Interim Report for Household Expenditure Patterns in Egypt during the 2000s, IDE-JETRO, 2016

Gender Inequality in Arab Countries: Opportunities and Challenges

Heba El Laithy1

1. Introduction The Arab region is not homogenous because of different economic levels,

demography and other social and cultural specific traits and conditions, yet, there are several commonalities that call for similar handling. The report will probe into issues still affecting women in the region, despite their progress, or issues that have emerged recently.

The last five years has witnessed a strong regional progress towards gender parity in education, a very important step towards equal opportunities for women and men. Many more girls go to primary school in the region than ever before and lower fertility rates. However, early marriage, high fertility rate are still common among the poor households in some Arab countries; representing obstacles to achieving gender parity in secondary education. These investments in human development have not yet translated into higher rates of female participation in economic and political life.

Despite progress achieved in many development fields, the Arab region is home to more than 17 million people who have been forced to leave their homes due to violent conflicts, with 10 million internally displaced in Sudan, Iraq, Somalia, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen, as well as 7.5 million refugees from the Occupied Palestinian. Conflicts have devastating consequences on women. They often have fewer resources than men to protect themselves and with children, they frequently make up the majority of displaced and refugee population. They also face the most detrimental sexual violence including rape. Many of the women in conflict areas in the Arab region are left without much needed services or reparations, while allowing perpetrators to avoid accountability and punishment.

The report consists of three main sections. Section 2 looks at the problems and challenges facing women in the Arab world and provides a detailed analysis of the situation in some development dimensions. Section 3 reviewed the available statistics

1 Prof. of Stataistics, Cairo University (hflaithy@gmail,com or hflaithy@feps.edu.eg)

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which were used to assess gender inequality and its trends in the Arab region. The section looks at the progress of gender inequality through evaluating outcomes of different policies. However, it does not focus on input variables such as; the number of NGOs working on gender issues or the number of reproductive health units, rather it focuses on the resulted outcome from these inputs. Finally, section 4 provides recommendations that can be used to overcome many problems women are currently facing. 2. Situation analysis; progress and challenges

2.1 Education

In the past 20 years, the Arab region has made tremendous progress towards gender parity in the education of women. Undeniably, this is the result of serious governmental action to comply with commitments made to international conventions and declarations. Data indicates that great progress have been achieved by women in their enrolment ratios in the various stages of education. The right of girls to education is not a challenge by any country in the region, except for LDC countries. As indicated by figures 2.1 and 2.2,, net enrollment rate is almost universal in primary education, but boys have slightly higher rates than girls. In Secondary education, enrollment rate is higher for girls than boys in some countries.

Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

0.020.040.060.080.0

100.0120.0

Jordan

Lebanon

Mauritania

Morocco

Om

an

Palestine

Saudi Arabia

Emirates

Yemen

Figure 2.1 Net Primary rate, 2013

Male Female

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

120.0

Bahrain

Comoros

Djibouti

Egypt

Jordan

Lebanon

Mauritania

Morocco

Saudi Arabia

Syria

Yemen

Figure 2.2 Gross secondary enrollment 2013

Male Female

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Levels of success greatly differ between rich Gulf countries with limited population, and countries with high levels of population growth and poverty such as Egypt; and low-income countries such as Yemen and Somalia, where enrollment rate is very low, especially among girls. Future concern about Education Recent turmoil in Palestine and armed conflicts in Yemen, Iraq, Libya and Syria disrupt and harm school attendance of both sexes, especially for girls for safety reasons. The danger of extremism is also looming on the region with devastating consequences for women and girls. In cases of exodus and forced migrations, new laws need to be promulgated to ensure rights to basic education for children of refugees. 2.2 Health

Attended birth- that reduce risk of mortality during birth- has increased in most countries, Algeria has reached 95.2 % in 2006 and United Arab Emirates has reached 100% in 2010. One of the important indicators to ensure adequate care of the mother during a high morbidity and mortality period is the Antenatal care visits (4 visits) which increased in most Arab countries except for Comoros. Adolescent health is very important especially with the presence of early marriage. Fertility rate declined but still very high. However, in some countries like Egypt, it has an increasing trend since 2008. Life expectancy increased and it is higher for females than males, Lebanon, Qatar and Saudi Arabia are the highest while Somalia, Djibouti and Mauritania are the lowest

Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Figure 2.3: Trends in fertility rate AlgeriaBahrainDjiboutiEgyptIraqJordanKuwaitLebanonLibyaMoroccoOmanPalestineQatarSaudi ArabiaSyrian Arab RepublicTunisiaUnited Arab EmiratesYemen

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Table 2.1: Trends in life expectancy at birth by gender

Country Female life expectancy at birth (years) Male life expectancy at birth (years)

2000–2005 2005–2010 2010–2015 2000–2005 2005–2010 2010–2015

Algeria 71.0 71.8 72.6 67.8 68.8 69.4

Bahrain 75.9 76.7 77.4 74.2 75.2 75.8

Djibouti 58.8 60.5 63.2 55.9 57.6 60.0

Egypt 71.4 72.3 73.5 66.7 67.6 68.7

Iraq 72.6 72.2 73.1 68.3 65.1 66.0

Jordan 73.8 74.6 75.5 70.8 71.5 72.2

Kuwait 74.5 74.9 75.5 72.7 73.1 73.4

Lebanon 77.4 80.6 82.1 73.9 76.2 77.9

Libya 74.5 76.2 77.2 71.1 72.4 73.4

Mauritania 61.5 62.1 63.0 58.4 59.2 59.9

Morocco 70.4 71.3 72.6 66.9 67.9 69.0

Oman 75.5 77.5 78.9 71.4 73.2 74.7

Qatar 78.0 78.7 79.4 76.3 76.9 77.7

Saudi Arabia 75.1 76.4 77.5 71.6 72.8 73.8

Somalia 53.1 54.8 56.5 50.0 51.7 53.3

Palestine 72.9 73.8 74.9 69.8 70.6 71.4

Sudan 60.8 62.7 63.8 57.0 59.2 60.2

Syria 75.7 77.3 77.6 72.3 73.1 71.6

Tunisia 76.3 77.0 78.2 71.4 72.3 73.5

Emirates 76.1 77.1 78.1 74.0 75.2 76.1

Yemen 62.4 63.4 64.4 59.7 60.8 61.7

Source: Global Human Development Report 2014, UNDP, Statistical Tables; http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014. 2.3 Poverty

Poverty has been a common theme in all countries irrespective of their diverse economic and political regimes, and their different levels of development.

