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GANDHI AS A FOIL An Analysis 1915 - 1922
cAL ORGANISER Crpai : in India .1
of Ii cal and National
O1k --,ca(Q;
University of Bradford Postgraduate *c School of Studies in Peeve.. A` S1-,?ob Overt' I its Fn. D
1982
MISSING PRINT
, BSTRACT Bob Overy C, GANDHI AS A FOLrrICr. L UF. i. 1I0r'H: and National University By examining the on his Gandhi two Campaigns of Bradford, as a political interpretations of nonviolence in the in India, in E. nalysis ' to of local PhD Thesis, 4 bridge focuses
191rr-1922,
December 1932. organiser of his it
may be possible -the
gap between propagation
importance
one which
"as a way of life", "as
him as a pioneer Gandhi
use of nonviolence
a conflict
which treats othertechnique. "
Between "satyagraha". his philosophy his method of action, and named in he emerged as the organiser local 1915 and 1922 campaigns satyagraha of to leadership He moved quickly, however, Gujarat. of further Bihar and in 1919 in particular the hoxlatt level, Satyagraha at a national struggles and Noncooperation series period At the through the with of five level, eighteen months from later. The thesis his explores, through a a as he moved over
case studies,
how Gandhi years
of about national
'levelotied local to national to take to
methods scale.
Gandhi founded
failed
India
by storm his
he had hoped as like alliances movement follow
organisations
by himself
propagate
principles forged
Satyagraha political Indian
Sabha and the figures Rational from
Swadeshi. 6abha. other perspectives who nonetheless Gandhi
He therefore within the
and the his
Congress
hilafat to were prepared for "masses"
direction.
A principal between people of the the short work. nation's of This
means which educated
developed and the
generating and for
solidarity mobilising leadership Presentation aspect of
"classes"
civil is
disobedience, particularly movement. in the the West,
was the clear
promotion planning
of campaigns and
of constructive
in his
Noncooperation action
of nonviolent satyagraha and its in Gandhi's application
by overstressing
the
"conflict"
and neglecting method
"constructive".
has been one-sided. of constructive of nonbetween
The importance programme violent the
as an organiser suggests
of a concept that
in practice should look
advocates at the
action
as a technique in his
more closely
balance
two aspects
approach. with which a review'of have the rules in and stages the in Gandhi's
The thesis satyagraha
concludes campaigns
been proposed
of Joan Bondurant. work
CONT PUNTS
Introduction
I. 1.
CASE STUDIZ Champaran, Struggle 1917: Notes on a "Classic" Satyagraha 1
2.3.
Peasants and Workers Take Up Satyagraha, Gujarat: 1915-1918Gujarat: 1918-1920 A Base for-National Leadership,
28 68
II. 4.
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS The Place of Constructive ProZi-amore in Local National Campaigns of Satyagraha CASE STUDIES Six Stepping-Stones to All-India 1917-1919 (i) The Gujarat Sabha (ii) The Satyagraha Sabha Six Stepping-Stones to All-India 1919-1920 (iii) The Swadeshi Sabha (iv) The Khilafat Movement Leadership and
1o9
III. 5.
130r
6.
Leadership
185
7.
Six Stepping-Stones to n11-India Leadership 1920-1922 (v) The All-India Home Rule League, or the Swarajya Sabha (vi) The Indian National Congress
265
8.
Congress and Noncooperation, CONCLUDING LYSIS ANIGandhi's Method as a Political
1920-1922
308
IV.9.
Organiser
333369
Bibliography
.+ 1
ACKMIu'LErcr ,, "U3
Dr 'Nigel Young, Reader in Peace Studies, come to Bradford with a special
first
su
to run the CormonwwealCollection, We agreed that emphasis on Gandhi.
ested that I a small library 1 should take
in conducting rV research of the resources in the Collection advantage in the School of Peace Studies. His knowledge of the literature of nonviolence has been a great support. Jarres O'Connell who helped me
I am also much indebted
to Professor
narrow dorm the scope of the project Others who have helped in all advice and criticism, to. giving Adam Curie, ' Vivien services, Geoffrey Ostergaard, r1arj orie -Sykes. I owe much to Christine very little tim. sorts
to rnanaa eable proportions. of capacities from offering
--
library and providing me personal support -- include Rex Arrbler, Dixon, Baruch Hirson, David O'Flanerty, su&; esting refernces, Devi Pr asad, Andrew Fiigby, Ruth, and
Overy who did an excellent
typing
job in
Fina11S*, . am grateful to the School of Peace Studies Long Dent: iind for financial support.
and to the
., t "
ORGANISER: An Analysis GANDHI AS -AN in India, Introduction Historians in recent 1915-1922
of Local
and National
Campaigns
years have been at pains national hero, "the
to cut the cult
which surrounds A wealth magnifying utterancein
India's
Mahatma", down to size. 1920 in India and outside
of material
has been published a politician
since
Gandhi into is worthy
and saint attention.was going
of genius whose every This has tended to get
of reverentwhat
the way of understanding the first world
on in
India place
in the years in it.
after
war and what
was Gandhi's
With the publication British studies or failed possible influence
of Gandhi's
Collected
Works, the release and also that
of
documents relating now being undertaken to play
to the period of the part national picture
the systematic areas played
many local it
in the Indian
struggle,
has been role and
to gain a much clearer actually was.
of what Gandhi's
Historians
like'Judith with
Brown have begun'to which probably those gathered in Melbourne, to study of the
examine the Gandhian era in India few Indians would want to ardopt. 1
a detachment notably
Others,
around D. A. Low at the School of South Asian Studies and linking period up with Indian scholars, 2 have brought
a variety
of perspectives.
These have not got in the way of mythology" In
the main task,
which has been to dig beneath "nationalist going on during of the Indian by authors
and uncover what was actually my view, the best accounts written
the Gandhi years. struggle with
national
are still
the broad studies
who identify 3
the national
movement and even with predominantly and speculative Gandhi.
Gandhi himself. scholars,
But the newer wort, a wealth of new facts of
by western
has provided
arguments which must be reflected
in new studies
Introduction: The object
page 2 of this study is not to develop Rather, particularly indebted it the work of these historians, drawing on some of their
nor to duplicate specific
or summarise them. aid insights,
information.
the work of Judith is to go back to Gandhi
Brown - to whom I am especially hiaself and to re-examine
the basis
on which he was able to present national movement and
his novel doctrine to win widespread standing actuallypractice organise impact
of satyagraha acceptance
to the Indian
of it.
The aim is to add to cur underin detail at what Gandhi andto
of Gandhian nonviolence
by looking
did in the years 1915 to 1922.of satyagraha political on Indian evolve in those
How did the theoryyears which as Gandhi would
sought
and social society?
movements
have a major
Most non biographical on his philosophy
studies
of Gandhi have tended to focus Interpreters two camps:
either of
or on his method of action. have tended to fall into
Gandhian nonviolence embrace or describe insist its that
those who. and
the whole Gandhian philosophy
of satyagraha
Gandhian nonviolent in his religious
roots
be understood from action can only 4 and those who wish to beliefs; and moral action from its philosophical in the political unquestionably not at It was that
separate
the practice
of nonviolent purely 5
background and to look at it sphere for engaging in conflict. group --
as a technique My own bias'is study
towards the first Gandhi's
but in this
I want to look philosophy. contemporaries
philosophy,
but at how he applied organiser
his
as a more effective
than any of his
Gandhi was able to capture Congress in 1920.
the leadership
of the Indian
National
Introduction: Part of Gandhi's
Page 3 appeal was as an expert practitioner in a technique of
ccntl, Lt which was well movement found itself had been simply action,point
suited
to the conditions
in which the Indian world war. troops histhat
national Gandhi
at the time of the first
But if
a "general"
able to command civilian on to revealin India is
in nonviolent Thecontext
he would never have been calledabout Gandhian in nonviolent sections action of
skills.a political elite
to be created groups action of the
which
the Indian
political to
large and
rural
and urban withhis
"masses" under
were ready Gandhi's,and
take
up nonviolent Gandhi did not make
and experimentbetween then ability/to
it
guidance.organise
a" distinction and his ship of
direct
to plan ability ih Str,,.jit thenG Although
political , likened of
campaigns his leader-
he frequently
he did
in nonviolent to the generalship civilians resistance 14'xPC>( (CJ1 atw.l"wwlit"uty spKUes1) V4 bZtwejtA
an army,
not
differentiate life. For
clearly Gandhi,
and economic
between/these and. the conduct n all of these were interlinked.
of
social meant
This
not only thatpolitical the which concern action.
