknowitsoundsclichédbut I literallydon'tknowwhere Iwouldbewithoutthemandthatwasbecauseofhowtheytreatedmeand Ididn't feelpushedtogetout ... I'msure inthebackgroundtheywerelike,"It'sgoingtohappensoon.We'vegotthesemanyinthequeue."Yet, I never felt that. I never felt like I was in a factory and they were trying to churnnumbersout and I know that that'swhat funding is all about. Numbersandquality also.[Woman4]

Increasing thenumberand rangeof specialist serviceswouldbeakeyapproach to increasing thecapacityoftheservicesystemtosupportdiversewomenwithcomplexneeds.Theissueofservicespecialisationandserviceaccessarediscussedinsection(c)ofthisChapterbelow.

Servicesneedtotakeanactiveroleincounteringtheshameandstigmaexperiencedbywomenwhoare homeless, affording women dignity and respect. This role involves both countering generalsocietalattitudesaswellasattitudesandpracticeswithinservices.Servicescanshowthattheydonot divide women into those who are deserving and those who are not by validating women’sexperiences without judging them, taking a flexible approach and not making help conditional.Serviceproviderintervieweessaidthatprovidingdecentfoodandapleasanthome-likeenvironmentsignal the service’s respect. Research has also found that women in particular emphasise theimportanceof settings that feel likehome (Mayocketal.2015a).Women intervieweesalsomadethis point, for example an interviewee who had been hospitalised, who valued a home-like,supportive and non-judgemental environment. Offering this type of environment is alsopart ofensuringsafetyandthisaspectisdiscussedinthesection(b)ofthisChapter:

Essentially, I neededawarmbedanda secure place to stay. Also, something to eat ... IfoundthatIwentintoaplacewhereIfeltsafe,whereIfeltwelcome.Wheretherewasahotmeal in the evening, a home-cooked meal. There were faces looking at me withoutjudgement.Smilingandtryingtohelpmenavigatemytransitionfromhospital.WhatwashelpfulisthatIwasgivenalotofsupport.[Woman4]

Thisapproachinvolvesrecognisingthewoman’sownstrengthsandexpertiseratherthantellingherwhat todo,andsupportingher todo things, suchasattendingappointments, rather than leavinghertodoitunsupported,orrescuingherbydoingitforher.

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Yousupporttheclienttodothat,notdoitforthem,or‘You’vegottodothis’or‘Youdidn’tgo to thatappointment’.Whenyouknowsomeonehasnocapacity todosomething, thenyoudo itwith them,not just let themgo ... I’vebeen indistrictmeetingswhere I’vebeenhorrified when I hear some services talk about what they do with clients when they missappointments, because youmight have towork out away that the client doesn’tmiss anappointment.Dosomework!Notwait till theclientdoesn’tgo to threeappointmentsandthensay–you’renotengaging!Justthatrescuemode.Ican’tunderstandit.Youpoorthing.Yes,therearethingsyoudohavesomeempathywithbuteverypersonhassomecapacitytodosomething.AndIthinkdrugandalcoholclientsgetittheworst.[Serviceprovider3]

Thisapproachimpactsonhowservicessupportatransitionbackintomainstreamorganisationsandservices rather than expectingwomen immediately be able tomeetmainstream requirements ordealwithunknownandpotentiallyjudgementalpeople.Thismaymeanofferingdifferentservices:

Ourclientsdon’twanttositinaroomwith20strangersandtalkabouthowshityourlifeis.Theyliketocomeherewithabout8people,peoplethey’veknown,wehavealunchtwiceamonth, but people like to hangon theperiphery, there’s noway they sit at the table in agroup,orsitinacircle,butgraduallybeingabletodothings,andthendootherthingsinthecommunity.Wehavehadpeople accessmainstreamgroupsandhadhorrible experiences,you know, there was 20 people there, I couldn’t deal with it and you’ve got someonegrandstandingthewholetimeanditjustfeltreallyunsafe.Therehastobesomeroomintheservice system where you can do something else. It mightn’t even cost money. [Serviceprovider3]

Intervieweessaidservicesshouldfocusonautonomyforpeopleratherthanonlyonrules.Thereisaneed for service approaches – such as Housing First – that enable women to be housed andsupportedandretainautonomyandindependenceregardlessofdrugandalcoholuse,mentalillnessorotherissues:

Alittlebitofindependencecanmakeallthedifference.We’vegotwomenwholiketohaveadrink–won’tgo toa refugebecauseyoucan’thaveadrink.Therearecertainpartsaboutyourownautonomyandhow ifyougo intoaplace that’sorganisedbyparticulargroups–andforsafetyreasonsthat’swhytheyhavetheseconditionsofstay,youhavetoagreetobeadifferentperson.[Serviceprovider3]

Servicesalsosaidbeingrespectfulinvolvesallowingwomentochange,butthatthischangemustbeself-driven:

…allowingpeopletoreinventthemselvesinadifferentspace,andnotjustbethisiswhoyouare–weseethishappenallthetimewithpeopleweworkedwithandcomebacktothingswehaveattherefuge,lunchesor...Youseethatpersonwheretheyhavestartedandwheretheyarenow,andtheycanbesomethingelse,andjustwhoeveryouwanttobe.Ithinkthatcomesfromrespectanddignityandvaluingpeople,andvalidatingpeoplesexperiencesnotjudging them. I think those things together initiallywhenyoumeet someoneandhowyouapproachthatperson.[Serviceprovider3]