Gender sensitive poverty measures are very rare as analysis is usually based on households and most assessments of female poverty reflect the status of female headed

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households. Poverty assessments for several countries show that FHHs are not likely to be poorer than male-headed households (MHH) at the national level. Incidence of poverty among female-headed households in Tunisia, Iraq are higher than the rate among male-headed households .In Sudan, Palestine and Egypt, but for lower poverty line, which means that extreme poverty is widespread among households headed by females compared to males.

Table 2.2: Poverty rates by gender

gender of Individuals gender of household head

Using International poverty lines(PPP)

Using national

Poverty lines

Using International poverty lines(PPP)

Using national

Poverty lines $1.25 $2 $1.25 $2

Jordan 2010

Males 0.06 1.84 14.36 0.05 2.04 14.71 Females 0.03 2.16 14.91 0 1.71 13.93

Total 0.04 2.01 14.64 0.04 2.01 14.64

Tunisia 2010

Males 0.85 4.43 13.14 0.81 4.34 13.06 Females 0.95 4.77 13.41 1.62 6.77 15.11

Total 0.9 4.6 13.28 0.9 4.6 13.28

Sudan 2009

Males 13.88 34.47 45.9 13.79 34.61 46.11 Females 13.83 34.83 46.31 14.49 35.04 45.94

Total 13.85 34.64 46.1 13.85 34.64 46.1

Palestine 2011

Males 0.36 4.08

0.3 4.46 Females 0.43 4.7

1.67 3.43

Total 0.39 4.39

0.39 4.39

Oman 2010

Males 0 1.44

0 0.1 Females 0 1.08

0 0

Total 0 1.25

0 0.1

Egypt 2013

Males 0.35 5.24 27.08 0.38 5.47 26.9 Females 0.5 5.79 25.5 0.73 5.82 22.02

Total 0.43 5.51 26.29 0.43 5.51 26.29

Iraq 2007

Males 0.29 4.06 22.87 0.23 3.54 20.29 Females 0.32 3.86 22.87 0.31 4 23.14

Total 0.3 3.96 22.87 0.3 3.96 22.87

Lebanon 2005

Males 0.04 1.56 8.39 0.03 1.57 7.9 Females 0.02 1.54 7.55 0 1.45 9.14

Total 0.03 1.55 7.97 0.03 1.56 8.02

Source: Author’s calculations based on Household surveys.

Poverty assessments for several countries show that FHHs are not likely to be

poorer than male-headed households (MHH) at the national level, but poverty is widespread among FHH with certain characteristics. In Jordan divorced women have higher incidence of poverty than widowed or married women. Separated women have a poverty ratio of 37%, making them the most vulnerable. In Egypt, Syria and Lebanon

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households headed by widows with more than 3 children are over-represented among the poor. In Lebanon FHH share among the poor is five times their population share. Welfare level differs much depending on the household head’s marital status and number of dependent children. FHHs depend largely on pensions/remittances as their major source of income. The reliance of FHH on social assistance makes them vulnerable to any shocks and to price increases. Moreover, the child labor prevalence in poor households headed by women twice the corresponding prevalence in households headed by a man. Sources of poverty

Political factors: Despite the development by a number of countries of pro-poor strategies, pro-poor policies mostly address symptoms and not the root causes of poverty. It is further aggravated by uneven spatial development.

Economic factors: The low annual rate of growth of GNP per capita; the low labor productive force and wages; and, the dependency ratio per family, unequal distribution of income and inadequate social services provided to the poor pointing to the need to better targeting mechanisms. Social factors: High population growth rate, phasing out of the extended family and kinship support that were traditional traits of the Arab world with no proper substitute from social assistance; women combine dual roles without compensation. Most women’s work is in the informal sector, with low-pay jobs, hence with no eligibility to social protection schemes. Public spending: Inadequacy of budget allocations to health, education, nutrition, sanitation; unaccountability with regards to use Zakat monies and charitable donations. Cultural factors: Resilience of intergenerational poverty that illiteracy, poor education and poor health perpetuate. This is in addition to gender discriminatory norms. Institutional factors: The capacities and limitations of institutions addressing human needs; e.g. family and kinship, economy policy, education and health care.

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These expand or limit opportunities, and determine the distribution of resources and power. Situation varies in intensity from one country to another.

3. Assessment of Gender Inequality in Arab Region In a rapidly changing world, due to scientific revolutions and technological process,

the importance of data, particularly data with social indicators, becomes evident to contribute to achievements of human development for human beings. In many instances, the lack and non-availability of data and statistical information are compounded with contradicting data, particularly in countries lacking a comprehensive and organized statistical system of data and statistical information production. An updated and efficient data and statistics allow governments and NGOs to set strategies for assessing gender disparities. This justifies that countries’ need a national statistical system to monitor progress in gender equity.

Social and gender-related statistics have improved considerably in the last years in coverage, quality and timeliness. The countries’ agreement on MDGs and the monitoring of progress accomplished as to the MDGs implementation have had a huge impact on the development of their statistical databases and on the increase of demand on breakdown data by sex. It is not possible to monitor the progress achieved in implementing the MDGs without data collected by sex and thus produce MDG indicators. Furthermore, most Arab countries monitor gender equity. Efforts deployed by many entities interested in measuring gender equity in the Arab countries throughout the last two decades, with support from many international organizations in particular UNDP, the World Bank and some UN specialized agencies. Regardless of the progress achieved in producing gender sensitive data, was not up to the required standards, even upon comparison with other developing countries.

The main objective of this chapter is to conduct a review on issues related gender statistics, in the Arab region. The available statistics are used to assess gender inequality and its trends. Monitoring progress in gender inequality is addressed through evaluating outcomes of different policies and law. The report focuses on the ultimate outcome achieved rather than introduced policies and laws for achieving gender equality. Thus, it does not consider input variables such as number of NGOs working in gender issues or number of reproductive health units, but rather the resulted outcome from these inputs.