Gandhi'sin
task as an organiser,which it the in Indian nonviolent satyagraha, economic was not just national
included,
work to creategive
ahim
climate
movement would But
opportunity
to lead in
struggle.
the very also
method his
he employed
struggle, social,
itself-expressed
to reorganise as pursued
and political-life. a conflict technique.
Nonviolent Simult-
by Gandhi
aneously, conditions.
it
was a ,tool
for
transforming conflict-and
social,
economic and political were combined. E
The two aspects,
transformation,
Thus a principal
thesis
of
this
study
is
that
attempts
to
abstract
from Gandhi's
activity
in India called
(and South Africa) action or made it
a technique
of the
engaging in conflict rest large of his activity
nonviolent
to leave and
aside
have eliminated
hard to comprehend if.
areas of his practice.
These need to be included .
Introductions
4 page
we want to understand positively,
how Gandhi was effective.
To put it
pare ideas
Gandhi was an organiser
of genius who had firm social
on how to conduct political His success as an organiser dependent on a certain is worth us trying the opportunity of conflict, to argue that conflict
campaigns and build of political
movements.
and social
movements was which it him with
set of principles
and objectives
to understand. with
This success provided nonviolent it action
to experiment and vice Gandhi's versa. dramatic
in the field
Certainly,
would be misleading nonviolent impressed and
successes in leading
were not the springboard
which encouraged those larger social
to accept his leadership political programmes. values,
and to take up his Nonetheless, as this
study will
show, social
and religious
his
idea of how society
should be ordered, civil
were always uppermost resistance campaigns.
in Gandhi's
mind as he planned his
It like
was,
for
example, boycott
out that For
of his
opposition formulated
to
a nonviolent his concept
tactic and plan - wherethe a of
economic
Gandhi
of Noncooperation. economic campaign boycott withdrew
Gandhi,
Noncooperation because not into those
was positive who supported but the into
was negative their support
bitterness To him, alternative of the
movement to build the movement, the
alternative drive,
institutions.? those
heart positive
was to build 1924 the
institutions, programme nonviolence
after and
promotion to him than
constructive of
became more important as a conflict,
the
development
technique.
The key factors Gandhi is often
here are order,. described
discipline
and self-reliance. anarchist because he
as a philosophical
Introduction:
page S
favoured political
fundamental workers
decentralisation
of society
and wished
to abandon representative Nevertheless,
democracy at the centre he was in favour the most In order of
go to work in the villages. and a moral order of society
where those who were morally and exercised and social older,
advanced accepted to achieve political this drive
responsibility
authority.
new political
where the focus of
was not at the centres and with
of power - as under the Raj specific cultural changesamong
but in the villageswere needed. the people
the "masses",politics to villages
The emphasis to develop individuals their
of his
was on organising solve their
capacity
own problems, to see
encouraging
and whole
and districts
themselves In order necessary themselves a capacity
as models of social to create a climate
responsibility where this
for
others it
to emulate. was
was possible, workers
to develop daily a
in the political a notion
in the "masses" and and
discipline,
of "good housekeeping",
to make sacrifices, out their lives
which would sustain and be assimilated
and then fill
them personally 8 by others.
This effort the political in their India.
to Work a social revolution
revolution,
which was more important
than
and was based in individuals
making changes
own lives,
became fundamental
to the Gandhian movement in the Indian NationalI
Whenever Gandhi was invited nonviolent conflict, the social in conflict
to lead
Congress into
he always placed prograune
great
emphasis if
on the need to develop nonviolent constructive working Gandhi. discipline
of nonviolence
was to be sustained. a new social
Thus the by
programme - building
order directly goal for an immediate struggle.
among the people - was not only Constructive work was also,
a long-teas view,
in his
requirement particular, it
in preparing
the movement for precondition
nonviolent for
In
was an essential
a mass nonviolent
Introduction:
6 Lage in no
civil
disobedience
campaign
where tens discipline,
of thousands might
t`f people,
way answerable nonviolent
to military
be expected repression
to maintain or
discipline
under. conditions
of severe
provocation.
9
In practical programme.
terms,
there
are broadly emphasised
two ways of looking
at constructive and perhaps
The first,
by those
who 'have 'studied
embraced Gandhi's imperative life this
philosophical
approach
to politics,
is a moral to live a way of
on individuals with
and groups
who are concerned
consistent approach,
the values
nonviolence. of of their
People
who have adopted commitment to the
as a demonstration
disinterested useful tasks
good of the structive steps public, with
community,
engage in socially
known as "conconstructive
programme". a view
"Has the movement undertaken services to the to its
positive,
to providing
and to the own members asks Joan Bondurant,
and even in some cases that constructive
opponent? ", in this
emphasising of proper
programme 10
is an "earmark" sense
Gandi. an satyagraha.
A second use of the in India devised issue its by Gandhi.
term refers
to a specific comprised important
set
of campaigns
launched
The "programme"
list a social
initiatives of questions. Each
by Gandhi to meet a number of was.. attacked by his supporters
as a nationwide there were targets date.
had campaign which for achievement the number expanded. cloths,
own organisation;
frequently
which had to be achieved of these campaigns the
by a particular
Over the years
in the constructive chief
programme was gradually
In the 1920s, on Hindu-Muslim of liquor-selling 1940s,
emphasis was on production and on abolition
of Indian-made
unity
of untouchability,
but prohibition By the
and the uplift
of women were soon added. of 18 items.
the programme consisted
Introduction:
page 7 to reveal in detail how Gandhi for me to
Unfortunately, made his pursue analysis
the ambition
of this
study,
decisions
as an organ-iser, of his eight theory activities from
has made it in India
impossible
the history of the the
beyond 1922.
Even so, that Gandhi
years
1915 to 1922 demonstrates of constructive to setbacks
was evolving
and practice
in both programme and difficulties level. intensive he
the above senses as a specific experienced Gandhi's period in pursuing his
response satyagraha years a specific integrate civil
campaigns confirm
at a national that in this
own conclusions of struggle
in later
he developed to
understanding
and viewpoint, and economic against the
which was of the necessity transformation Raj. After into 1924, his this
a programme of social resistance strategy campaigns
nonviolent part
of Gandhi's
came to be known byP
the titleagated the*term misleading of'national
the of/constructiveunder to this cover
programme.the which
But it
was not seriouslyAs a result
propmy use of to be
name until projects
1930s and 1940s. took place -before for
1924 may appear the
in places. schools constitute
These campaigns and arbitration strictly the
example, the
establishment wheel programme.x't
courts, origins
or again of the
spinning
campaign --
constructive
It
would be misleading, in systematic early
however, fashion period. of this
to suggest the origins
that
this
thesis
has attempted
to describe
of Gandhi's case-material political evolution
constructive does demonfor
programme in this strate example, out
Some of the side of Gandhi's
the beginnings the
work in,
Swadeshi Sabha of 1919 and in the Sabha.
of Noncooperation is not to Rather
of the programme of the early indications
But the aim of the thesis constructive
describe it that all
of Gandhi' s later
campaigns.
is to demonstrate, in this his period
as an explanation he discovered campiagns
of Gandhi's
method as an organiser, and consolidate
the necessity
to complement with
"negative"
of nonviolent
protest
"positive"
Introductions
8 page improve
campaigns
to
social
life.
It
is
the is
balance the
between
conflict thesis.
and construction I thus generic use the concept
in Gandhi's term
method which
concern
of this
"constructive combinesis
programme" the two practicalconcept
in a third
sense as a mentionedsatyagraha greater political authorities social
which
meaningsGandhian to promote from of
above.
Constructive theory harmony campaigns which
programme can
a broad to'distinguish of central
within efforts
be used
and higher against
standards acts of
popular
self-reliance
authority.