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b.Servicesaresafe,traumainformedandhome-likeResearch identifiessafetyasoneof themost importantneeds forwomen(Mayocketal.2015).Atrauma-informed approach emphasises physical, psychological and emotional safety,trustworthiness,empowerment,choiceandcollaboration(SAMHSA2018;Kezelman&Stavropoulos2012).Atrauma-informedapproachisparticularlyimportantinassistingwomenexperiencinglong-termor recurrenthomelessness,giventhatweknowmanywillhavea traumatichistory,andalsothattheymaybefearfuloruncomfortableapproachingservices.Serviceprovidersalsostressedtheimportance of a safe environment and a trauma-informed approach. Service providerswhowereinterviewed reported that they had seen a lot of emphasis in the last two years onworking in atraumainformedmanner,andsomeweremakingorplanningtomakechangesintheirservicestoincreasesafetyandminimise trauma, forexamplebycreatinganon-institutionalatmosphere thatdoesn’t trigger hypervigilance or by moving away from shared accommodation where diversepeopleareaccommodatedinclosequarters. Providerssaidthereare issueswithanykindofshareaccommodation inarefuge[Serviceprovider8]. Services noted the benefits of accommodationmodelswhere people do not have to share, inparticular core and cluster models that have private rooms or units plus communal areas alsoaccommodatingstaff.Manywomenwhohadexperiencedhomelessnesswhowereinterviewedforthis research described their fear being in share situations, particularly those with people withdiverseneeds,andthosethatwereunsupervisedandunsafe(discussedinChapter4).TheseissuesarediscussedinmoredetailinthesectiononspecialistserviceslaterinthisChapter.Incontrast,womenintervieweesvaluedservicesthatwerehome-like:

They [staff] were really very nice and very understanding and helpful and sweet. Theywalkedmeallthewaytotheblockoftheunits,andtheyaskedmeifIneededanything.Inthefridgetherewasfood,inthefreezerandinthecupboards,anditwasclean.Therewasacaretakertherethattakescareoftheunits.[Woman2]

Serviceprovidersalsoemphasisedthevalueofahome-likeatmosphereinassistingwomentofeelsafe. These comments show the connection between safety and respect, and contrast with theapproachreportedinChapter4,of:don’tmaketheplacelooktoonice,they’llneverwanttoleave:

Wehearalotatourrefuge:it’ssocalm,it’ssosafe,Ifeelsocomfortable,becausewereallymanage thatstuff…Something thathelpswith the fear issue ishowthehousepresents. Itsounds really simple.We put a lot of time and effort into keeping the house really clean,demonstrating that people are worth – it’s worthiness, and somewhere safe, valued, thisplaceissomewherecomfortableforyoutobe.Wedon’tacceptthatanyonewillbeunsafewhilethey’rehere.Andweactonthatveryquickly,whetherthat’sunsafetothemselvesorsomeoneelse.[Serviceprovider9]

Services also discussed how to move away from responding in a punitive way to behaviours thatmight have previously resulted in women being forced out of services. One provider said that aprofessional approach was important: If it’s not professional then they don’t feel safe [Service

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provider 4]. Another said approaches should be: not punitive, offer more support, more intensivesupport,butnotpunitivewhichhashappenedsomanytimesinthepast,threestrikesandyou’reout.Whodoesthattopeoplewhoaretraumatised?[Serviceprovider7].

Anotherprovideroutlineddetailsofapreventiveapproachtodealingwiththesebehaviours:

If you’re working from a prevention framework, you’re not having to react, so you knowbeforethewomancomes inbecauseyou’vedonesuchadetailedassessment: this iswherethingshavegonewronginthepast,talkingaboutthatstraightup.Wecanseethis iswhathappened,oneofthethingsweneedtoavoidisthathappeninghere.Whatdoyouneedfromus inorder tomakethiswork?Let’smakeaplan.Howwillyoumanagewhenyou feel likethis?Let’sletyourcliniciansknowthatthiscanbebehaviourthat’sdifficulttomanageinthissetting and let’s talk about how to manage that. So in working from an informedpreventativewayratherthanabamcomefromnowhereweweren’texpectingityou’vegottogo.Generallythatworks.[Serviceprovider9]

c. Womenreceivethehelptheyneed

Inordertopreventwomen’slong-termhomelessness,womenrequirebothaccesstohomelessnessservicesandtolong-termhousing.Theseservicesneedtobecoordinatedsothatwomencanaccessassistance, are not arbitrarily moved between short-term or inappropriate placements, and canmove to suitable long-term housing immediately or in a timelyway thatmeets their needs,withsupportasneeded.Servicesalsoneedtobesensitivetohowgenderoperates in the formationofwomen’s homelessness and in their experiences of homelessness and to each woman’s specificsituation, needs and preferences. If women don’t think services will provide what they need, ordon’tthinktheywillbesafeandtreatedwithrespect,manywillavoidthemifpossible.