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The status of gender sensitive statistics: Although the status of the Arab countries’ statistics is far from being perfect, we

cannot overlook the large progress achieved, and must admit that the challenge ahead started to shift increasingly from a challenge of data collection to the challenge of producing gender sensitive indicators, integrate them in the planning and development process, as well as, monitor and compare the progress achieved at the national and international level. Given the countries’ need to gender statistics, each country has established specialized entities to collect, analyze and disseminate official statistics. Several Arab countries developed statistical frameworks to measure gender equity in several dimensions such as Oman, Palestine, Lebanon, Bahrain and Jordan. Most countries set strategies to monitor progress in gender equity and to collect gender sensitive statistics, while other countries produced a limited number of gender indicators within its MDG reports. It is evident that producing gender sensitive indicators lag behind other indicators. For instance, the Global Human Development Report (2014) provides human development indicators of all Arab countries (22), gender sensitive indicators are available for only 17 countries. Moreover, the Global Gender Gap report of World Economic Forum provides indicators for only 15 Arab countries because of lack of gender data. In all Arab countries the official statistical agencies (governmental agencies) are responsible for the collection of data and statistics, in cooperation and coordination with the relevant actors. Some agencies were founded in 1903 as Sudan and 1915 as Egypt, and their functions are the production and dissemination of social statistics include statistics and indicators on population, employment, migration, poverty, disability and vital statistics and the preparation of population projections and economic statistics in cooperation with the relevant authorities.

Household data collection is a highly restricted process in the Arab countries, due to legal and administrative measures, where the same goes for the data collection of social indicators pertaining in particular to the living standards. In Egypt for example, researchers must get the approval of the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) and must present the questionnaire form to be reviewed by the national security agencies to make sure that no information related to national security is being collected. Comparisons between Arab countries cannot be easily achieved due to the absence of unified definitions and used methodologies. Data collection in this region is not the only problem. There is also the issue of data dissemination that is often subject to the political will, especially in the fields of unemployment, and poverty, in addition to data accessibility and timeliness.

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The availability of the minimum set of gender indicators: The report of UN on gender statistics2 identified a minimum set of gender indicators

(52 indicators). The choice of indicators was guided by the primary criterion that indicators should address key policy concerns as identified in the Beijing Platform of Action and other more recent international commitments. These indicators are divided into 5 core sets. Arab countries showed diversified progress in recent years and some of them produce some of these indicators on periodical basis. As indicated by The 2015 Arab synthesis report, most Arab countries are not committed to produce the minimum set on gender statistics suggested by the UN statistical division, but they followed their own agenda on gender statistics. However as shown below most education and health indicators are available in all countries, but indicators on violence are not. Table A1.1 summarizes the number of countries that produce each of the 52 indicators suggested by the UN statistical division. It shows that 16 out of 52 indicators are not produced by any Arab country, while only 6 indicators are produced by all of them. The indicators on “Economic structures, participation in productive activities and access to resources” were the least, where ten out of 19 indicators were not produced by any Arab country. “Public life and decision-making” indicators (5 indicators) and “Human rights of women and girl children” (5 indicators) were also less frequently produced where two out of five indicators on each dimension were not available for any Arab country. No country produced indicators on “proportion of women aged 15-49 subjected to physical or sexual violence in the last 12 months”. Egypt produced the maximum number of indicators produced; 32 indicators out of 52, it is followed by Morocco (31 indicators), Qatar and Yemen (30 indicators). On the other hand, Lebanon and Sudan produced the least number of indicators (15 indicators). Comoros, Libya, Mauritania, Somalia and Sudan did not produce any indicator on economic domain (19 indicators). Most of education and health indicators are produced by all countries. Tables A1.2 to A1.5 present selected indicators of the core gender indicators on the 5 domains suggested by UNSD (UN Statistical Division).

2 Gender Statistics, report of Secretary General, Economic and Social Council, ttp://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=E/CN.3/2013/10, accessed 20 Jan 2015.

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Figure 3.1: Selected indicators on Economic structures, participation in productive activities and access to resources Dimension

Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

Figure 3.2: Selected indicators on Education Dimension

Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

Assessments of gender inequality:

This section, this report aimed to assess how women have performed compared to men in multiple development domains. In section two, achievements in different concerns were evaluated using qualitative and quantitative approaches separately. In this section, an assessment of gender disparities from the multi-dimensional perspective, were used to monitor progress. Thus, instead of evaluating performance in each dimension separately, composite indices were used to monitor progress. The report

0

20

40

60

80

100

Algeria

Djibouti

Iraq

Kuwait

Morocco

Plestine

Saudi Arabia

Syria

UAE

Labour force participation rate for persons aged 15+

female male

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

AlgeriaBahrainEgyptJordanKuw

aitLebanonM

oroccoPlestineQ

atarSaudi ArabiaSudanSyriaTunisia*U

AEYem

en

Youth unemployment Rate

female male

0

20

40

60

80

100

Algeria

Comoros

Iraq

Kuwait

Libya

Morocco

Plestine

Saudi Arabia

Syria

UAE

Literacy rate of persons aged 15-24 years old

female male

00.20.40.60.8

11.2

Algeria

Comoros

Egypt

Jordan

Lebanon

Mauritania

Om

an

Qatar

Somalia

Tunisia*

Yemen

Gender parity index in enrolment at primary education

S

T

A

T

I

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T

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relied on two main data sources of GHDRs (Global Human Development reports) of UNDP and GGG (Global Gender Gap report) of World Economic Forum. GHDR provides GDI (Gender related Human Index) and GII (Gender Inequality Index), which evaluate gender inequality.

Arab countries can be grouped into four groups according to their human developed levels, the first as very high human development including; Qatar, UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, the second as high human development including; Libya, Oman, Lebanon, Jordan, Tunisia, Algeria, the third as medium human development such as Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Morocco, and the fourth as low human development such as; Yemen, Mauritania, Djibouti, Sudan and Comoros. A. Gender related development index (GDI)

GDI evaluates the development level in three dimensions in health (measured by life expectancy at birth), education (measured by mean years of schooling and expected mean years of schooling), and income (measured by gross national income), for women and compare it to men. GDI is the ratio between Human Development Index (HDI)3 for women and men; which indicates the relative development level between women and men. In Global Human Development report 2014, GDI was calculated for only 16 Arab countries. HDI for females ranged from 0.838 for Qatar to 0.415 for Yemen. Taking Arab states as a whole, HDI for women was 0.626, below the world average (0.655) and they came at the third least group after Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

In terms of GDI, Arab states performed the second worse group, after South Asia. Qatar, which is the best performing Arab country in the three dimensions of HDI, the ratio between of females to males in this respect is 0.979, indicating that Qatar had high human development level for both men and women and it is slightly higher for men compared to women. Men and women in Kuwait achieved almost similar level of development according to HDI; where HDI for women represents 0.987 of Men’s HDI. In fact all countries in ”very high development“ group achieved almost equal development levels for both women and men (the ratio between HDI for women and men exceeds 0.95), except for Saudi Arabia. The ratio between HDI for women and men in all other countries is above 0.8 except for Yemen (0.738). Taking a closer look at HDI components; 1) Life expectancy at birth for women exceeds that for men, in all Arab states; 2) Expected mean years of schooling for women and men are almost

3 Human development index (HDI) is a composite index introduced by UNDP in 1990. I measures development in three dimensions; health, education and living standards.