A number
have followed as one branch demonstrate
Gandhi of the that this
in presenting satyagraha
constructive method. lli
programme The thesis
in this
way,
sets
out to part of the
"constructive" his method during
concept
was an integral
way Gandhi developed which was applied in later years.
the years
up to 1922 --
a concept
and consolidated
in a specific
programme of campaigns
Thus we argue, interpreters viewed
first,
that
the now well-established nonviolence -over whether
division
between should be5
of Gandhian
nonviolence --
as a philosophy
of life
or as a conflict of social
technique and political
can be bridged movements. that we
by looking This begin focus
at Gandhi as an organiser on his work as an organiser his with broad political
does not mean, however, objectives and end.
by examining
by assessing of getting from.
what he achieved, A to B. on the Gandhi's other,
an analysis
in between on the
of his
methods
political
philosophy, discussed focuses goals
one hand,
and his
achievements indirectly From only situation.
have been widely of this thesis
elsewhere entirely
and are onljr on his are methods.
the concern the point in so far
which
of view of the organiser; as they can be realised
and ideals
interesting
and made practical is his pragmatic his high
in a concrete spirit ideals
The Genius of Gandhi as an organizer which enabled him time and again
and inspiration is practical
to locate
Introduction:
8A page
forms taken
of action
which It
were accessible'to is this is process the
vast
numbers of people
and were his ideals
up by them.
of visualising of this enabled his
and shaping study. his
in practical of Gandhi's through that ends, is,
proposals choice of
which issues
concern
The cleverness to shine
and of methods Through discover examining
ideals
again his
and again. means, we shall which
methods as an organiser, goals, his
in large
measure what his theory that
were --
is a good test
of Gandhi's
ends and means
are coincident!.
It
is also, one.
in any case, Organising continually wits,
misleading is above all to
to
see the
process art
of organising which requires
as a that Gandhi
linear
a responsive constantly his broad
the organiser lived by his
adjust
changing initiatives, social end3.
situations. frequently
calculating to build for
and pitching and sustain
improvising, could attempt
in order to direct which
movements which Through the and
he
social
and political of this thesis,
case-studies evolving in this principal can better for social
form the bulk certain
him applying we see patterns or rules then, for
certain process focus
formulae,
consistent Elucidating Our aim is
enga4ng
of organising. of the thesis.
these
rules,
is the action movements
to show that
nonviolent
be seen in a broad change than narrowly
perspective
as a method of organising in conflict.
as a method of engaging
This is to
same approach
has also
governed the
our second aim, "constructive" constructive
already
mentioned, in itself.
'Which
show the balance method.
between
and "obstructive" programme in
Gandhi's
We are not at Gandhis
studying social
We are not looking developed to apply this
programme as an ideal Hind Swaraj, how far
prescription, he then tried in
in South Africa in India. It is
and when he wrote not our aim to is
which
evaluate
he succeeded of
endeavour.
Our intention
to look
at how far
programmes
Introduction:
8B page to be necessary that is, to his and indeed instrumental indispensable purpose to his
constructive
work proved
method as an organiser, and sustaining process, constructive rather social than
of building method or of
movements. aim or content,
Thus we are again when we emphasise in Gandhian
discussing the place action.
programme as a concept
nonviolent
Two flxlher that
broad
themes also
emerge in the thesis. necessarily Scale because 80,000 tens is
One is adjusted
the
observation
Gandhi's
methods
as an organiser scale actions. novement, touches to reach
as he moved factor inl1
from local the for
to national
an important
organising confronting from
of any social an issue those
approaches people are
and techniques inevitably As we shall
which
different see,
employed
of millions.
there'is
a surprising level. for
consistency are also
between Gandhi's some significant
methods at a local differences. in the emergence hein
and national of the reasons province
But there focusing is
One
on Gandhi's
emergence as a leader importance
of Gujarat leaderon not his
to emphasise
the crucial in his
to his
as a nationalwas to adap3ting rely
of localisedonly at in achieving
support
home region.but
Thisalso
national scale.
leadership,
methods
the
national
A further
theme-of
the thesis approach
derives,
practically, two all-India
out of a comparison satyagrahas, It the is civil adventures
between Gandhi's Rowlatt Satyagraha
to organising
of 1919 and Noncooperation in an assessment
1920 to 1922. of of the balance between
expressed, resistance in nonviolent
theoretically, and constructive struggle. on the
programme in these Our conclusion constructive to heavily side is of that
two extraordinary Gandhi
drawn to place was because of his suggests
so much emphasis difficulties
satyagraha
when he relied
on civil
resistance.
This
Introduction:
8C page through
that
the long,
slow build-up
of mobilisation
constructive
action
in Gandhi's action
method has been neglected
in theoretical
accounts
of nonviolent disobedience.
which focus arbitrarily
on the symbolic
impact of civil
It
is
tempting
to dismiss of their
the
relevance
of Gandhi's in the Indian
experiments context
with and in Hindu in
satyagraha thought. politics
because
background
The moralistic is foreign
and religiousbasis
of Gandhi's It
intervention
to many of us in the west. movement,
intellectually seems on the principle well-dff 12 to
unsophisticated of the unity identify words, linked erous with the
to base a political of all that lives
as Gandhi did, who are them. action
and the duty fellows universe,
of those and to
the poorest of a single scale
of their moral
serve
In other by anyone is
idea
where every else,
on a cosmic or irrelevant
to the
welfare
of everyone 13_
may seem prepost-
to the. business
of politics.
None-
Introduction: the-less, authority institutions the military
page 9 Gandhi's and social attempt to find another basis for political
power - not based in control democracy,
of the central
of representative and the police
not based in command of It was
needs to be understood. authority and socialthat
because he had a view of politicalwhich was different from most of his 14
responsibilityhe made the,
contemporaries
political initiate adopted, nonviolent
choices controlled
which he did. nonviolent
With this
view,
he was able to
struggles
and mass campaigns which degree,
and succeeded in maintaining discipline.
to an astonishing
But it strictly
is important ccording
not to present to religious
Gandhi as a moralist and refusing
living to bend them
principles
no matter
what the circumstances
or the emergency.
This is a mistake and who
which has been made by some who look have then taken over his personal them in their own lives
on Gandhi as a moralist
principles
and sought to apply What
and in the groups to which they belong. that, with his view that
is so remarkable
about Gandhi-'is
there was
only one human nature all
and one shared system of values, present reality.
he was willing He was a the
the time to make compromises with
pragmatist, agreement, progress. hidden
happy to make any accommodation as long as, within was some principle His view of progress which meant there was. like Plato's be moral would the ideal -
was
somewhere, but we could dimly
see its
shadow and we should
move towards that.
Introduction: It
Page 10 flexibility,to what
because of this was
his
determination
to gear even hisachievable, politician that in to
most idealistic Gandhi was able pre-Independence develop hundredo examine example,
campaigns to operate India. If
was realistically successful
as a remarkably we want
to understand
how he was able
a mass following of thousands into
for
nonviolence nonviolent his
and how he was able struggle, it is important
to draw to for Or
carefully were the
how he planned objectives for
campaigns.
On what
basis,
political
struggles
selected^s
what considerationspersuadedfigures who did not share his
him to seek alliancesreligiously-based
withpolitical
other
political
principles?
The greater
part
of
this
thesis
is
given
of the principal1922. Champaran,
in which Gandhi lengaged between 1915 and campaign.-,his first satyae aha struggle in India, took place
over was
to
a detailed
examination
in 1917, when he was far-awayfirst because it
from his
base in Gujarat.campaign particularly are
It
is
treated
was so much an isolated The later ata struggles, level,
and relatively as Gandhi to moved
self-contained. towards one from in rganisin; another. place
national
much harder campaigns of
separate in Gujarat
Thus the Ahmedabad and Heda simultaneously leadership directly and within of the
1918 took
30 miles
each other.
They assured Gujarat
Gandhi's
nationalist next initiatives
movement in which were to
and contributed
to his
orGanise
satyagraha
on a national
scale.
Champaran, opportunity satyagrahaA
because
it
is
a self-contained a framework for later
case-study, analysis campaigns the of
gives
me the
to construct struggles. also, issues
organised tend to merge material a different
However, in
the
into
each other; and the
some instances, have
historical dictate
available
raised
seemed to
structure.
-
Therefore,
I have not followed
this
framework
rigidly.