Intervieweesspokestronglyoftheneedforpermanenthousingastheprimaryresponsetowomen’slong-termand recurrent homelessness. Both interviewees experiencing homelessness and serviceproviders said that access to stable affordable housing is vital to meeting the needs of womenexperiencing longer termand recurrenthomelessness.Provisionofpermanenthousingatanearlystageof homelessness is an effectivemeansof addressinghomelessness in general (Atherton andMcNaughton-Nicholls 2008). Indeed, for those women who do not require ongoing support,provision of housingmay be the only intervention needed to end their homelessness. However arecentreviewoftheSpecialistHomelessnessServicesprograminNSW(valentineetal.2017)foundthata lackofaffordablehousinghadmaderapidrehousing initiatives impossible toachieve.Rapidrehousingistargetedtothosewhosemainneedishousingandwhoneedlittlesupport(FACS2014)for example older women, who may experience long-term homelessness for financial reasons. Aserviceproviderintervieweealsostatedthattheshortageofappropriatehousinghadimpededquickhousingaccess:

Therapidrehousingstrategyfelldownbecausetherewerenohousessotheycamebackintothe crisis … Some people were assessed as you don’t need to come into crisis and haveintensivesupport,theideawasyoucouldhavehousesforrapidrehousing,andthenusethat

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asatrampolineout.Buttheyjustdidn’texist.Thehousingstockstoppedtherapidrehousingfromworkingverywell[Serviceprovider4].

HousingFirstorotherswiftaccesstopermanenthousingwithsupportavailableisrecognisedasthebest response tohomelessness, including for thosewith complexneedsandwhosehomelessnesshas been long-term or recurrent (Mackie, Johnsen & Wood 2017, Busch-Geertsema 2013). TheHousing Firstmodel provideshomeless peoplewith immediate access topermanent independenthousing and comprehensive non-compulsory support, without prerequisites of sobriety orpsychiatric treatment (Pleace 2012; Tsemberis, Gulcur, & Nakae 2004). However Housing Firstprograms inAustraliahavealsofalteredduetoa lackofaccesstohousing(Bullen&Baldry2018).WomeninterviewedgenerallypreferredquickaccesstolongtermhousingthroughHousingFirstorsocialhousing:

Itwouldhavebeenallright[ifIhadhadhousingearlier],Iwouldhavebeenallright,Iwouldhavebeensettleddown.[Woman5]

CommonGroundisbrilliant…Iwouldgothere.There’snotwowaysaboutit.[Woman6]

I think if you can get the permanent housing it stops all the upheaval, becausewhen youhavetomoveandmovethatcanbequite-youknow-liftingeverythingup,andifyoucan'tcopeorquitecopewiththatsortofthing.It'dbelovelyifthatwouldhappen.[Woman7]

Howeversomeserviceprovidersandwomenexperiencinghomelessnessalsothoughtthatforsomewomen therapeutic environments where other people were present were needed, at least on atransitional basis, andwere aware of usefulmodels. Thiswas suggested as an option forwomenwho needed a period of support before living alone including women exiting hospital and whoinitiallywould get very lonely in housing. These findings are consistentwith research onHousingFirstforpeoplewithmentalillness,whichnotesthatsomepeoplefeelisolatedandlonelyinscatter-site housing, even with support, and benefit from models which help develop social supportnetworks and include measures to assist community integration (Sylvestre et al. 2007). Howeverresearchalsostressesthatlivinginhousingthatisphysicallyintegratedandnotphysicallydifferentfromotherhousinginthecommunityincreasessocialintegration(Sylvestreetal.2007).Itisnotedthattheintervieweeswhosaidtheyhadneededanenvironmentwithon-sitesupporthadnotsaidthat they wanted to have this type of housing in the long-term. Interviewees who had been inhospitalsaid:

Youdon'tinteractwiththeoutsideworldasmuch.Youlosecertainskills.Inmycaseitwasonly temporary, but I felt like I really needed support. I needed guidance. I'm quite anindependentperson.IfeltthatIneededguidanceforapartialperiodoftime,andthenIwasbackonmy feet ... Thesheercomfortofbeingoutof thehospital, inaplacewhere Iwassafe, in a place which was not overcrowded. Which was clean. Which had everything Ineededintermsoffurnitureandessentials.BecauseIcameoutwithnopossessions,soIlefteverything.[Woman4]

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IamnotsurehowIwouldhavegone[inHousingFirst]becauseIdon'tthink itwouldhavebeen good for me straight after hospital, to be by myself. I needed constant prompts,whether thatwasmaking sure I'd gone to allmy appointments for the day or just sittingoutsidewithotherpeople. Because I'manatural introvertandwhen I'mnotwell it'sevenmore.Ipushmyselftodotheoppositeandbearoundpeoplewhereasforsomepeoplethatmightbethebestthingfortheirrecovery,tobebythemselvesandtheyhealbetter.Ithinkthat forme thatwouldhavebeenall tooconsuming,havingmyownspacebecause Iwastryingtogetoutofitatthetime.[Laughs][Woman8].

