Gender and Language - uogenglish · PDF file•In Living Language (p. 222), George Keith and ... Tannen’sViews about Gender and Language •Tannen, as well as Lakoff, claims that

Gender and LanguageBy Moazzam Ali

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Gender as a Social Construct

• GENDER is a construct that owes its creation to

a number of social institutions. Some of these

include family, educational institutions,

judiciary, religion, etc. In recent times, themedia has emerged as a powerful constitutiveagent of gender-related ideas and notions.

Gender as a Social Construct

• Gender, unlike sex which is based on biological

division and is specific in character, is more

amorphous in nature and is subject to change

with reference to context and time.

Gender and Sex

• Gender is a social construct whereas Sex is a

biological term referring to the anatomical

difference between a male and female.

• Gender is a political view of sex that is based onthe binary division of male and female. Thisbinary division apparently looks natural. Theproblem with this division, however, starts whenone thing is considered inferior to the otherwhich is regarded as superior.

Gender and Sex

Chanter (2006) states: • ―That is, biology, anatomy, physiology, nature,

DNA structure, genetics, materiality, ‗the body‘— or however one expresses it – comes before, logically or chronologically. Social structures, gendered roles, historically gendered expectations and preconceptions, cultural mores, prescriptions and taboos on sexual behavior, and so on‖. Chanter, 2006, pg 43)

• So, we may say that, a biological given, sex (i.e., boy, girl, man and woman) provides the basis for constructing a social category which is called gender (attributes of masculinity and femininity).

Language and gender

• In almost all societies and cultures, people usuallybelieve that men and women differ in their linguisticbehavior. There is a large literature available whichtries to explain the gender differentiation oflinguistic behaviour in different societies, culturesand speech communities.

• Language and gender constitute society. Languageused by one gender is often, very different from theone, used by the other gender. It is often claimedthat language is discriminatory against woman. Inspite of much progress in women’s rights, womenare still not equal to men. They are not providedwith equal opportunities of speaking andcommunicating.

Language and gender

• John Stuart Mill (1869) writes:• ‗What it is to be a boy, to grow in the belief that

without any merit or exertion of his own, by themere fact of being born a male he is by right thesuperior of all of an entire half of the human race‘(John Stuart Mill 1869, cited Romaine 2000, pg104)

• Feminist theorists put a great effort to fight againstthe traditional gender ideologies and to overcomenaturalizing claims about women’s innate inferiorityto men or female irrationality (Chanter, 2006, pg 8)

Language and Gender

• The differences that are found in two different forms of

language used by men and women are known as gender-preferential differences (Coates, 1986, p.40). These genderpreferential differences distinctly reflect the various attitudesadopted by societies towards male and female gender.

• Rochefort, one of the first Europeans who made a contact

with Carib tribe, comments about them,―The men have greatmany expressions peculiar to them, which the womenunderstand but never pronounce themselves. On the otherhand, women have words and phrases which the men neveruse or they would be laughed to scorn. Thus it happens that

in their conversations it often seems as if women haveanother language than the men.‖ (Rochefort 1665, citedTrudgill 1987: 79)

Language and Gender

• In Living Language (p. 222), George Keith and John Shuttleworth record suggestions that:

• women - talk more than men, talk too much, are more polite, are indecisive/hesitant, complain and nag, ask more questions, support each other, are more co-operative, whereas

• men - swear more, don't talk about emotions, talk about sport more, talk about women and machines in the same way, insult each other frequently, are competitive in conversation, dominate conversation, speak with more authority, give more commands, interrupt more.

Lakoff’s Views about Gender and

Language• Women use more…

• Hedges: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like", and so on.

• (super)polite forms: “Would you mind...”,“I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.

• tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?” • Intonational emphasis equal to underlining words - so, very, quite. • empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable, and so on • hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige

grammar and clear enunciation. • direct quotation: men paraphrase more often. • question intonation in declarative statements: women make

declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty. For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?”

• Have a special lexicon: women use more words for things like colours, men for sports.