Introduction: The first case-studies Kheda.
page 11 section of the thesis local (Section I) focuses principally on
of three
satyagrahas in Champaran, Ahmedabad and a general survey leader. in his of Gandhi's And it activities emergence too,
But it
also attempts Gujarati part Gujarat
as the principal the important leader.
nationalist was to play
outlines,
as a national
The other principal
main section satyagraha level,
(Section
III
contains period
case-studies
of the
campaigns in this the Rowlatt
which Gandhi conducted of 1919 and Noncooperation
at a national
Satyagraha
from 1920 to 1922. activities most useful organisations the Gujarat Satyagraha
However, to make sense of the range of political in up to 1922, I have found it in chapters or founded. describing successive
which Gandhi was involved to arrange the material joined
which he either
Thus we move from the Rowlatt
Sabha to the Satyagraha`Sabha, in 1919:
which conducted
then from the Swadeshi. Sabha to the Xhilafat Noncooperation in August 1920;
Movement which planned and launched finally, from the All-India National it
Home Rule League (renaune,1 the Swarajya Congress. in alliance The Congress took over with the Khilafat movement
Sabha) to the Indian Noncooperation
and conducted
from 1920 to 1922.
The case-studies for analysis with
of the local the difficulties
satyagrahas
(in
Section
1) are combined from his Satya-
which Gandhi experienced on a national scale the Rowlatt II)
Gujarat
base of co-ordinating
graha in 1919. the circumstances constructive national
This enables me to examine (in which led Gandhi to insist
Section
some of of
on the development organising at a
as a component of his programme
level.
Introduction: Section Gandhi's level.
page 12 analysis of the thesis, at a local a broader compares
IV, the concluding techniques It
as an organiser to construct
and at a national definition of the
also attempts
satyagraha it
method than is usually
made in the west. resistance
In particular, and constructive
shows how Gandhi promoted both civil of satyagraha,
programme, the two sides techniques.
by the same organising
Missing to all
from this the other
study forces
is a full and actors
attempt present
to place
Gandhi relative There is economic, the First
at the time. and even chaotic during for and after
no detailed social
presentation
of the changing in India
and political
conditions
World War. leader
These created
the possibility
a new type of political Gandhi's historical career perspective sources o
to emerge and, without quite
such a combination, A fuller
would have evolved on this period,
differently.
however,
can be gained from many other
A more particular
omission
from this
study
is discussion
the response of both
'which Gandhi as an organiser the educated and uneducated. before by social scientists
evoked from the Indian At a general and historians level,
people, this
has been done the topic which
who have explored
of charisma
and also
the religious link
themes from Hindu mythology with the peasantry. however, 16 In a
Gandhi employed in making his specific
study of Gandhi as an organizer, examination of, for example,
there
ought to
be detailed peasantry A
those groups in the Champaran in 1917. Or how far
which responded to Gandhi's
appeal
Gandhi managed to reach and change the behaviour during his championship of the Iilafat it issue
of Muslim peasants Again, in
in 1920.
the study sections
of Noncooperation,
would be interesting
to know which
of the educated classes
and which groups among the peasantry
Introductions in which parts hand-spinning
page 13 of the subcontinent in 1921.1 took up the campaign to learn such questions to others,
must leave
however, with greater 17anthropology.
knowledge of Indian social
history
and
OA9 riles
de)tlope. 6 by C{c, ulu
'vr
C15attiS/Ng
Scci
t
- Ito v*IOQe 1ev%h.
The emphasis of this he made his
study will
he be on, for cxwnpte, chose issues,
how
judgements
ca what was politically his
wise or expedient, the with in views -
and how he managed to balance initiative his for his side while also
campaigns between maintaining respectful dialogue the position
sustaining
opponents. politics
We will
see how he achieved
Indian
which enabled him to project The focus, his then,
his unconventional
to stich a wide audience. not exploring centrating special back into the context picking that especially
is on Gandhi as an organiser nor conWith this i have fallen figure from By
philosophy
and his principles, /
in particular attention the trap
on his
4 emp5i^9 methods it
to Gandhi himself, of isolating
may seem that
Gandhi as a remarkable In some respects ch,..racter and role personal this
in which he operated.
is true. I am judging interesting
out Gandhi as a particular viewpoint
to study,
he had a special
which makehim qualities, It
and even unique. remarkable
It{ is not his
though,
as they were,
which occupy me.
is the way he was able political ideas of
to take a set of unconventional which his political satyagraha life
and controversial
creed and method always was - to the centre
in India.
References:
Introduction:
14 pace 1915-1922, Politics, Civil Disobedience: Press, versity
Rise to Power: Indi Brown, Gandhis 1. Judith 1972, and Gan hi a Press, Cambridge University Cambx The Mahatma in Indian Politics, , _1928-
Facets of the Indian 2. See D. A. Low (Ed), Congress and the Rajs 1 1947, Heinemann, 1977 and Soundi s in Modern South Struggle, Ed. 1968; and R. Kurar Press, Carolina History, University Asian of Eatyagraha The Rowlatt of 1919, Oxford Gandhi. "- politics: Essays on Essays in the D. A. Low, Lion R, 1971. Press, University Also -viipant: London: Cass, 1973. Imperialism, Study of British Strums 3. Seer'for example, Subhag Chandra Bose, The Indian Yajnik, Gandhi as I Know Him , 1920-34, Withart & Co, 1935: Indulal Mahatma: Life G. G. Bhat, 1933; D. G. Tendulkar, of Alohandas Karamchand 1951; and B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: Gandhi, Government of India, Allen and Unwin, 1958 A Biography, 4. full Gandhi's The outstanding philosophical presenting work Thouoht of The Moral and Political is Iyer, RaghavanN., position 1973. University Press, Also important Mahatma Gandhi, oxford of Gandhi's V The Philosophy is Indira Rothernund, of Restraint: 1963. See also Prakashan, Indian Politics, Bombay: Popular Strategy and jivan, Mahatma Ga:. Philosorhy hawarWGopinath, The Political ndhi, _ INava, of 1957. " Also useful is R. R. Diwakar, Satyr and aha: Its Technique 1946. Hind Kitabs, Histor Bombay: ,
in some ways the is still from this perspective 5. The first study War 1Jithozit Violence, Krishnalal, Shridharani, most stimulating, Bombays Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan, 1962. See also Gene Sharp, Gandhi as
1979, and The Po itics Bostons Porter Sargent, Strategist, Political A Wonviolent 197. Works which do look at Porter Sargent, Action, of his but only in so far as it explains Gandhi's philosophical approach, by include technique, development studies of nonviolence as a conflict Conquest of Violence: of Joan Bondurant, The Gandhian Philosophy 1965 and Richard Gregg, The University Conflict, Press, ofCalifornia Even N. K. Bose London: James Clarke & Co. Ltd. 1960. Power of Nonviolence, in his outstanding of Gandhi's comprehensive presentation and focus on nonviolence for this programme still opts finally narrower in Gandhism, Indian technique, Bose, N. K., Studies see as a conflict Company, 1947. Publishing Associated
6.
disobedience 285: "Gandhi envisaged both civil Iyer, op cit, p. as well conflicts means of resolving and noncooperation as nonviolent in social and devices for producing positive changes as peaceful life. In either case, he was more concerned to affect political particular prevailing attitudes and values than with obstructing this fact would force us to regard the A failureto policies. grasp doctrine rationalisation of satyzgraha ... merely as an extravagnt immediate ends. He in the attainment of political expediency of felt that his life dedicated to the spread of the clearly was teaching of non-retaliation by showing its relevance to the religious handling of political and to the constructive and social conflicts transformation pp306-307 of the political and social order. " See also.,
Introduction:
references:
page 15
in Collected Swadeshi? ", Young India, January 14,1920, 7. See "Is Boycott Nava ivan, December 7,9, Works, vol 16, pp 480-482 and "Punjab Letter", id PP 322-323.8. Iyer, op cit, 6, -' d Chapter "The Purification Chapter 3, idual Conscience and Heroism Constructive 1945.. 43. p of Politics", in Society", Its Meaning pp 37-61 pp 113-148. and and
9. See M. K. Gandhi, Navajivan, Ahmedabad: 10. Bondurant, op cit,
11. See Gandhi, Constructive Prasad, R., Constructive pro ramme, op cit; 1942. The most Programme: SOme Suggestions, Ahmedabad, Navajivan, in English I have seen comprehensive which account of constructive programme is in Chapters 4 to 6 of Kaushik, The Congress Ideology P. D., and Programme 1920-1947: Ideological Nationalism During the Foundations Indian of Gandhian Era, Allied Publishers Private See also Rao, R. V., The Ltd, 1964. Gandhian Insititutions of Wardha, Bombay: Thacker and Co Ltd, 1947. 47-48, 11A. Diwakar, as the least cit, op pp sees constructive p: ogramme demanding at the lowest level of .three psychologically of confrontation branches of the satyagraha method -- namely, constructive programme, selfIyer, denying and purificatory op cit, activities, actions. and aggressive See also ibid pp 306-307 and p 301, adopts a similar classifiaction. Dhawan, op cit pp 126-127,190ff.