These findings are consistent with research evidence that Housing First and other responsesfocussed on providing ordinary housing in the community and specialistwomen-only services arerecognisedasbestpractice:

Women’suseofhomelessnessservicesseemslikelytobeinfluencedbywhatthoseservicesarelike.Ifawomanisofferedahousing-ledorHousingFirstservicethatprovidesherwithher own ordinary housing in the community and mobile support, or she is offered otherspecialistwomen-onlyhomelessnessservices, she ismore likely touse thoseservices.Theprospect of her own home and necessary support, or help within a safe, appropriatelystaffed single-site homelessness service, is a very different prospect from facing anemergencyshelter…(Brethertonetal.2016,p.83)

One service provider interviewee described how the service supported women using drugs andalcoholtogetandkeephousing:

…justbecauseyoudousedrugsandalcoholdoesn’tmeanyoucan’tpayyourrentandhavesomewheretolive.Youcanbeactivelyusingdrugsandalcohol,andifyou’vegotsomebodyyou can check inwith, orwe can check inon someone,andwe’vegot several clientswhowe’vebeenseeingsince2015,thatknowtheycancometoseeustogetfoodorsomething,andthey’refine.Ithinkit’sjusthangingontopeopleandfindingtherighttypeofhousing.And we’ve said no to housing, it’s just setting people up. It’s not suitable for vulnerablewomen to be in some of the huge estates out in south west Sydney. It’s having enoughsupport to work through all the messy stuff, the physical stuff to get housing. [Serviceprovider3]

However,thesameintervieweepointedtothenotedthatthistypeofhousingforwomenwithdrugandalcoholproblemswasveryrare:

Thereneedstobeopportunityforwomenwhoare(stillusing)tocontinuedoingthattobeintheirownflatandbesupportedwhilethey’rewhilethey’reinactiveaddictionbecauseatthemoment,there’snot.[Serviceprovider3]

On the other hand, another service provider expressed concern that assisting someonewhowasusingdrugsandalcoholtomaintainhousinginvolved‘enabling’thatbehaviour:

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Youcouldenablesomeoneinatenancyifyoucontinuetopaytheirrent[throughbrokerage]yetthebehavioursandchoicesthey’remakingisthereasontheycan’tpaytheirrent.You’regoing to pull away the brokerage at some point and then they’re going to head intohomelessnessanyway.[Serviceprovider4]

This represents a key difference among homelessness service providers. As discussed above,Housing First proponents and researchers, together with many homelessness services are of theview thatpeoplewith complexneeds includingdrug andalcohol addictionandmental illness canexit homelessness and maintain permanent housing including paying rent, and evidence fromHousing First and similar programs supports this. The view thatwomenwith continuingdrug andalcohol problems are inevitably going to be unable to maintain housing and will return tohomelessness arguably contributes to longer-term and hidden homelessness among women withcomplexneeds.

Interviewees suggested a variety of approaches to increasing access to housing for the diversecohortofwomenexperiencinglong-termhomelessness,includingthroughexpandedsocialhousingandprogramsassistingaccesstoprivaterentalhousing.Homelessnessserviceshaveadvocatedforthese initiatives but cannot directly effect change. However they also suggest other strategies inareaswhere they can have an impact. For example one interviewee noted that there are privaterentalsubsidiesfordomesticviolencesurvivorsbutthatitcanbehardtonavigatetheprivaterentalsector, suggestinghavinganadvocate in therealestate industry,withasocialconscience, tohelpwomenseekingprivaterentalhousing.

Specialist or targeted services

Womenatriskoforexperiencinglong-termorrecurrenthomelessnessareverydiverse,andthereisaneedfordiverseservicesandpathways.Researchshowsthatthenatureofhomelessnessservicesimpacts on the extent to which women use them, and which women do so (Mayock and &Bretherton 2016). Both research and service provider responses support the value of specialisedrather than multi-cohort services in meeting the needs of women experiencing homelessness,including long-term or recurrent homelessness, with the aim of ensuring that women are notexcluded for assistance, either through formal service exclusions or through other factors thatdiscouragewomen.

I’m not sure thatwouldwork for a lot ofwomen to be finding themselves in services thatweren’tspecificenoughtotheirneeds[Serviceprovider2]

Womenmaypreferandbenefitfromspecialist,targetedservicesbothbecausetheassistancetheyreceiveis likelytobemorespecifictotheirneedsandbecausethereis lesslikelihoodoftraumaticexperiences. Both service providers and women interviewed for this research described safetyissues, traumatic experiences andotherproblems thatoccurredwhenwomenwithdiverseneedswere accommodated together, especially in shared accommodation. These are documented inChapter4.Womenwhohadexperiencedhomelessnesssaidthatthiswasareasontheyhadleftornotaccessedservicesandserviceprovider intervieweessaid that thispracticecouldbedamaging,counterproductive,andnotconsistentwithtrauma-informedpractices:

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Different cohorts, all should actually havea specialised response ....We’ve got a couple ofsharedrooms intherefugeaswell,nodoors lock,onlyyourwardrobe locks. I thinkall thatoverlappingtrauma,andpeopleretellingtheirstories toeachother,andtraumatisingeachotherinthatenvironmentisnottherightservicemodel.[Serviceprovider3]

Specialist services are also valuablebecause these services are able to structure their serviceandfocustheirexpertisetomeetthespecificneedsofthecohortofwomentheyaretargetinginorderto prevent or end longer termhomelessness. There is a particular need for specialist services forwomenfleeingdomesticviolence(Mayocketal.2016;Andrew2018). InternationalandAustralianevidenceisthatthenatureofhomelessnessservicesmeansthat:

… the type and level of support offered in generic homelessness services is generally notadequate for those women who have been made homeless due to domestic violence.Homelessnessservicesusuallycannotofferthekindsofspecialistsupportsthatareavailableandaccessibleindomesticviolenceservices.Furthermore,thereislittleassuranceofsafety,security and privacy for women in general homelessness services, all of which arefundamental supportneeds for thoseescapingdomestic violence since theperpetratoroftheviolencemaybebothabletotrackthevictimdownandalsoaccessthebuildinginwhichsheisliving(Mayock,BrethertonandBaptista2016p.142).

AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople,includingwomen,areover-representedinthehomelesspopulation, as victims of domestic violence and as users of homelessness services (AustralianInstituteofHealth andWelfare 2019; Younget al, 2018). Specialist services are goodpractice forAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, including those experiencing domestic violence(Memmottetal,2003;Youngetal,2018).Somegoodpracticemodelsexist,andthereisaneedforadditionalservicesinthisarea(Memmottetal,2003;Memmot2013;Youngetal,2018).SpecialistservicesneedtobeculturallyappropriateandAboriginalandTorresStrait Islandercontrolled,andnon-specialistservicesthatassistwomenrequireculturallyappropriatestafftraining(Memmottetal.2003).

Literature also suggests separate services are needed for non-substance-using women and activeusers (Mayock et al. 2015a). Interviewees for this research also identified the importance ofspecialistservicesforwomencomingoutofprison:

Thereisaneedforspecialistservices,it’sverycomplicatedforservicesthatarenotsetuptoworkwithpeoplecomingoutofprison.Alotofpeopledon’tknowwheretostart,alotarereally frightened and a lot don’t have the resources … women in prison … feel veryembarrassed, if they’ve got jail tatts they feel like everyone knowswhere they’ve been, iftheydon’thavejailtattsmostyoungwomenfeelincrediblyself-consciousgoingtowhattheywouldcallamainstreamservice, so there isaneed for specialisation, itmeanspeople feelcomfortable…thatmakesahugedifference.[Serviceprovider8]

Specialistservicesaddvaluebysittingattheintersectionofdifferentsectors:forexamplespecialistdomesticviolenceservicesaresimultaneously‘partofthehomelessnessservicessectorandfeminist

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institutionsthataimtoeliminateviolence’(Andrew2018,p.13).Specialistservicesforothergroupsofwomensuchasthosewithmentalillness,whohaveexperiencedchildsexualassaultorwhoareleavingprisonaresimilarlyabletobringaspecialistfocusandexpertise.

ServiceproviderssaythecurrentmixofservicesinNSWisparticularlyinadequateforsomecohortsof women. Service provider interviewees said this was particularly the case for women escapingdomestic and family violence and women with co-occurring drug and alcohol and mental healthproblems. The current arrangements have left women’s domestic violence refuges in a ‘tenuoussituation … institutionally stuck in a beleaguered homelessness service system rather than givenstanding as distinctive services competent to deal with the gendered dynamics of violence andofferinga rangeofsupports towomen’ (Andrew,2018,p.13).There isaneed formorespecialistservices for women. This is of particular importance given the findings that lack of access toappropriate responses means that many women may avoid assistance altogether and theirhomelessnessisprolonged.

Ontheotherhand,therewillalwaysbeabeaneedforservices,especiallycrisisservices,withoutthis type of strong targeting, to ensure that assistance is available to all women when needed.Quality specialised support is important within such services, to help women with the range ofcomplexissuestheymayface(Mayocketal.2015).Inthecurrentcircumstanceswherethelackofcrisis accommodation is severe and women are turned away, some services interviewed arguedthat every service regardless of their focus should be prepared to accept referrals from outsidetheir target group if at all possible. These organisations are aware that this approach doessometimesincreasethetraumawomenexperience.Thisreflectstheverydifficultsituationinwhichservices currently operate, that requires providers to balance failing to provide assistance at allagainst providing assistance in a context that may increase trauma. This dilemma highlights theneedforincreasedcapacityinhomelessnessservicesandcapacityforwomentoexittopermanenthousingtominimisethefrequencyofsuchchoices.Howeveritisvitalthatservicesofthistypetakemeasures to ensure that the close proximity of very diverse groups is not counterproductive ortraumatising. Accommodation needs to be structured to enable this and one service providerinterviewednoted that theywere changing their premises so thatwomendidnothave to sharerooms. Some women’s domestic violence refuges have also moved to core and clusteraccommodationwithseparateunitsandasharedarea.

d. Informationaboutservices

Better information about services (particularly information accessible on mobile phones) isimportant, and especially for women who are first time homeless. However the evidence is thatunless services are safe, respectful, support women’s autonomy and self-determination, meetwomen’sneedsandassistthemtoendtheirhomelessness,andunlesswomenreceiveinformationthatreassuresthemthatthisisthecase,thenmanywomenwillnotusethem.

These findings indicate theneed forbetter information tobeavailable targeted to thosewhoarenotalreadyincontactwithservices.Informationshouldincludewhathomelessnessis,whatservicesareavailableandwhattypeofassistancepeoplemightexpectwhentheycontactservices.Howeverwhile services are overwhelmed by the existing demand, the impetus to target information to

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additionalpotentialclientsisreduced,asisanypotentialbenefittoisolatedwomen.Thishighlightstheneedforadditionalhousingopportunitiestoboostoutcomes.