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identical for all Arab countries except Iraq and Yemen; 3) Mean years of schooling for women exceeds that for men in Qatar, UAE, Kuwait and Libya, and the ration of mean years of schooling between women and men represents more than 90% of men’s years of schooling in Bahrain, Lebanon and Jordan, while it has a low ratio at 32% for men’s years of schooling in Yemen; 4) Estimated gross national income (GNI) per capita exhibited the largest differences between women and men, where the ratio between women and men of estimated GNI per capita for all Arab countries is 0.304 representing the lowest region in the world.

When countries are ranked according to the ratio between HDI for women and men; which indicates the relative development level between women and men, Saudi Arabia was set back by 78 positions, reflecting that women in Saudi Arabia are relatively lagging behind, compared to other countries. On the other hand, Kuwait ranked ahead by 24 positions, indicating that Kuwait provides high level of development for both women and men. In general, ranks of all Arab countries with respect to GDI are worse than their ranks with respect to HDI, except Kuwait, Yemen and Mauritania.

Source: Global Human Development Report 2014, UNDP, Statistical Tables;

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014.

0.0000.1000.2000.3000.4000.5000.6000.7000.8000.9001.000

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

UA

E

Bahrain

Kuw

ait

Libya

Lebanon

Jordan

Tunisia

Algeria

Egypt

Syria

Iraq

Morocco

Yem

en

Mauritania

Figure 3.* : HDI by gender

Female Male

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B. Gender Inequality Index GII Gender inequality index (GII)4 introduced for the first time in 2010 by the global

Human Development Report 2010, includes educational attainment, economic and political participation and female-specific health issues and is accounting for overlapping inequalities at the national level. A full set of GII estimates for all countries for which data are available is presented in Table A3.1. The GII increases when disadvantages across dimensions are associated – that is, the more correlated the disparities between genders across dimensions, the higher the index. This takes account of the fact that the dimensions are complementary and that inequality in schooling tends to be correlated with, say, access to work opportunities and maternal mortality. Overlapping disadvantages are an important aspect of gender inequality, and capturing them is a major advantage of the GII. The method also ensures that low achievement in one dimension cannot be totally compensated for by high achievement in another.

Among Arab countries, the Gender Inequality Index in 2014, ranged from 0.215 to 0.73 (reflecting percentage losses in achievement of 22% to 73%). The Gender Inequality Index is the highest in Yemen 0.73, indicating that the gap between men and women in Yemen is the largest in all human development dimensions. Yemen is followed by Mauritania and Sudan. Ranks of most Arab countries with respect to GII lagged behind their HDI ranks. Qatar was set back by 82 positions because of gender inequality. On the other hand, according to data in the global HDR 2014, Libya has the least gender inequality index among all Arab countries under investigation. GII for Arab states reached 0.546 in 2013; the second highest region after Sub-Saharan Africa, and above the world average (0.451).

Countries exhibit enormous variations in maternal mortality ratios, even countries at similar human development levels. Algeria and Tunisia have similar HDI to that of Jordan and Lebanon, but Algeria’s maternal mortality ratio is more than four times that of Jordan. Countries with low human development exhibited high maternal mortality ratios (more than 200 per 100,000 live births). Morocco has the highest maternal mortality ratio among the medium development countries (100 deaths for 100,000 live births). Women have traditionally been disadvantaged in the political arena at all levels of government. To capture this disadvantage, the Gender Inequality Index (GII) uses the 4 Gender Inequality Index (GII) is a composite index of five indicators, namely; maternal mortality ratio, Adolescent birth rate, Share of seats in parliament, Ratio of population with at least some secondary education between women and men and Ratio of labor force participation rate between women and men.

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ratio of female to male representatives in parliament. National parliamentary representation that reflects women’s visibility in political leadership and in society has been increasing over time, even though the region average is still only 14% compared to 21% for the world average. In 2013, Tunisia’s parliament became the first to have a majority of women; 26.7 % of all parliamentary seats are held by women, and Egypt has the least representation of women, at 2.7%. Women’s representation in parliament is less than 10% in 7 out of 18 Arab countries. Some countries made remarkable progress in the share of female representatives in parliament between 2013 and 2015; Oman came on the top of the list where the ratio increased from 9.6% to 18%. Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria also exhibited increases of 6, 5 and 3 percentage points, respectively. Only Bahrain showed a decline in the share of female representatives in parliament from 18.8% to 10%.

Higher educational attainment expands women’s freedoms by strengthening their capacity to question, reflect and act on their condition and by increasing their access to information. Educated women are more likely to enjoy satisfying work, participate in public debate, care for their own and their family’s health and take other initiatives. The Gender Inequality Index (GII) focuses on differences between women and men in secondary and higher educational attainment. About one fifth of women in Morocco have a secondary and higher educational attainment, as opposed to 72% in Bahrain. The percentage of women with a secondary and higher degree exceeds the corresponding percentage of men in Libya, and Syria. The gap between men and women in this respect is the widest in Morocco, followed by Iraq.

Female labor force participation that includes the employed and unemployed (actively looking for work) as well as, those seeking part-time work, stagnated at around 51% for the world in 2013. Women in the Arab States increased their labor force participation by about 9 percentage points since 1980, to 27% in 2013, though it is still only about half the global average.

5 Data for 2013 is derived from the Global Human Development report 2014, while 2015 data is derived from country reports as presented in the 2015 Arab synthesis report.

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Figure 3.4: Gender Inequality Index

Source: Global Human Development Report 2014, UNDP, Statistical Tables; http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014.

Investigating perception towards female employment may explain low female participation rate and high unemployment rate. As table 3.2 shows, about one third of population believed that university education is more important for a boy than for a girl, and more than two thirds believed that When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women and On the whole, men make better political leaders than women do.