12. Indira Rothermund, The llhilosonhy Strategy and Indian Politics, Bombay: 30-36.
Mahatma Gandhi's Restraint: or Popular Prakashan, 1963t PP Xii-xivt
13. Gandhi is linked with Tolstoy in his belief in absolute moral values See Iyer the dominant western theory of relative as against moral values.
Chapter 3, "The Purification Chapter 4, "The NEED cit of Politics" and ter Absolute Values and for Vows", pp 40-87. pf A marvellous vindication is in-R. V. Sampson, Equality the Tolstoyan position and Power, London: HEINEMann, 1965.
14. See Iyer, op cit, pp 53-57,252-260. See also Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, Boston: porter Sargent, 1973, Part One, "Power and nagle. "15. See especially, Brown, J., Gandhi's Rise To 1 ower, o, cit. +
16. See especially Lloyd T adition, University of of Roots Charisma"; also Rothermund op cit, Chapter
I. Rudolph and S. H. Rudolph, The .: ODERNITYof CHICAGO Press, 1967, Part Two, "The Traditional Iyer op cit esp. Chapter 6, pp 114-148 and 3, P767-77-3.
17. An outstanding D., "The Crisis example of such a study is Hardiman, of theLesser Patidars: Gujarat, in heda District, Peasant Agitations in Low, D. A., Congress and the :i,; J, Londons Heinemann,, 1967.. 1917-34",
CHAy ER1 CHAMPARAN,19171 NOTES ON A "CLASSIC" SATYAGNAHASTRUGGLE
It's
bommonfor
commentators on Gandhi, earlyit as
allowing
hindsight
to colour politicalhim.
their
descriptionsleader his
of his
years,were, took the is
to presentcomplete, people
him as a nationalhis destiny'before his
who emerged,
Nonviolence presence and "sell brought
message and method, to him. to the
by storm;
charismatic
drew all his ideas
The reality nation. attention This --
different.
Gandhi local
had to promote campaigns which
was done through but also just
him to
national
as significantly province
by his of, the
development
of a reputation Presidency. Gandhi's success level.
and organisation There is no work in
in the &iglish
Gujarat of
Bombay surveys his a'national
which
I am aware-which in Gujarat, initiatives'at for using
achievement there Yet
as an organiser from
specifically he launched logical
as a platform
which makea
such a theme would
framework
a'survey
of
his
whole career.
It's
also
common for there in
surveys
of
Gandhi's
nonviolent his
campaigns organising
to
present
his at
method a local
as if level
were no difference a. limited larger geographical scale the
between area the scale
of campaigns which It
and those whole of of
struggles India. Indian
were
attempted self-evident posed
on a vastly that
across vast
seems
mobilising'on
the
subcontinent so acute in
immense problems-for
Gandhi,
problems
which
were not
struggles
confined
to a limited
area.
These are this thesis:
broad his to
themes
which of
will
be explored
in
the local
first
two sections the which level to a
of
promotion of his from
satyagraha
through
campaigns;. difficulties
importance experienced
Gandhi
base-in organising
Gujarat; at
and the
he
in moving
a local
and regional
national patterns
level. in his
We shall organising
also hope to disoover method.
of the consistent some
Ctlaprer
t-
P"2
IA
When Gandhi arrived spent twenty organiser he realised the rights withHis
back in India
the age of 46 in 1915, he had at legal as a advocate and political 1907, when
years in South Africa of the Indian
on behalf that
there. community
After
the British
Crown could
not be relied
upon to protect
of Indians
in South Africa, resistance"brought him to
he had begun to experiment which he calledthe attention
methods of "passiveachievements there
"satya. graha".of from the the nationalist government
movement at home in of India, he British
India Raj.
and earned
some approval
Back in India,
Gandhi received movement.
guarded welcome from the British a To them he was an unknown quantity; educated he was scarcely
and
from the nationalist while outside first
the circles years-back,
of 'ndia's
known. -,
For hisactivity
he was under a vow not to engage in politicalto building an ashram of
himself primarily and he restricted Ct,4;u.cwr neat Ahwteccw%A
his
personal
followers,
:invited
to address
public
meetings
in differ-
ent parts
of the country trips
on the position
of Indians
in South Africa His of a
he used his
as an opportunity given
to learn
about India.
appearance at receptions
in his as'did
honour in the clothes his insistence rather eighteen
peasant caused some controversy occasions on speaking in Gujarati during
on some than English. months - an His
or Hindi, his first
main political activity
achievement
which did not break the terms of his vow - was to press for the ending of the system of indentured labour under to
successfully which Indians slavery. 1
were sent to South Africa
to work on terms close
Chapter li Gandhi's
Page 18 in the spectrum of Indian and uncertain.political leader South leader of the Africa with of
position
nationalist himself
politics a disciple
at this of Gokhale,
time was precariousthe great "Moderate" principal
He called
who had died Indian to National
in 1915. Congress
G. K. Gokhale for nearly there. spread with of the a He
had been the decade
and had visited
support
Gandhi's causes
struggles
was particularly education "Extremists" and the
identified abolition had left over
progressive child marriage. and the
such as the split
The great Moderates at
which
Gokhale the
the helm of Congress B. G. Tilak, terrorism Gokhale the sorts of, to
in 1907 was principally the most prominent
question leaders, from
of political had openly Gandhi approach gradually shared
methods. advocated sided with
of the the the Britain
Extremist British
as a means of on this issue
ejecting and with between
India.
Modera. tes''general and India reform. change He also
of having on all active
relationship issues promote Tilak through social often
incremental reform in
their
concern like however,
Indian
society,
causes
which the the
traditionalists Moderates, limits
opposed.
Where Gandhi First, their
differed
from that
was on two issues. activity together their cultural were set with their
acceptance
of political by the Raj,
by the
constitutional to risk
procedures popular for the the
established campaigning. economic
unwillingness with British linked
Second, and
identification activity.
standards up with
development as a populist of India
Gandhi nationalist
Extremists civilisation
and as a cultural that of the west.
who preferred
to
What was he to
do?
The Extremists the which initiative gripped to
had returned from the this
to the in
Congress the
fold
in and popular
1916 and had seized political turmoil
Moderates time.
economic the sax
India agitate
at for
Gandhi
movements they in the
had founded
Home Rule making years; yet
strong
progress
Bombay Presidency
and elsewhere
in these
he hated.
Chapter
1: page 1C
the opportunism
and stridency
as he saw it
of their
agitations.
When Gandhi arrived
in the proximity
of Champaran, a district
of
CHAPTE, 1. iSC Bihar
Page ?. India, part in April of Bihar 1917, none of the nationalist knew he was coming and none of them on which he chose to makediscovering the from a hurriedly of to this the peasants
in northern in that
activists
was campaigninga stand. grouped forced Within gathering to
politicallyhours, of
on the issuehowever, lawyers the district, of his about
local in
conditions
grow indigo there.
he had decided
spend up to group of
two years lawyers
And within
days he had organised who worked with
into
a band of helpers
him for
the
seven
months that
his work actuallyto- aikar
took.