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6.Monitoringchanges

Thosechangesthatrequiregovernmentactiontoimprovetheoverallservicesystem,includingtheresourcingof additional specialist domestic violenceandother services, aswell as additional low-cost housing, should be monitored by existing accountability practices, including evaluation. Forinternal service changes, service providers suggested a range of monitoring practices includingfeedbackmechanisms(e.g.questionnairesandmeetings),aswellasexternalqualityassuranceandevaluation. One interviewee noted that Homelessness NSW had done some work on outcomes.Feedbackfromwomenusingservicesisvitalbutserviceprovidersnotedthatmethodologicalfactorscanreducetheusefulnessoftheinformationreceived.Aserviceprovidersaid:

Capturing informationalongsomeone’s journeyandmakingsure it’sofvalue isveryusefulbecauseit’sabouthowtheyweresupported,howtheyfeltatthetimeandultimatelywhathappenedattheend… it’sasnapshotofhowthingsaredifferent fromwhentheycame in[Serviceprovider4].

Thisintervieweesaidthattheirservicedoesanoutcomessurvey,repeatedeverythreemonths,andan exit survey when the person has both moved to independent housing and ceased receivingsupport. The survey is done face to face or online but has a very low return ratewhich limits itsusefulness. However this organisation had found it difficult to obtain the information they wereseekingfromwomenusingtheirservice.Theusefulnessofthesurveywasrestrictedduetothelowresponse rate, and similarly, only some people using the service attended meetings held to givefeedback.Theintervieweefromthisservicestatedthatpartofthechallengewastrainingoursectorup to know how to explain to someone why it would be so helpful and important to fill this outhonestly [Service provider 4]. If questions are not asked specifically enough, information given infeedback surveys may reflect factors in respondents’ lives other than the how well the serviceassistedthem.Forexampleoneserviceprovidersaid:

Aboutsafety,awomanwhoisexperiencingdomesticandfamilyviolenceandtheycometoarefugeandtheyfeelsafebuttheirwellbeingdropsbecausetheylosttheirjob.Capturingthatandthenin6months’timethey’vegotajob,butsomethinghappensandtheydon’tfeelsafeall of a sudden, so capturing that, you’ve got to look at why they don’t feel safe when itshouldbeimproving.[Serviceprovider4]

Similarly, inexternalevaluation,methodology is important. Thedatathat iscollectedneedsto fitwiththeservicephilosophyandreflecttheworkoftheservicetomeettheactualneedsofwomenusingit:

Beingabletohavesomeoneexternallydosomequalityassuranceontheservice-peoplewhoaren’t just thinking about it in terms of just reporting to FACS, and it’s about your actualservice ideology.Soa reportingsystemthatcaptures thatyou’reactuallydoing that. So itsseen to look bad that you haven’t closed a client off, people do that because they wereworriedabouttheoutput.Sothat’showpeoplesometimesdoit,openingandclosingclientsso they look like new clients instead of, to get the best outcomes from some of the really

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complexclients,youaregoingtoworkwiththemforareallylongtime.Andthat’sgoingtolookdifferent.Peoplearegoing toneed supportor justneed toknow theycanpickup thephoneandringyou. Itmightbeonceamonth.Orthatpersonmightbefineforsixmonthsandthengobackintohospitalandyou’retheonlypeoplearoundwhoaregoingtovisitthemormakesuretheirplaceissecure,somethinglikethat.AndIthinkitlooksreallydifferentandit’s hard to report on that. This whole outcome thing will be really interesting, it’s aboutpeoplesustainingtenanciesandhavingsomequalityoflife[Serviceprovider3].

Serviceproviderintervieweessaidthatthephilosophyandleadershipofserviceshaveakeyroleinensuringgoodpracticealongwithstaffselection,staff trainingandboth internalandexternalstaffsupervision.SomeserviceshadbeeninvolvedinaCommunityofPracticeofwomen’sservicesduring2018 andhad found this to be valuable. Communities of practice involve: ‘groups of peoplewhoshareaconcern,asetofproblemsorapassionaboutatopic,andwhodeepentheirknowledgeandexpertiseinthisareabyinteractingonanongoingbasis’(Wenger&Snyder2002,p.4).Forexamplethree Communities of Practice in Northern Canada operated to discuss and act on developing‘culturally safe and gender specific services for northernwomen (and their children) experiencinghomelessness,mental health and substance use concerns’ (Poole&Bopp 2015, p. 1). Thesewerevirtual and face-to-faceCommunities, due to thedistance, showing the flexibilityof theapproach,andwere linked through awider projectRepairing theHoles in theNet. The Communities sharedsuccesses and challenges; examined models and examples of service provision, including fromliterature;reflectedontheirownpracticeinthelightofdatafromresearch;andsetnewgoals.Keythemeswerethegenderedexperienceofhomelesswomenwithmentalhealthandaddictionissues;the importance of incorporating First Nations and Inuit perspectives; and the underlying role oftrauma(Poole&Bopp2015).Similarly service provider interviewees involved in thewomen’s services Community of Practice inSydneysaidthatdiscussingpracticewithotherservicesthatassistedwomenwithsimilarneedswasveryvaluable,notingthat:there’salotofvicarioustrauma,thecohortisdifficulttoworkwith,theoutcomesare difficult to get, but also, the services are difficult to run [Service provider 1].Serviceprovidersalsonotedthatthereissometimesadifficultbalance:withwhat’stherightthingtodoforeverybody[Serviceprovider3].ServicesusedtheCommunityofPracticeprocesstotalkbothaboutsuccessfulpracticesandchallenges:

Wecantalkaboutwhatworks,too,bytheway.There’sarealstruggleintermsofwhendoyou exit a woman, when is the safety of others above that woman. A lot of services,managersandcasemanagersstrugglewiththoseethicaldecisions[Serviceprovider1].