Table 3.*: Perception towards female education and employment

A university education is more important for a boy than for a girl

Women have the same rights as men.

Justifiable: For a man to beat his wife

When jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than women

On the whole, men make better political leaders than women do

TOTAL 32.8 36.5 4.7 64.4 74.7 Algeria 37.2 40.4 7.4 58 71.6 Bahrain 50.5 10.4 0.9 30.7 68.9 Palestine 26.7 27.3 3.8 65.5 79.3 Iraq 31.4 28.6 1.7 65.2 79.3 Jordan 28.7 30.1 0.6 80.6 80.5 Kuwait 36.4 39 3.9 62 75.7 Lebanon 31.1 38.5 6.7 40.8 56.8 Libya 31.5 34 4.1 68.7 74.6 Morocco 19.5 51.3 7 60.6 57.4 Qatar 27.6 44.1 3 69.4 85.4 Tunisia 24.5 44.4 2.8 71.1 72.5 Egypt 35.8 41 13.4 83.4 86.4 Yemen 45.3 47.2 3.2 75.4 83.3

Source: World value survey.

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C. Global Gender Gap index GGI The World Economic Forum recently designed an index to measure gender inequity

around the world, the Gender Gap Index (GGGI). This seems an attractive idea because it takes a wider range of factors into consideration. There are three basic concepts underlying the Global Gender Gap Index. First, it focuses on measuring gaps rather than levels. Second, it captures gaps in outcome variables rather than gaps in means or input variables. Third, it ranks countries according to gender equality rather than women’s empowerment. It is a composite index of four sub-indices; Economic participation and opportunity 6 ; Educational attainment 7 ; Health and survival 8 ; and Political empowerment9. The final value of GGI is bound between 1 (equality) and 0 (inequality).

Global Gender Gap index reached 0.599 indicating that Arab states closed 60% of its overall gender gap in 2014. Only 15 countries of Arab countries are included in the Global Gender Gap report of World Economic Forum because of unavailability of data. The region performed badly in terms of closing gender gaps in all dimensions, even though 5 countries from the region are classified among the very high human development countries and 6 countries are among the very high human development countries. All the 15 Arab countries are ranked among the worst 30 performing countries in gender equality. In fact Yemen is the worst country in the world in gender inequality and Kuwait is the best performing country in the region although it ranks 113 out of 142 countries. The region is the last region in overall gender gap where only 60% of gender gap is closed. It is also ranked the last on the Economic Participation and Opportunity sub-index, with only 42% of the economic gender gap closed. On the Educational Attainment sub-index, the region surpassed Asia and the Pacific, ranking in fourth place (out of six) with 93% of the educational gender gap closed. Arab region ranks fifth on the Health and Survival sub-index, with 97% of the health gender gap being closed, slightly ahead of the Sub-Saharan Africa region. It ranked in the fourth position last year on that sub-index. Finally, on the Political Empowerment sub-index, 6 It includes the following indicators; ratio of female to male in labor force participation rates; ratio of estimated female-to-male earned income; a qualitative variable calculated through the World Economic Forum’s Executive Opinion Survey (wage equality for similar work); the ratio of women to men among legislators, senior officials and managers, and the ratio of women to men among technical and professional workers. 7 It includes the following indicators; ratios of women to men in primary-, secondary- and tertiary-level education and the ratio of the female literacy rate to the male literacy rate. 8It includes the following indicators; ratio between women and men’s healthy life expectancy and the sex ratio at birth. 9 It includes the following indicators; ratio of women to men in minister-level positions and the ratio of women to men in parliamentary positions; ratio of women to men in terms of years in executive office (prime minister or president) in the last 50 years.

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the region continues to rank sixth (the last) with only 8% of the political gender gap closed. The highest-ranking economies of the region have made vast investments in increasing women’s education levels in the last decade. In Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Tunisia, Algeria, Oman, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Syria, tertiary enrolment rates for women are higher than those of men. In 2014, Jordan was the best-performed region in closing its Educational Attainment Gender Gap (closed 0.99 of the gap), followed by UAE. All other Arab countries closed 90% of Educational Attainment Gender Gap except Yemen (0.707). The closed Health and Survival gender ranged from 0.979 for Syria to 0.952 for Qatar. Health and survival dimension is the best dimension that Arab countries performed. On the Economic Participation and Opportunity sub-index, only two countries from the region are above average, Qatar and Kuwait, though Qatar ranked 101 indicating that 100 countries out of 142 countries performed better than Qatar. Out of the 15 countries from the region, 13 are part of the twenty lowest performing countries on the Labor force participation and Legislators, senior officials and managers’ indicators. However, all Arab countries were among the worst 20 countries in female to male participation rate. On the Political Empowerment sub-index, all countries’ scores are below average. On that sub-index, Algeria and Tunisia are the two best performing countries.

In all 11 Arab countries have been part of the GGG Report since 2006, the direction of change within countries has been largely positive, but not universally so. Between 2006 and 2014, 9 countries have made progress overall, while two countries have regressed relative to their starting point; Jordan and Tunisia.

Table A 4.2 summarizes gains and losses over the last nine years in Arab countries. Among those that have improved, the pace of change varied across countries. Jordan and Tunisia experienced wider gender gap. Three countries have improved their GGGI with rates between 5% and 10%; Saudi Arabia, UAR and Yemen. The GGGI of the other six countries have improved between 1% and 5%. Progress has not been even across the four sub-indexes of economy, politics, health and education within countries. On Economic Participation and Opportunity, five out of 11 countries have regressed over the last 9 years (Algeria, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia), while 6 countries have improved. In Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen these gains are larger than 10%. On the Educational Attainment sub-index, four countries covered have wider education gaps than they did nine years ago (Algeria, Bahrain, Kuwait and Tunisia), while 7 have shown gains. Of those that improved, Saudi Arabia and Yemen had gains of more than 10%, having started out with a low base. On Health and Survival gaps, all

S

T

A

T

I

S

T

I

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Arab countries except Egypt have regressed over the last 9 years. On Political Empowerment, all Arab countries are performing better than before. In Algeria and Mauritania the gains are larger than 10% and Bahrain, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and UAE have had gains of 5% to 10%. It should be noted that some of the biggest absolute and relative improvements of the past nine years have come from countries that are low in the rankings such as Yemen and to some extent Saudi Arabia.

Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2014, World Economic Forum, http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2014/

Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2014, World Economic Forum, http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2014/

Absolute change in gender gap index by dimension

overall economy education health political

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4. Recommendations Economic and Social Empowerment of Women • Make education accessible to rural and underserved population with virtual/distance

collective educational facilities; and for women friendly educational programs. NGOs should be trained for technical support.

• Engage the private sector through promoting women’s advantage and social responsibility.

• Enhance support to civil society organizations as social communicators especially with regards to identifying the needs of marginalized sectors of women who fall out of the coverage range of health and other services, and encourage governments to open formal windows through which accredited NGOs have the right to draw their attention to such needs for inclusion. Valorize social work for the immense role it plays in society.

• Improve statistics that reflect informal and non-paid work by women and introduce social insurance numbers such as is practiced in the West. This would entitle all citizens and residents to social benefits, while ensuring their participation as taxpayers.

• Support public awareness campaigns specially those aimed at breaking women’s culture of silence on discrimination against them and on reporting domestic violence; raise public awareness on consequences of gender inequalities. This requires close collaboration between governments and NGOs and should reach remote communities.

• Engage men and boys as partners, allies, and ultimate beneficiaries from an improved social order as well as, facilitate dialogues to reinforce positive and inclusive relationships between men and women – within and beyond households- through education, culture and the media.

• Social cohesion should be enhanced. The role of the state cannot be denied, along with its institutional roles for providing welfare and social protection and for promoting equality through re-distribution.

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References Economic and Social Council - UN. "Gender Statistics." Report of the Secretary

General. UN: Economic and Social Council, 2012. World Economic Forum. The Global Gender Gap Report. Insight Report. World

Economic Forum. Geneva, 2014. UNDP: Global Human Development Report 2014, UNDP, Statistical Tables;

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014. UNWOMEN: Arab Region Shadow Report Beijing +20 Platform of Action, 2015,

unpublished

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Annex: Statistical Tables

1. Minimum Set of gender indicators Table A1.1 Number of Minimum Set of gender indicators by domain and country

Country

Economic structures, participation in productive activities and access to resources (19 indicators)

Education (12 indicators)

Health and related services (11 indicators)

Public life and decision-making (5 indicators)

Human rights of women and girl children (5 indicators)

All indicators (52)

Algeria 6 9 8 2 2 27 Bahrain 8 9 9 2 1 29 Comoros 0 9 10 2 1 22 Djibouti 3 8 9 2 3 25 Egypt 8 8 11 2 3 32 Iraq 2 8 9 2 3 23 Jordan 6 10 9 2 2 29 Kuwait 6 9 9 2 1 27 Lebanon 7 10 8 2 2 29 Libya 0 4 8 2 1 15 Mauritania 0 8 10 2 3 23 Morocco 7 9 11 2 2 31 Oman 5 10 10 2 1 28 Plestine 7 10 5 1 2 25 Qatar 8 10 8 3 1 30 Saudi 6 9 9 2 1 27 Somalia 0 2 9 2 3 16 Sudan 2 2 8 2 1 15 Syria 7 10 8 2 2 29 Tunisia* 5 10 10 2 1 27 United AE 6 10 8 2 1 27 Yemen 6 9 10 2 3 30

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Table A1.2: Selected Indicators on Economic structures, participation in productive activities and access to resources (19 indicators) domain

Labor force participation rate for persons aged 15-24

6: Proportion of employed who are employer

10: Youth unemployment

Female Male Female Male Female Male Algeria 9.2 41.7 1.5 3.8 38.2 19.1 Bahrain 26 52.8 0.6 2.1 11.6 2.5 Comoros N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Djibouti 41.8 51.6 0.9 1.4 N/A N/A Egypt 18.8 50 3.1 17.6 54.1 14.7 Iraq 4.8 67.1 N/A N/A N/A N/A Jordan 9 37.7 1.6 7.1 48.8 25.2 Kuwait 22.8 48.8 0.8 1.1 10 11.8 Lebanon 18.1 42 1 5.9 22.3 14.6 Libya N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Mauritania N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Morocco 17.3 49.3 0.8 3.2 19.2 18.4 Oman 23.2 47.7 0.7 1.3 N/A N/A Palestine 9.5 49 1.6 7.4 62.2 34.5 Qatar 30.4 81.9 0.1 0.8 8.9 0.4 Saudi Arabia 6.5 24.8 N/A N/A 54.4 20.8 Somalia N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Sudan 26.3 45.3 N/A N/A 25.7 21.2 Syria 8.9 50.7 1 4.9 40.2 15.3 Tunisia* N/A N/A N/A N/A 29.3 31.4 United Arab Emirates 30.1 56.9 0.9 4.1 21.8 7.9

Yemen 10 49.1 2 4.7 74 26 Source: Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

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Table A1.3: Selected Indicators on Education domain

20: Literacy rate of persons aged 15-24 years old, by sex

21: Adjusted net enrolment ratio in primary education by sex

22: Gross enrolment ratio in secondary education, by sex

23 Gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education, by sex

24 Gender parity index in enrolment at primary education

Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Algeria 89.1 94.4 0.97 0.98 1.04 1.00 0.38 0.26 0.94 Bahrain 97.6 98.6 1 0.99 1.05 1.01 0.44 0.18 0.99 Comoros 85.9 86.1 0.75 0.81 0.40 0.53 0.09 0.1 0.85 Djibouti N/A N/A 0.51 0.57 0.34 0.44 0.04 0.06 0.89 Egypt 86.1 92.4 0.96 0.99 0.71 0.74 0.26 0.29 0.94 Iraq 80.5 84.1 0.84 0.94 0.45 0.60 0.12 0.2 0.84 Jordan 99.3 99.1 0.91 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.41 0.35 1 Kuwait 98.7 98.6 1 0.97 1.04 0.98 0.31 0.14 1.03 Lebanon 99.1 98.4 0.97 0.97 0.88 0.79 0.62 0.54 0.97 Libya 99.9 99.9 N/A N/A 1.19 1.02 0.57 0.52 0.96 Mauritania 66.2 71.6 0.77 0.73 0.25 0.29 0.03 0.07 1.06 Morocco 74 88.8 0.96 0.97 0.64 0.75 0.13 0.15 0.95 Oman 98.2 97.4 0.97 0.98 1.03 1.05 0.34 0.25 0.98 Palestine 99.4 99.3 0.9 0.9 0.88 0.80 0.6 0.43 0.99 Qatar 98.3 96.3 0.95 0.95 1.06 0.98 0.31 0.05 0.98 Saudi Arabia 97 99 0.97 0.97 1.01 1.14 0.42 0.4 1