Lakoff’s Views about Gender and

Language

• Women…

• Use “wh-” imperatives: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”) • Speak less frequently • Overuse qualifiers: (for example, “I Think that...”) • Apologise more: (for instance, “I'm sorry, but I think that...”) • Use modal constructions: (such as can, would, should, ought -

“Should we turn up the heat?”) • Avoid coarse language or expletives • Use indirect commands and requests: (for example, “My, isn't it cold

in here?” - really a request to turn the heat on or close a window) • Use more intensifiers: especially so and very (for instance, “I am so

glad you came!”) • Lack a sense of humour: women do not tell jokes well and often

don't understand the punch line of jokes.

Dominance Theory• Lakoff’s views about gender difference in language use support the

dominance theory which purports to interpret these differences. But thelanguage and gender research has not yet satisfactorily verified this theory.

• This is the theory that in mixed-sex conversations men are more likely tointerrupt than women. It uses a fairly old study of a small sample ofconversations, recorded by Don Zimmerman and Candace West at theSanta Barbara campus of the University of California in 1975. The subjectsof the recording were white, middle class and under 35. Zimmerman andWest produce in evidence 31 segments of conversation. They report that in11 conversations between men and women, men used 46 interruptions, butwomen only two. As Geoffrey Beattie, of Sheffield University, points out(writing in New Scientist magazine in 1982): "The problem with this is thatyou might simply have one very voluble man in the study which has adisproportionate effect on the total." From their small (possiblyunrepresentative) sample Zimmerman and West conclude that, since meninterrupt more often, then they are dominating or attempting to do so. Butthis need not follow, as Beattie goes on to show: "Why do interruptionsnecessarily reflect dominance? Can interruptions not arise from othersources? Do some interruptions not reflect interest and involvement?"

Coates objection

• Many of Lakoff’s theories are built onexperiences and assumptions, not scientificresearch. This has been criticised by many.Coates (1993:23) wrote:

• “While noting that she is talking about generaltendencies rather than“hundred-percentcorrelations”, Lakoff seems happy to presentsuch folklinguistic (SIC) material without thesupport of any research findings to confirm herstatement”

Tannen’s Views about Gender and

Language

• Tannen, as well as Lakoff, claims that there aregender differences in ways of speaking (Tannen1991:17), but she focuses more on conversationaldifferences as such. Many of these differences“arise because boys and girls grow up in whatare essentially different cultures, so talk betweenwomen and men is cross-culturalcommunication” (1991:18). This in contrast toLakoff’s view that male and femalecommunication does not work because of men’stendency to dominate women.

Men are from Mars, women from

Venus

Language Differences

• According to Tannen (1991:77), the language of

conversation between women, is foremost a

language of rapport (Tannen 1991:77). The

purpose of it is to establish connections and negotiating relationships. Women tend to display similarities and matching experiences with each other, and in meetings, women tend to

argue by using their own experience as evidence.


• For most men on the other hand, language is away to preserve independence and negotiate andmaintain status in the hierarchy. According toTannen (1991:92), men do this by exhibitingtheir knowledge and skill. And men also do itthrough “holding centre stage” by for exampletelling stories, joking or conveying information.Men in meetings for example, tend to argue bymaking categorical statements about right andwrong.


• Orders vs. Suggestions

• Men/boys give orders like “Give me that” or “Get

outta here!” while girls and women express their

preferences, as suggestions like “Let’s do this” or “How about doing that” (Tannen 1991:44).

• Conflict vs. Compromise

• Men choose the conflict while women compromise instead, in order to try to prevent fights.


• Status vs. Support

• Moreover, it is suggested by Tannen, that men grow up in a world where conversation is often a contest. The goal is either to achieve status among other people, or to prevent them from pushing them (the men themselves) around. Women on the other hand, use talking to exchange confirmation and support.

• Advice vs. Understanding

• Men give advice while women show understanding.

Gender Exclusive language

Gender Exclusive Language

• Language being a powerful tool, can convey impressions,communicate knowledge and transmit feelings. Unlesswe are successful in our uses of language, the words weselect and the ways in which we combine them, will nothave the effect that is intended.

• Unintended consequences can result frommisinterpretation of the words by the receivers.Outcomes will not match intentions e.g. We might offendwhen it was merely our intention to inform, or a receivermight find the message demeaning when it was onlyintended to persuade.


• The meaning of any given word or set of words,after all, is not in the words themselves but in thepeople who use them. Senders of messages assignone set of meanings, while receivers of messages

assign another. When those meaningsapproximate each other, some degree ofcommunication may take place.