A combination of data from internal and external evaluations, and processes of informationexchange,reflectionand learningatall levelsoftheorganisationand inthesectormorewidely, isconsistentwithgoodpractice.

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7. ConclusionWomen’s homelessness occurs in the context ofwomen’s inequality and poverty and of violenceagainst women. Women experiencing long-term homelessness have often experienceddisadvantage, violence and trauma over the course of their lives, often compounded by otherfactors.Manywomen’slong-termandrecurrenthomelessnessdoesnotfittheprofileofhighserviceuseassociatedwith ‘chronichomelessness’:manywomenwhobecomehomelesschoose toavoidservices for as long as possible and manage their homelessness themselves, and due to povertycombinedwiththelackofaffordablerentalhousing,evenwomenwithouthighsupportneedsmaybecome homeless for very long periods. Some women, including some interviewees for thisresearch, have experienced homelessness for very long periods before being in contact withservices. Additional low-cost housing is urgently required to ensure women’s homelessness,includinglongtermhomelessnessisresolved.Howevertheinformationwomenhaveaboutservicesand the response they receive from services also contributes to whether their homelessness islongerterm.

There are several interrelated factors that shape the problems women have getting help fromservices and their decisions aboutwhether to use services. Firstly, women conceal homelessnessdue to historical and cultural beliefs that particularly stigmatise women’s homelessness. Thesebeliefsarewidespread,andaffectnotonlywomen’sviewoftheirhomelessness,butmayalsoaffectserviceattitudesandpractices.Someoftheseattitudesandpracticeswithinservicescanresult inwomen deciding that self-management is a preferable option, and women may avoid or leaveservices and enter into situations of concealed homelessness in order to escape the culturethat characterises some service settings. These issues include judgemental attitudes andpractices that have the effect of disempowering women and undermining their autonomy.Secondly, women avoid environments where they feel unsafe. Women may fear or distrusthomelessnessservicesandstaffbeforehavingusedthem,andmayalsoexperiencefearandactualviolence in services. Women interviewed for this research recounted fear and traumaticexperiences in facilities that accommodated very diverse cohorts of people, particularlywhen these facilities were shared. Thirdly, women may leave or avoid services if they don’treceivethehelptheyneed.Inthecontextof housing shortage and strong competition for bothhousing and homelessness services, many barriers exist for both women generally and forparticularcohortsofwomen.Somewomenarenotable toaccesshomelessness services. There isalso increasing evidence that some women who docontact services may not gain a sustainablehousing outcome due to the high demand for housingandtheinteractionofeligibilitycriteriaforsocial andprivatehousingoptions in the currenthousing shortage. Thesewomenmaydecide toadoptotherstrategiessuchasstayingwithothersorlivingintheir cars. These strategies do notend their homelessness, but may enable some sense of independence, albeit a fragileindependence. Finally, some women, particularly women who are young, first time homeless,escaping domestic violence, and/or from a CALD backgroundmay lackknowledgeofservices.Thehomelessnessofwomen in this situationmaybehidden foryearswhile they couch surf, stay inseverely overcrowded or substandard dwellings or sleep rough. Lack of

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knowledge may be nuanced, as women may hesitate to seek out services due to fear,embarrassmentoradesireforoverallindependenceandself-management.Ifwomenare concerned that serviceswill notmeet their needs theymay actively avoid them. Inorder tomeet theneedsofwomenwhoareexperiencingorwillpotentiallyexperience long termhomelessness, servicesneed tonotonlyensurewomenareawareofwhatassistance isavailable,butalsotoexaminetheirservicephilosophies,policiesandpractices,andreassurewomenthattheirservices are human-centred, gender responsive, flexible, respectful, strengths-based and supportself-determination;thattheyaresafeandtrauma-informed;andthatwomenwill receivethehelpthey need including housing outcomes. Safety concerns where women share services with verydiverse cohorts accommodated together were identified as a core source of fear and traumaticexperiences,and there isaneed foranexpansionofandadjustmentwithin theservicesystemtomove towardsmore specialist or targeted services. There is also evidence that specialist servicesprovidehelpthatismorespecifictotheneedsofwomenusingthem.Thisisespeciallythecasefordomesticviolenceservices,butalsoimportantforothercohortssuchaswomenwithdualdiagnosis.Inadditiontospecialistservices,aneedforsomelesstargetedserviceswillremain.It is importantfortheseservicestotakemeasurestominimisetraumaticexperiencesduetothecloseproximityofdiversegroups,andsomeserviceproviders interviewedreportedthattheywerechangingthewaytheiraccommodationisstructuredforthisreason.Itisalsovitalthatservicesworktogethertofindthe rightassistance,but inpractice the limitedcapacity in thehomelessnessservicessystem isanobstacle.Changes that require government action, including additional service provision and low-costhousing, should be monitored by existing accountability practices, including evaluation. Goodpracticewithinservices issupportedbyservicephilosophy, leadership,staffselectionandtraining,aswell asby internalandexternal supervision. Internal feedbackandexternalevaluationarealsovaluable.CommunitiesofPracticehaveenabled services to shareexperiencesof serviceprovisionandgoodpractice.