Somalia N/A N/A N/A N/A 0.05 0.11 N/A N/A 0.55 Sudan 72.3 85.7 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Syria 94.1 96.4 1 0.99 0.73 0.73 N/A N/A 0.99 Tunisia* 96.1 98.2 0.99 1 0.94 0.91 0.45 0.29 0.96 UAE 97 93.6 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.92 N/A N/A 1.03 Yemen 76 96.4 0.7 0.83 0.35 0.56 0.06 0.14 0.82

Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

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Table A1.4: Selected Indicators on Health and related services domain

33: Under-five mortality rate

35 Antenatal care coverage

36 Proportion of births attended by skilled health professional

38: Proportion of adults who are obese

41: Life expectancy

39 Women’s share of population aged 15-49 living with HIV/AIDS

Female Male Female Male Female Male

Algeria 17.8 22.2 89.4 95.2 24.3 10.7 18.9 16.9 N/A Bahrain 9.2 9.9 100 97.4 38.2 28.9 20 19.1 N/A Comoros 71.9 83.1 75 61.8 5.3 3.5 16.6 15.1 0.29 Djibouti 75.2 86.3 92.3 92.9 13.8 6.7 18.1 16.9 0.58 Egypt 19.9 22 73.6 78.9 46.1 22.5 18.9 16 0.22 Iraq 30.9 37.7 83.8 79.7 36.2 22.3 19.2 15.7 N/A Jordan 18 20.1 98.8 99.1 41.7 27.3 20.2 17.8 N/A Kuwait 10.1 11.9 100 100 52.4 37.2 18 17.4 N/A Lebanon 8.8 9.7 95.6 98 29.7 26.4 24.7 20.9 N/A Libya 13.7 16.9 93 99.8 41.3 21.5 21.2 18.3 N/A Mauritania 75.6 91.9 75.4 60.9 23.3 4.3 17 15.7 0.59 Morocco 27.7 34.4 77.1 73.6 23.1 11.1 18.9 16.8 0.38 Oman 10.4 12.7 99 98.6 25.9 19.4 22 19.3 N/A Palestine 20.7 24.4 98.8 98.9 N/A N/A 19.8 17.5 N/A Qatar 6.9 7.9 100 100 39.3 30.8 21.7 20.8 N/A Saudi Arabia 7.9 9.3 97 97 43.5 29.5 20.8 17.9 N/A

Somalia 140.7 153. 26.1 33 7.1 3.4 16.6 15.5 0.51 Sudan 67.3 78.6 74.3 23.1 8.9 4.1 18 16.8 N/A Syria 13.5 16.5 87.7 96.2 39 23.8 21.9 18.3 N/A Tunisia* 14.6 17.4 96 94.6 33.4 13.9 21.9 18.5 0.32 UAE 7.5 9.3 100 100 43 30.2 20.4 19.5 N/A Yemen 55.5 64.2 47 35.7 22.7 10.5 17 15.4 0.4

Source: Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

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Table A1.5: Selected Indicators on Health and related services and human rights domains

Public life and decision-making Domain Human rights of women and girl children Domain

43 Women’s share of government ministerial positions

44 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament

50 Prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting (for relevant countries only)

51 Percentage of women aged 20-24 years old who were married before age 18

52 Adolescent fertility rate

Algeria 3.10 31.60 N/A 1.8 4.4 Bahrain 11.50 10.00 N/A N/A 14.4 Comoros 20.00 3.00 N/A N/A 94.5 Djibouti 13.00 11.00 93.1 5.4 27 Egypt 10.30 2.00 91.1 16.6 49.5 Iraq 3.80 25.20 8.1 17 68 Jordan 6.70 12.00 N/A 10.2 32.3 Kuwait 6.30 6.00 N/A N/A 12.6 Lebanon 0.00 3.10 N/A 6.1 18 Libya 8.30 16.50 N/A N/A 3.8 Mauritania 11.50 21.00 69.4 35.4 88 Morocco 3.30 17.00 N/A 15.9 18 Oman 6.90 18.00 N/A N/A 12.4 Palestine N/A 12.90 N/A 18.9 59.8 Qatar 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 16.2 Saudi Arabia 0.00 N/A N/A N/A 7

Somalia 5.60 13.80 97.9 45.3 123 Sudan 9.10 24.60 N/A N/A 49 Syria 10.00 12.40 N/A 13.3 75 Tunisia* 6.90 30.00 N/A N/A 6 UAE 18.20 17.50 N/A N/A 34.2 Yemen 8.10 0.30 N/A 32.4 80

Source: Source: UN Gender Statistics, http://genderstats.org, compiled by the authors of report.

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2. Gender-related development index (GDI)

Table A2: Gender-related development index (GDI) by country

GDI

GDI rank

Human development index value

Female to male ratio of HDI

Female Male

HDI ranks Country 2013 2013 2013

VERY HIGH HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 31 Qatar 0.979 32 0.838 0.856 34 Saudi Arabia 0.897 112 0.773 0.861

40 United Arab Emirates 0.958 70 0.800 0.835

44 Bahrain 0.961 66 0.798 0.831

46 Kuwait 0.987 22 0.801 0.812 HIGH HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

55 Libya 0.931 93 0.749 0.805

65 Lebanon 0.900 110 0.715 0.794

77 Jordan 0.842 130 0.658 0.781 90 Tunisia 0.891 116 0.669 0.751 93 Algeria 0.843 129 0.629 0.746

MEDIUM HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 110 Egypt 0.855 125 0.617 0.722 118 Syrian Arab Republic 0.851 127 0.588 0.691 120 Iraq 0.802 137 0.556 0.693 129 Morocco 0.828 132 0.545 0.658

LOW HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 154 Yemen 0.738 146 0.415 0.562 161 Mauritania 0.801 138 0.425 0.530

Regions

Arab States 0.866 0.626 0.722

East Asia and the Pacific 0.943 0.682 0.724 Europe and Central Asia 0.938 0.705 0.752 Latin America and the Caribbean 0.963 0.716 0.744

South Asia 0.830 0.522 0.629

Sub-Saharan Africa 0.867 0.460 0.531 World 0.920 0.655 0.712

Source: Global Human Development Report 2014, UNDP, Statistical Tables; http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014.