• Miscommunication occurs when theunderstanding of a set of words or phrases by a

receiver is different from that of a sender.


• Gender Exclusive Language

• “Gender exclusive language discriminates on the basis of gender. Itconsists of words or phrases that focus on one gender unnecessarily,thereby excluding the other gender.”

• Language that refers only to one gender when both genders mightproperly be addressed is considered, at the very least, inappropriate.

• In contrast, "gender-inclusive", also known as "gender-fair" and"non-sexist" refers to language in which both men and women areincluded, for example, humanity, chairperson, he/she or their (Astudent should be paid for his/her or their work).


Let’s change the gender exclusive language to gender inclusive (or gender neutral) language.

Gender Exclusive Language - Sample Paragraph:

“If an insurance man contacts a family after the unexpected death of the husband, one of the first questions he may hear is, "Where is his insurance policy?" The insurance man knows that when a father dies, the meaning of life insurance suddenly becomes crystal clear. No one, at that time, asks what a man's return is on his investment. The bottom line is that life insurance provides cash when a man and his family really need it. I tell the husband that the amount his loved ones receive depends on him. I also tell him that if he gives proper attention to this matter now, few financial problems will ensue after his death.”


• Gender Exclusive Language – RevisedParagraph:

• “If an insurance agent contacts a family after the unexpected deathof a family member, one of the first questions he or she may hear is,"Where is the life insurance policy?" The agent knows that when aclient dies, the meaning of life insurance becomes crystal clear. Noone, at that time, asks what a person's return is on an investment.The bottom line is that life insurance provides cash when clientsand their families really need it. I tell the client that the amount hisor her loved ones receive depends on him or her. I also tell theclient that if he or she gives proper attention to this matter now,few financial problems will ensue after death.‖


• Gender Exclusive Pronouns-A Common Problem.

• “These pronouns refer unnecessarily to only one gender, thereby excluding the other gender.”

• Six main strategies for revising gender exclusive pronouns:

• A. Substitute a plural pronoun for the gender exclusive pronounB. Delete the gender exclusive pronounC. Substitute first or second person for third personD. Revise the sentence to change the subjectE. Use "he or she" sparinglyF. Substitute an article for the masculine or feminine pronoun


• Strategy A:

• Substitute a plural pronoun for the gender exclusive noun or pronoun.• Example:

Original Sentence: Although a doctor is busy, he should always answer his patient's questions.

• Revised Sentence:Although doctors are busy, they should always answer their patients' questions.

• Strategy B:• Delete the gender exclusive pronoun.• Example:

Original Sentence: A good lawyer uses his analytical ability.• Revised Sentence:

A good lawyer uses analytical ability. •


Strategy C: • Substitute a gender neutral first or second person pronoun for a

third person gender exclusive pronoun.• Example:

Original Sentence: A careful student budgets her time.• Revised Sentence: As a careful student, you should budget your

time. • Strategy D:

Revise the sentence to change its subject.• Example:

Original Sentence: A good salesperson makes sure she keeps her customers happy.

• Revised Sentence: Keeping customers happy is an important part of being a good salesperson.

•


• Strategy E:Use "he or she" (never s/he or he/she) sparingly.

• Example:Original Sentence: A teacher's success depends on whether she communicates effectively.

• Revised Sentence: A teacher's success depends on whether he or she communicates effectively.

• Strategy F:• Substitute an article for the masculine or feminine pronoun.

• Example:Original Sentence: Every student should bring his text to class.

• Revised Sentence: Every student should bring the text to class


• Guidelines for Using Gender-Neutral Language• If you know the gender and it is appropriate to refer to an individual

or a group with gender-identifiable pronouns, go ahead and do so."Richard left his keys on the dresser.” You could say "the keys,” or"a set of keys,” but frankly, they are his, and he is a man. Saying, forexample, "Richard left her keys on the dresser” tells us a great dealmore than if the author had simply chosen to refer to "a set” of keys.We know now that the keys he’s left belong to a woman.

• If it is inappropriate to refer to a collective or a group with a gender-identifiable pronoun, don’t do it. Instead, use a collective noun orpluralize. "Each manager must secure his files before leaving theoffice” may well be inappropriate because of the presence (orpossibility) of female managers. Instead, a plural reference mightdo: "Managers must secure their files before leaving the office.”