2
Gandhi had come/at the insistence Chanparan district Indian National
of a peasant leader
from the of the He to go to
who had met him at the annual session Congress held British quickly in Lucknow four
months earlier. intention
informed
the local
administration gathered that
of his
Champaran and pretty
he was not welcome there. with all 'speed so that were
This persuaded him to move into if he was arrested it
the district
would be in Champaran. had been agitation for
The British
worried
because there
decades by the ryots on their land by local and cub-let to the of
(peasants)
in Champaran forced The planters
to grow indigo leased
European planters. peasant cultivators.
whole villages
Since payments to the ryots sown with indigo, forced it
were on the basis
the number of acres interests giving
was in the planters' on their best land they
to have the peasants the highest yield. price
to grow indigo
This doubly penalised for other cash-crops
the ryots
since
could get a higher and maize.A
such as rice,
sugar-cane with
3
All
manner of quasi-legal land,
agreements had been struck of irrigation canals
the tenants roads;
about the use of their
and of
these agreements were often and if the tenants Indigo,
secured by threats
and physical
intimidation; taken to court
broke them they were frequently a vegetable dye used to colour
and fined.
CHAPTER 1.
Page 3
blue clothing,
was processed
by the planters
in their
local
factories.
Within
two days of arriving
in Champaran, Gandhi was served with that friends is, instructing
a notice
externing
him from the district, organisedon his inquiry
him to leave. a
Gnadhi hurriedlyteam to carry himself make the in
his
of lessin
than a week into
into
conditions speech we would and did
Champaran and offered the right to
court.
He made a defiant and insisting that this
demanding not not leave
inquiry
voluntarily. to do because The local
The magistrate he did not want
had not to jail
expected Gandhi,
know what judgement.
so he postponed
Champaran administration for moving so precipitately; himself,
then was sevemiy rebuked by the Bihar and Bihar who was worried in India was encouraged by direct about while Indian British national troops
government attentions opinion were fully
from the Viceroy
being roused against stretched
the British
in the War in Europe.
The case against
Gandhi was dropped.
In the teeth verging organised
of fierce
political
opposition
from the planters, Gandhi then involved
and unease
on hostility
from the local
administration, which
a survey of peasant statements
grievances,
the recording
of 10,000 legal Champaran before authority
by the ryots. destroyed built
Pressure
to get Gandhi out of position and the
he had totally
the planters'
of the local
administration
up so much that
the Bihar
government began to think Bihar capital
about externing
him and summoned him to the
to the south in Ranchi where he met the Lieutenant from the Government of India, a commission of inquiry Gandhi as one of its into the Lieutenant the conditions
Governor.
'Under pressure to appoint
Governor decided of the tenants
in Ghamparan with
members.
CHAPTER 1.
Page 4
Gandhi was permitted ryots' finally behalf while
to act as an advocate also serving
within
the inquiry
on the He
as a member of the commission. the planters
managed to negotiate of the inquiryThis report into agreement which
an agreement with
through
the processgrievances. unanimous enacted
which met most of the tenant:formed a part of the
main
Commission's government and
was accepted a year later.
by the Bihar
legislation
Gandhi fighting
then
went back
to his
ashr
,
but of
immediately textile
got
involved
in
a labour a civil
dispute
on behalf
workers high
in Ahmedabad taxes in
and leading
disobedience
campaign
against
theda (Paira)leading
a rural
area of Gujrat.drive to
Withinrecruit
a" year he was alsosoldiers to fight with
a markedly
unsuccessful
the British leading
EMpire in Europe and sinulta. neously fighter and two Muslim leaders
canpaigning released
to get a from
home rule
in ternrient. How Gandhi Organised Su-,port.(i) The First Days arrived in Patna en route for Champaran, he was in the
When Gandhi
company of the peasant representative had none of the connections himself in the area. fron
of the ryots
from Champaran who he was to establi
which Gandhi melt he needed if
Eventually,
he remembered by chance to look up an old member of the Indian
acquantance
lair school
in London who was now a prominent together
Muslim League, and this citizens decided to describe immediately
man gathered
a group of prominent
the situation
in Champaran to Gandhi.
Gandhi then The in He had
to go to Champaran and make an investigation. deploring the situation
Lucknow Congress had passed a resolution Champaran, a resolution declined
which Gandhi had been asked to move. of knowledge and this
on grounds of lack inquiry.
gave him loge authority
to begin his
CHAPTER 1.
Page 5.
Gandhi was given a contact
in Muzaffarpur, him. Gandhi. planter
the nearest
large
town to another directly administration
Champaran, and went to stay with group to discuss from the situation that this Champaran with of effective
This man brought -The latter control
together
recognised
of the local
was a situation
which would probably
lead to a nonviolent conscious(ii) and that
campaign to correctthat if (i)
the injustice.
Gandhi was apparentlyof the the situation, administration of
he had no first engage in
hand knowledge Satyagraha identified case; against with (iii)
he was to
he would and have,
need to be thoroughly an indisputably rested in the
the
cause the
the peasants of
established support of
that for
power
satyagraha (iv) and that
the peasants
what he was doing
to find support
out exactly for his
what was happening on their. behalf
among the peasants
and to build
up
struggle
he would need a group of full-time
assistants.
Gandhi straight
a; ay asked the group gathered
with
in Nuzaffurour him was no small their one
to
help him, aid a number of them agreed. because it meant abandoning law practices for
The request period
an indefinite
families capacity
and established as clerks that taking
and going
to werk: in a subordinate told
down, statements.
Gandhi also
the vakils-(lawyers)
they should be prepared
to go to jail.
None of them agreed to this about the question to prosperous disobedience of
but they did agree to work with jail
him and to think
which must have seemed absolutely profession,
outrageous what civil
members of the legal
wondering
Gandhi offered no payment for their would mean for their legal careers. 5 Presumably he was successful in persuading a number of them services. to agree to go with 48: (ii) him: (i) because he was a, relatively, senior man, at, at the (iii) successful
because the issue National
of Chainparan had been raised. nationally Gandhi had come as a-direct as a national result;
Indian
Congress-and
because he had a reputation
hero because of his
CHAPTER 1. Page 6.
struggles Ginhi's to jail at all
in similar obvious
situations
in South Africa;
(iv)
because of go in the area
sincerity
and his
courage in being willingto with no roots
on thq issue
when he was an outsider
(v) because this and of Indian political
was a time in India figures
when changes in the as the British thus thereif it
alignments
were increasing political reform;to
showed themselvessome jockeying for
amenable to limitedfuture power
was
and some openness
experiment
looked promising.The next district impression there spot. day Gandhi went to inform the Commissioner He very to enter for quickly the neighbouring the to g
to Champaran of his that he would not
intentions. be allowed so that are not if
got
Champaran - and decided it would the
as quickly His
as possible here
he was arrested but would there clearly
be on the
intentions
recorded: the area
government's than preventing the
embarrassment him going
in removing partly
him from because his
be greater would
there,
arrest
pin-point
peasant grievances peasant opposition.
nationally
and partly
because it
would help
to focus local.
Gandhi had barely
started
his
investigations from the local decided
from the town of Itotihari magistrate it instructing and prepared` in his'
in him
Champaran when he got an order to leave the area. for
He immediately
to"disobey
instructions absence.
his-assistants
of less
than'a
week to follow
Fron the start, the legalA
Gandhi had fundamentally the "tinkathia"
two objectives: system,
(i)
to secure tenants for To from their
abolition'f
where peasant of their factories.
were obliged landlords
to grow indigo
on the best portions the indigo
land (ii)
the planters
who operated a spirit
encourage in-the re-establishing
peasants their grip
which would prevent 6
the planters
on the area.
I
CHAPTER 1. (ii)
Page 7. Organised His Assistants
How Gandhi
As we have seen, Gandhi chose educated, assistants; men. better he also made a point on the view that
professional
men to be his that is, local had a
of choosing Biharis, they knew the local grievances,
(Presumably general
dialects,
knowledge of the area and its to local peasants,
would perhaps out
be more acceptable the work ifagitators. reputation ment of from the )
would be better vulnerable
able to carry to attack
he was removed, would be lessThe fact as legal that
as outside
the men were local, on behalf politics of
however,
meant their and the to involvecriticism
advocates
the peasants
some of-them planters
in Home Rule local
made them subject as biased charge
and the Gandhi's of
administration to this simply
men and wellthese men
known agitators. were for
response this inquiry
was that
the purposes
interpreters
and clerks
taking if
down statements, that
that
they were e;itirely
responsible
to him and that way,, he
he felt
any of them were acting dismiss them.?
in an irresponsible
would instantly
This assertion literally true.
that
he was master
in his
to have been own camp seems his-co-workers so that they
Gandhi set about organising (or pragmatic) followers
became convinced personal strategies
of satyagraha
and of his them This
and techniques.