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3. Gender Inequality Index Table A3.1: Gender Inequality Index by country

Gender Inequality Index

Maternal mortality ratio

Adolescent birth rate

Share of seats in parliament

Population with at least some secondary education (% aged 25 and above)

Labor Force Participation rate (% aged 15 and above)

Value Rank

(Deaths /100,000 live births)

(Births per 1,000 women aged 15-19)

(% Held by women)

Female Male Female Male

Country 2013 2013 2010 2010/2015 2013 2005- 2012

2005- 2012 2012 2012

VERY HIGH HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Qatar 0.524 113 7 9.5 0.1 66.7 59.0 50.8 95.6 Saudi Arabia 0.321 56 24 10.2 19.9 60.5 70.3 18.2 75.5

UAE 0.244 43 12 27.6 17.5 73.1 61.3 46.6 91.0 Bahrain 0.253 46 20 13.8 18.8 74.4 80.4 39.4 87.2 Kuwait 0.288 50 14 14.5 6.2 55.6 56.3 43.4 82.8

HIGH HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Libya 0.215 40 58 2.5 16.5 55.6 44.0 30.0 76.4

Oman 0.348 64 32 10.6 9.6 47.2 57.1 28.6 81.8 Lebanon 0.413 80 25 12.0 3.1 38.8 38.9 22.8 70.5 Jordan 0.488 101 63 26.5 12.0 69.5 78.5 15.3 66.2 Tunisia 0.265 48 56 4.6 26.7 32.8 46.1 25.1 70.6 Algeria 0.425 81 97 10.0 25.8 20.9 27.3 15.0 71.9

MEDIUM HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Palestine, .. .. 64 45.8 .. 31.5 32.2 15.2 66.3 Egypt 0.580 130 66 43.0 2.8 43.4 59.3 23.6 74.6 Syria 0.556 125 70 41.6 12.0 29.0 38.9 13.4 72.7 Iraq 0.542 120 63 68.7 25.2 22.0 42.7 14.7 69.7 Morocco 0.460 92 100 35.8 11.0 20.1 36.3 43.0 57.4

LOW HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Yemen 0.733 152 200 47.0 0.7 7.6 24.4 25.2 71.8 Comoros .. .. 280 51.1 3.0 .. .. 35.0 80.2 Mauritania 0.644 142 510 73.3 19.2 8.0 20.8 28.6 79.0

Sudan 0.628 140 730 84.0 24.1 12.8 18.2 31.2 76.0 Djibouti .. .. 200 18.6 12.7 .. .. 36.1 67.3

OTHER COUNTRIES OR TERRITORIES

Somalia .. .. 1,000 110.4 13.8 .. .. 37.2 75.6 Source: Global Human Development Report 2014, UNDP , Statistical Tables; http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014.

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Table A3.2: Gender Inequality Index by region

Gender Inequality Index

Maternal mortality ratio

Adolescent birth rate

Share of seats in parliament

Population with at least some secondary education

Labor Force Participation rate

(% aged 25 and above)

(% aged 15 and above)

Value Rank

(deaths per 100,000 live births)

(births per 1,000 women aged 15-19)

(% held by women)

Female Male Female Male

2013 2013 2010 2010/ 2015 2013 2005-

2012 2005- 2012 2012 2012

Arab States 0.546 — 164 45.4 13.8 32.9 46.4 24.7 73.2

East Asia and the Pacific

0.331 — 72 21.2 18.7 54.6 66.4 62.8 79.3

Europe and Central Asia

0.317 — 31 30.8 18.2 70.4 80.6 45.5 70.2

Latin America and the Caribbean

0.416 — 74 68.3 25.3 53.3 53.9 53.7 79.8

South Asia 0.539 — 202 38.7 17.8 28.4 49.9 30.7 80.7 Sub-Saharan Africa

0.578 — 474 109.7 21.7 22.9 32.9 63.6 76.3

World 0.451 — 145 47.4 21.1 54.2 64.2 50.6 76.7 Source: Global Human Development Report 2014, UNDP , Statistical Tables; http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-2014.

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4. Global Gender Gap Index

Table A4.1: Global Gender Gap Index and its sub-indices; 2014

GGGI

Economic participation and opportunity

Education attainment

Health Survival

Political empowerment

Country Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank Score Algeria 126 0.618 136 0.393 113 0.936 124 0.966 60 0.177 Bahrain 124 0.626 126 0.4803 90 0.986 132 0.961 116 0.077 Egypt 129 0.606 131 0.4609 109 0.947 57 0.977 134 0.041 Jordan 134 0.597 140 0.358 74 0.991 127 0.966 119 0.073 Kuwait 113 0.646 106 0.6083 76 0.991 134 0.957 137 0.028 Lebanon 135 0.592 133 0.4321 106 0.952 62 0.975 141 0.010 Mauritania 131 0.603 129 0.4661 130 0.831 80 0.973 77 0.141 Morocco 133 0.599 135 0.4 116 0.919 122 0.966 98 0.110 Oman 128 0.609 128 0.4707 96 0.974 91 0.971 139 0.021 Qatar 116 0.640 101 0.6197 94 0.976 136 0.952 140 0.013 Saudi 130 0.606 137 0.3893 86 0.987 90 0.971 117 0.077 Syria 139 0.578 142 0.2975 101 0.967 37 0.979 126 0.066 Tunisia* 123 0.627 130 0.4634 107 0.951 129 0.964 82 0.131 United AE 115 0.644 123 0.5152 83 0.988 132 0.961 96 0.111 Yemen 142 0.515 138 0.3596 140 0.707 117 0.967 138 0.025 Arab Region 0.599 0.4167 0.929 0.971 0.080

Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2014, World Economic Forum, http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2014/ Table A4.2: Change in Global Gender Gap Index

2006 2014 absolute change % change

Algeria 0.6018 0.6182 0.0164 2.7 Bahrain 0.5894 0.6261 0.0367 6.2 Egypt 0.5786 0.6064 0.0278 4.8 Jordan 0.6109 0.5968 –0.0141 –2.3 Kuwait 0.6341 0.6457 0.0117 1.8 Mauritania 0.5835 0.6029 0.0194 3.3 Morocco 0.5827 0.5988 0.0161 2.8 Saudi 0.5242 0.6059 0.0817 15.6 Tunisia 0.6288 0.6272 –0.0016 –0.3 UAE 0.5919 0.6436 0.0517 8.7 Yemen 0.4595 0.5145 0.0551 12

Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2014, World Economic Forum, http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2014/