• Use the second person when directly addressing your audience."Please secure your files before you leave the office.”

• "All files must be secured before managers leave the office.”

Gender Exclusive Language• Consider the use of a declarative sentence or a direct command: "Please

secure all files before departing.” The problem with this, of course, isthat the overly conscientious manager will end up securing other people’sfiles before departing for the day. It’s only his or her own files that we’reconcerned with here.

• Consider rewording the sentence to eliminate gender pronounsaltogether. Rather than "The average American drives his car about10,000 miles a year,” write "The average American drives about 10,000miles a year.” Instead of "The average automobile owner trades in his carevery three years,” write "The average automobile owner buys a new carevery three years.”

• Keep in mind that "person” is singular and "people” is plural. There werethree people in the elevator, not three persons. Often, the use of peopleand persons will help to eliminate an inappropriate gender reference."Women who want to become nurses” could just as easily be "People whowant to become nurses,” or "Those who would like to study nursing.”Men, it is clear, make fine nurses, and should not be excluded. Just aswomen have become doctors, journalists, attorneys, and engineers,writers of both sexes must not assume that any domain (other thanmotherhood or fatherhood) is somehow gender-exclusive.


• You may use the word "one,” rather than a gender-specific pronoun,though the second person is still preferable. Rather than "If a manplans ahead, he can retire at age 65,” you might say "If one plansahead, one can retire at age 65.” Frankly, a direct reference to thereader would be better: "If you plan ahead, you may be able to retireby age 65.”

• When circumstances call for the identification of people by genderin collective groupings, pay some attention to the age or maturity ofthe people involved.

• Instead of identifying people by their sexes, try to identify them inother ways: by roles, occupations, or pursuits. Saying "Customersare protesting rising food prices” is preferable to saying"Housewives are protesting rising food prices.”

• Job titles such as salesman, foreman, and chairman have generallybeen replaced in business organizations with the gender-neutraltitles of salesperson, sales representative, supervisor, chairpersonor chair.

Gender Exclusive Language• Consider, when it’s appropriate to do so, the use of substitutes when gender-

specific language simply won't do.

• Instead of: Use:• Mailman Letter Carrier, Postal Worker• Salesman Sales Clerk, Sales Representative• Cleaning Women Janitors, Maintenance Staff• Mankind Humankind, People• Manpower Personnel, Workers• Mothering Nurturing• To Man To Staff, To Operate• Cameraman Camera Operator• Audio Man Audio Technician• Foreman Supervisor• Chairman Chair, Moderator, Facilitator, or Director• Stewardess Flight Attendant• You needn’t go so far as calling a waiter or waitress a "waitperson.” Refer to the

person who takes your dinner order as a "server.”


• Conclusion

• According to Professor Maxine Hairston of the University of Texas: Each of us must come to believe that developing nondiscriminatory style matters. It matters to the reader and it matters to the world at large. A sense of care and a genuine concern for all who may come to hear or read your words will ultimately prove to be your best guide.”

• While using language people have right to make their own informed choices, but at the same they need to understand the very rationale for their choices.

• This concept of informed choice leading to action is stated very eloquently by Australian linguist Jim Martin:

• Conscious knowledge of language and the way it functions in social contexts then enables us to make choices, to exercise control. As long as we are ignorant of language, it and ideological systems it embraces control us. Learning about language means learning to choose. . . . Knowledge is power. Meaning is choice. Please choose.


• References

• James S. O'Rourke. “Gender Issues In Language‖ 1999• Agnew, Spiro T. "English Anyone?" Exploring Language. Ed. Gary

Goshgarian. New York: Longman, 1998. 409-413.• Maggio, Rosalie. "Bias-Free Language: Some Guidelines." Exploring

Language. Ed. Gary Goshgarian. New York: Longman, 1998. 313-324

• Peterson, Eric E. "Nonsexist Language Reform and "PoliticalCorrectness." Women and Language 17 (1994): 6-11.

• Wheatherall, Ann. "Re-visioning Gender and Language Research."Women and Language 21 (1998): 1-9.

Difference Theory

Documents

Gender and Language - uogenglish · PDF file•In Living Language (p. 222), George Keith and ... Tannen’sViews about Gender and Language •Tannen, as well as Lakoff, claims that