The first
issue was to persuade , basis without money.
to come and work with him on a semi-permanent a number of them were persuaded to do.
second, he wanted them to agree to to jailed and to be prepared walked to than
over the work from him in the event of his being to go to jail the courta
themselves.
On the morning when Gandhi himself that he would go to jail two key workers
house in the conviction externment
rather said
accept his
from Champaran, his
they too "Now I brief but
were now ready to go to jail. know we shall intensive succeed". A third with
Gandhi is reported major achievement
to have said of Gandhi's life-style.
association
these men was in the area'of men who brought with
These were high-caste
professional
them their
CHAPTER 1. Page 8.
servants
and their
cooks.
This was obviously of westernised,
distasteful expensive labour
to Gandhi who living and who like a
had thrown off felt it
the trappings
his moral duty He sayer that on a pragmatic all
to engage in physical he "ridiculed" basis that
and to live their habits:
peasant. partly
the men for
arguing expenses.
they needed to reduce their
At any rate, who prepared of life-style,
the servants meals.
home and one cook only was kept were sent One important to dress too, aspect of course, of this simplification the gap
vegetarian
which extended
was that with
between Gandhi'sreduced. Fourth,
team and the peasantsGandhi, quitt si: aply
they were workingworked harder than
was
any of his
(or opponents) associates 8 constant initiative.
and overwhelmed them with
his
energy and
Gandhi also refused the struggle in their for
to allow
his
assistants saying
to identify that if
their
activity
with
Hone Rule in India,
they were successful Home Rule than any
campaign in Champaran, it agitation-9
would do more for
amount of rhetorical
(iii)
Gandhi's
Preparation
for
His
Court
Appearance
Men Gandhi heard that
he was toIappear
in court with
for his
disobeying
an order about what some of them
to leave Champaran, he began a discussion should be done and was later were willing to follow gratified
assistants
by the undert. ak; ng that He then devised a list
him to jail.
of names ofas
those who would take over the direction others to his were arrested. co-workers. He also wrote (See Appendix 'A')
of the campaign in succession out' a list of detailed instructions
He then spent the whole night
writing
letters
to newspaper editors,
Q3! PTtIM 1. Page 9.explaining unless what was happening He also and asking wrote them not to publish anything Indian council: he was
he was jailed. including himself
to a number of leading on the Viceroy's
politicians and addressed only back
one who served directly to
legislative that
the Viceroy, service only
complaining in Cha. iparan previously
interested a medal that
in doing
humanitarian
and sending for
he had been awarded in South Africa.
a year
humanitarian
work
He also prepareddisobeying the
a statementwhich
forread
the courtas follows
explaining(see
why he was'B').
order,
Appendix
(iv)
Gandhi's
Relations
with
the
Chasiuaron of
Peasants but by the that time this he was man was
Gandhi
was unknown to the into the
ryots district their
Champaran, word had got grievances
headed by train coming to
round
investigate/solve at the stations of
and numbers
of people
assembled Gandhi's villages appearance court house crowds.
to greet at from
him and get first
. apse of him. a gl go and visit a few court at the the
method
investigation depositions
was to
and take
peasants. a thousand
When news of his peasants on Gandhi assembled to control
cane through
more than
and the magistrate
had to rely
A major part grievances
of this
theory
of organising
was that
the peasant
would only disappear that this
when they had the courage to stand The presence own initiative tyranny of an Indian in the
up and insist district
be changed. of his
conducting
inquiry an that
was an encouragement and
to the peasants bias of the local
to believe
planter
the inactivity and and corrected.
administration
could be challenged
CIUPTM I.
PagelO. about his position of police to Gandhi or officers) was
Each man who gave a statement his assistants his his (often
in the presence
ccnfronting Gandhi build
own fear
of the planters; the planters.
and of course helping
case against
Ten thousand statementsThe people crowding
were taken by Gandhi'sGandhi's headquarters
assistants.in Motihari
10or Bettich
round
to give
their
statements local
may have been recruited
by another
level
of
assistants,
uneducated
men of some prominence
such as shopkeepers, in accounts by Gandhi
money-lenders, and his reports
and so on.
They are not mentioned
but by police of what happened, nor by the planters, ll When a particularly bad situation now available. was assistants in the land-holding assistants with their of one planter, Gandhi himself or
discovered some of his the planter
would go directly information.
to investigate
and confront of
This was not done in the spirit desire-to hear the other to the planters sideoz further
expose, however, the case. strengthened
so much as a genuine these direct
Naturally,
approaches
the reputation
of the inquiry,
which in some instances to resolve grievances.
led to
immediate and direct
negotiations
or proposals
Gandhi's
concern with
what he considered
the ignorance
and abject
helplessness
of the peasants, efforts
extended as far to improve Biharis
as work to found schools and personal in this This part within work, of his a few
in the area and direct hygiene. however, activities
sanitation
He was unable to find and had to recruit failed
to take part scale.
on an all-India however, 12
to take root, the district.
dissolved and
months of his
leaving
With his his
triumph
in the court-room, of planter
his
later
successes
in maintaining a
inquiry
in the teeth
opposition
and then securing
chapter provincial
1.
Page 11. government inquiry with the peasants on which he himself as some kind was to serve, Gandhi's
reputation established.was staying So Gandhi's darshan
of miracle-worker
became
Many of the peasantsto give assistants be given, ability statements arranged that to is, reach
who came to the house where heto leave times could of till the get they had seen him.
refused certain
day when Gandhi's a glimpse of him.
would
peasants
So the Mahatma's
the peasants
became established.
(v)
Gandhi's
Relations
with
the
Press
Throughout hisdocuments
tine
in Champaran, Gandhi issued a seriesof newspapers. These were not
of backgroundfor publication
to the
editors
but were sent with (i)
the object
of keeping
them fully ill-informed
informed stories;
so that (ii) in on whi
they would not be tempted to publish arrested, they night
the event of his being to base any editorials
they would have accurate write.
information
Through this- tactic
he was able
to keep thQ press at bay at a time when he did not want anti-planter stories inflaming opinion.
Hoer Gandhi (i)
Addressed
His
Opponents
and Protected
His
Objectives
The Planters
Before
entering
Champaran district, Association to do.
Gandhi went to see the secretary and told
of
the Bihar
Planters
(a group of Europeans)
him what consist-
he was intending ently throughout(ii)
By euch an approach, he: (i)his (iv) from
which he maintained his
the inquiry,forewarned trust; himself
confronted(iii)
opponents openlyhonest compromise;
and personally intentions (v) and indicated
opponents; implied the
suggested to
invited and by separating his
a willingness of his
security
supporters not only "I an
own self-confidence but also the "Buy me if credulity
and power you can". the
suggesting
my oim master"# approach stretches
such an open fearless (i) who knows that
of
opponent,
Chapter 1. Page 12. there are entrenched (ii) attitudes and does not readily to find understand this
flexibility; the distinct
is tempted to talk
(iii. ) has out more, and ran ceems ; his personal
impression
of omeone in command. This particular by Gandhi's Gandhi in his(He-later the whole
to have been unsettled willingnessspeak for his
courtesy, inquiry,wrote Planter
for
he stated
to assist
but said he could not ,to Gandhi, and told network buzzing him not with the
Association. and got
to go to Champaran,
13 ) news.
Gandhi's-principal tenants other develop from were obliged unjust in
objectives to grow
were to have indigo
the
legal
agreement
whereby
abolished,
to challenge imposed which on the
a number of tenants and to
or legally the peasant their
doubtful cultivators tyranny.
obligations a spirit
would
prevent
the -planters the
reimposing
He had a further
aim which
was to secure
willing for his
agreement of the planters aims of social improvement
to his
plans
and to invite
their and
support
in the area,
such as schools
sanitation.
Gandhi met with with their-full
representatives association
of the planters
on several -
occasions
and
twice.
When statements
from peasants
indicated
a particular write
injustice
or abuse, he would visit the complaints immediate and inviting
the planter his
concerned or In some
to him detailing he, offered denied that
comments.
instances a planter invited
proposals
for, remedies.
On, one. occasion. their arrangements
of his any _in
tenants'were
unhappy with
Gandhi, to meet them
his
company. - In Gandhi's against
presence,. large to his face arrange-
A
numbers of these tenants and Gandhi immediately
then complained organised
the planter for
them to take action
a more just
men .