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AppendixAInterviewTopicGuide–Womenwhohaveexperiencedchronic/long-termhomelessness

1. How long and on howmany occasionswere you/have you been homeless or in unstablehousing?Whatisyourage?(confirmparticipantmeetsstudycriteria).

2. Whatisyourcurrentlivingsituationandisthattemporaryorpermanenthousing?

3. Howdidyoucometolivethere/bereferredthere?

4. Wherewereyoulivingpreviously?

5. Over this time, howmany different services have you been in contactwith about getting

helpaboutnothavingsomewheretolive?

6. What kind of help did each of these different services provide? For each, what wasuseful/notuseful?

7. Thinkingbackoverthattime,whattypeofhelpdidyouneedfromservices?Whathelpthat

youdidreceivewasmostusefultoyouingettingandkeepinghousing,ordealingwithotherproblemsthatwouldhavehelpedyougetorkeephousing?Wastherehelpthatyoudidnotreceivethatwouldhavebeenusefultoyou?Prompts:

InformationandsupportfromworkersGettingpermanenthousingGettingtemporaryaccommodationTypeoftemporaryaccommodationSafetyandsecuritySupportwithanyotherissuesorproblems

8. Whatsuggestionsdoyouhaveforimprovingthehelpyoureceived?

9. Doyouthinkthatservicesyouusedwereabletomeettheneedsofwomenwhowereusing

thoseservices?Didsometypesofservicesmeetyourneedsasawomanbetterthanothers?

10. Doyouhavesuggestionsformakingthehelpservicesgivemorerelevantforwomen?

11. If youcouldchangeone thingabout the typeofhelp thatyouhave received,whatwouldyouchange?

12. Is there anything else you would like to say about helping women who are experiencinghomelessnessorunstablehousing?

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AppendixBInterviewTopicGuide–Serviceproviders

1. Startbyeachparticipantbrieflydescribingtheservicetheyarefrom,whotheyassist,theservice

provided, and brief information about to what extent their service is in contact with womenexperiencingchronic/long-termhomelessness.

2. Fromyourexperienceasserviceproviders,howwouldyoudescribethehomelessnesspathways

andexperiencesofwomenwhoexperiencechronic/long-termhomelessness?Prompts:

• Are there gender differences among people who experience chronic/long-termhomelessness,thatyoubecomeawareofasserviceproviders?

• Havethepathwayschangedashousingaccesshasbecomemoredifficult?How?• Theaverageageofintervieweeswas43years–whatroledoesageplay?• Towhatextentdowomenwhoremainhomelessovertimehavetomoveorcyclefrom

servicetoserviceinordertogethelp?3. Researchsuggestssomewomenactivelyseektoconcealtheirhomelessness,avoidservices,and

experience‘hiddenhomelessness’inawaythatisdifferenttomostmen–towhatextentisthisyourexperience,andwhatreasonsdoyouthinkleadto‘hiddenhomelessness’amongwomen?Whatroledoeslackofknowledgeofservicesplayandwhatroleactiveavoidance?Prompts:

• Research suggests a number of reasons why some women avoid services. In yourexperiencetowhatextentarethesefactors:

o fear/unsafeenvironments,o stigma,sometimesembeddedinserviceideologiesandpractices,notnoticedby

servicesbutnoticedbywomeno restrictiveaccesso judgementalattitudes,o conditionality/unreasonable

rules/surveillance/infantilization/micromanagemento other?

• Are you awareofwomenwho are very long-termhomeless andwhonever approachservices?Canyoucommentontheirsituationsandneeds?

4. Can you identify barriers or enablers in homelessness or social service system (rather than in

individualservices)?Prompts:

• referralpathways• mixofservices(e.g.lackofparticulartypesofservices)• howthesystemoperatesoverall

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• availabilityofassistanceforwomenwithcomplexneeds• howdowomenmanagebarriersandwhatimpactdothebarriershave?• Long-termhousing• Other

5. Canyouidentifybarriersorenablerswithinindividualservices?

Prompts:• Are there service types that are more helpful or unhelpful to women experiencing

chronic/long-term homelessness – specialist or generalist services, small or large,womenonlyornot,HousingFirst(congregateorscattersite)etc

• Are there services features that are particularly helpful or unhelpful to womenexperiencingchronicorrepeatedhomelessness?Prompts:

o servicepolicies,serviceapproachesandruleso whoservicestake,o helpfulorunhelpfulattitudeswithinservices

6. What points is it important to make in a resource for services about meeting the needs of

womenexperiencingchronic/longtermhomelessness?Whatpointsarethemostimportant?

7. Howcanstrategiestoimproveserviceresponsesforwomenexperiencingchronicorlong-termhomelessnessbeimplementedandhowcantheybemonitored?

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Gender responsive strategiesfor assisting women experiencing long-termand recurrent homelessness

Didn’t feel hearddidn’t think I had a voice,didn’t feel safe:

Jane Bullen

A report for the Mercy Foundation

2019