14 1 '1
1. CHAPTER
Page 13 created apoplexy among the planter available community in to them to disadminacross editorto the system
These activities
Champaran who used every typ ;. creditistrations India ialised; editor
of pressure
Gandhi and have him expelled.were saturated ted. press with
The local
and provincialassociations
complaints. pressure on the
European Viceroy; as well were that "time that
were activi, biased from
to put reports
newspapers as letters the tenure
were published, complaints since
planters.
The main in existence or
in Champaran had been not be challenged agitators;
immemorial" Gandhi
and so could in of
as unjust that
illegal;
had brought
Congress
Gandhi in
had established
a parallel
system
investigating authority; their lives
grievances and that from
Champaran which and their
was undermining families fires were started inquiry, in
legitimate fear in of indigo Gandhi
the planters peasants.
aroused
Two small
factories
were blamed
by the
planters
on Gandhi's
though
denied that
peasants
were involved-15
When the Bihar
Government appointed
its
Commission to investigate own of the major criticisms dis-
peasant grievances, planters
with Gandhi as a member, representatives to go along with
on the Commission were persuaded
of the old system and recommendations owned by other anxious it planters.
to change it
they were. later -
Gandhi and the Bihar
Government were, very
to achieve for
a unanimous, report
from the Commission so as. to make. reforming legislation to the planters'the courts loss for agreed to of the com-
possible
the Government to get, through made quitequestion costly that planters of
quickly.case,i
Gandhi thereforeparticularly In order Gandhi terns on the to
major concessionscompensation in should for the
revenues. peasants, pensation
avoid
litigation the report
was anxious for certain
detail
and agreed
reimbursements
CHAPTER 1.
Page 14
certain arguing certainly
tenants with
ofmoney already planters,
wrongly
paid.
After
much fierce which were almost
particular
terms were agreed,
generous to the planters. tinkathia
Gandhi was happy,
of abolishing
was established,
once the principle 16 to concede on lesser issues.
Gandhi It
was severely however,
criticised that within
by some of ten years
the
tenants
for
this all
'? compromise. the
appears,
of his
campaign,
planters
had left
Champaran.
(ii)
The Local. Administration
Gandhi made it the planters, if that failed public
clear then if
at one point that failed
that
his
strategy officials
was first
to persuade then and
the local
of the Raj,
the Bihar opinion all
Government, over india.
finally
then the Government of India 18
The local
officials a notice
worked closely to quit
with
the planters
and Gandhi was arrival.
served with
Champaran within refusing
two days of his
When Gandhi appeared in court, sense of public the court
to obey the ozder because of his but accepting any penalty
duty to remain with
the tenants,
might bestow on him, won his
the magistrate
did not know what to do. authority) by
Gandhi had already helping to control
respect
(and undermined his
the crowds round the courthouse. Gandhi without any recognisance to offer
He postponed his except his any money. word to
sentence and released appear when called,
because Gandhi refused
Later,
on the orders The Bihar
of the Lieutenant-Governor authorities were furious
of Bihar,
the case was that they
withdrawn.
because they felt
did not have a strong
enough case against
someone of Gandhi's
reputation
1. CHAPTER
Pate 15 done anything the local at that officers point except announce an their assistance
who had not actually inquiry. to Gandhi's
They instructed inquiry,
to offer done.
and this
was apparently
Gandhi
met regularly
with sending
the
local
f il- i als c{ of
infoxm_ ng them of . reports which
what he was doing, local officials
them copies to the
some of the government.
were sending making
the Bihar same
These were that
uniformly their
negative,
arguments and serious officials
as the planters, trouble marked
authority
was being letters
undermined from
seemed likely. "confidential"
When Gandhi
received
these
he refused with his
to accept assist^. nts,
them unless (When other civil
he was pernitted "confidential" service
to share the contents docu^ients arrived Gandhi, he refused 19 )
from sources
in the Indian
who supported openly.
to use them because they had not been acquired
Gandhi's
relations
with
the local
authorities
the whole to have seem on
.r. been courteous and even friendly.
(iii)After
The Bihar two months
Government of Gandhi's
and the inquiry,
Government pressure
of
ndia the planters local and
from
officials
grew so :intense that one of their
the Bihar senior
government members.
Gandhi to summoned
Patna to meet with dismiss inquiry. his his
This man asked Gandhi to to end his and
assistants
who he considered-to
be agitators
Gandhi refused. conclusions
The two then agreed that to government inquiry
Gandhi should submit and
preliminary modify
in the form of a report so that
slightly.4
the conduct of his for the taking
he, Gandhi., had most
responsibility
of the depositions.
Gandhi's
report
was produced
in a single
day.
in this
way he retained
CHAPTER 1:
Page 16
the initiative. local officials,
He sent copies
of it
to the planters eight
and to all
the
who were then given to the government. who now felt Gandhi's for
weeks to submit their angered the planters
comments on it local and that it
This further their
officials
power being usurped and argued had the blessing its of the own
appeared that
activities
government.Commission
They calledto replace
the Government to appointinquiry.
Gandhi's
When Gandhi
was summoned to Ranchs, a month not later,
the
capital
of Bihar, co-workers because the
to meet the thought it
Lieutenant-Governor, likely obviously report. take over that he might was not
he and his to all return the plans
be allowed to receive
government
waiting
comments on Gandhi's for 20 replacements to
They therefore the inquiry if
made contingency Gandhi
was arrested.
Apparently,
the Governor had become frightened a letter
of what was Yiappenin3 instructing The
in Champaran, but he had. received him to establish Viceroy fear a Commission with reasons" agitation
from the Viceroy
Gandhi as one of its appeasing Gandhi,
members. that is, his
had "all-India
for
of a major public in Europe. on three
while
the First
World liar was in for long
progress sessions
Gandhi met with days.
the Lieutenant-Governor that if
separate
He insisted
he were to be a
member of the Commission, he must retain on behalf of the peasants and also call and present witnesses.
the right
to act as advocate that his inquiry 21
the evidence
had gathered
This was agreed'. .
When the Commission was announced, they heard thatthey felt utterly his
the planters
delighted. were
When
Gandhi was a member of it,betrayed. being Gandhi to prepare then
ten days later, announcedended his inquiry, but for the
retained
team in
evidence
already
gathered
1. CHAPTER
Page 17 an advisory service to tenants. 22
Commission and to provide
The Comonission met in Ranchi, of the villages directly. Its
Patna, report It
Motihari
and Bettiah,
visiting
many
was argued over for supported
more than two
months but was finally the preliminary report
unanimous. that
in most particulars three months earlier.
Gandhi had prepared
Planter a billit
reaction closely
was predictably based on thisa year.
hostile,
but the Bihar the legislative
government piloted assembly and
report
through
became law within
SUh_... IMARY 1. Gandhi's aims were to abolish the "tinkathia" system tenant whereby
cultivators to build
were forced up a spirit
by their
planter
landlords
to grow indigo; the old In this
and
among the tenants them could
which would mean that
system of abuses against succeeded.2. This campaign, acting
not be re-established.
he
on a social an area
grievance of politics politicians.
and organising that had not
the been
peasantry, attempted
moved Gandhi by other
into
contemporary
Indian
3.
Gandhi was able to assemble a strong him, who made considerable methods and recognised his
team of local, sacraf5ce authority.
men to educated to adopt his
work with political 4.
personal decisive
Gandhi was able to reach the reasc. nts with (i) no =fndian figure of his standing
his. campaign because: to approach them
had tried
before; ' (ii) he publicly out-manouevred the attempt willingness by the local to go to jail; and conscientious, of
administration (iii) his
to expel him by his
inquiry thousands
method was exceedingly to make their
thorough
enabling
contribution
take the risk and
1. CHPTFR
PaCela
collectively
speaking
out;
(iv)
he stood up fearlessly when necessary; was simple differenthimself
to the planters-visiting
them
individually
(v) his life-style not to be vastly5. by: (:. ) The neutral in Champaran. (ii) did, (iii) all-India ('iv) By keeping so he could By his Gandhi protected
inexpensive and
and indicated
a desire
from theirs.and was protected from eovernsent suppression
objective
of his
mission
-
an inquiry
into
conditions
public not
officials be accused
fully of
informe