G543 Section Two Stress. Starter task P95 (try this) P95 (try this)

G543G543

Section TwoSection Two

StressStress

Starter taskStarter task

P95 (try this)P95 (try this)

The first big question is what is stress The first big question is what is stress anyway?anyway?

Give a definition (3 minutes) Give a definition (3 minutes) It is a term we read about in the papers It is a term we read about in the papers

almost daily. almost daily. As a society we are supposedly suffering from As a society we are supposedly suffering from

this thing, it costs the country millions of this thing, it costs the country millions of pounds a year in days off work and stress pounds a year in days off work and stress related illness not to mention broken related illness not to mention broken marriages, arguments and neglected children. marriages, arguments and neglected children.

..

Stress IntroductionStress Introduction

TaskTask

Explain how could test for stress Explain how could test for stress levelslevels

Now design a study to measure Now design a study to measure stress (this can be based on jobs, stress (this can be based on jobs, school, etc)school, etc)


We tend to think of stress as We tend to think of stress as something `out there`.something `out there`.

Subjectively it feels as if there is just Subjectively it feels as if there is just too much to do, or too much being too much to do, or too much being expected of us. expected of us.

We feel unable to cope and if it goes We feel unable to cope and if it goes on for too long we may even become on for too long we may even become illill

50 years ago the term was not really 50 years ago the term was not really used.used.

People would get tired, they might have People would get tired, they might have been unhappy, but they probably would been unhappy, but they probably would not have said they were stressed. not have said they were stressed.

So is stress what happens to us or So is stress what happens to us or is it more about the way in which is it more about the way in which we choose to think about what we choose to think about what happens to us?happens to us? Discuss Discuss


If we make different choices in life If we make different choices in life can we reduce stress? can we reduce stress?

Is stress just a modern term for Is stress just a modern term for unhappiness? unhappiness?

We might also ask whether stress is We might also ask whether stress is always a bad thing? always a bad thing?

Is a lack of stress stressful?!Is a lack of stress stressful?! DiscussDiscuss


DefinitionDefinition

Lazarus and Lazarus and FolkmanFolkman (1984) define (1984) define stress as:-stress as:-

““A pattern of A pattern of negativenegative physiological states and physiological states and psychological responses psychological responses occurring in situations where occurring in situations where people people perceiveperceive threats to their threats to their well being which they may be well being which they may be unable to meet.”unable to meet.”

Stress QuestionnaireStress Questionnaire

Task 1 and 2 in the booklet on stress Task 1 and 2 in the booklet on stress questionnairequestionnaire

What we will be looking What we will be looking at:at:

In this section we will look at three In this section we will look at three causes of stress: - causes of stress: -

Work (study 10, Johansson)Work (study 10, Johansson) Life events (study 11, Kanner)Life events (study 11, Kanner) Hassles and lack of control (study Hassles and lack of control (study

12, Geer and Maisel). 12, Geer and Maisel). We will also look at and evaluate We will also look at and evaluate

different methods used by different methods used by psychologists to measure stress.psychologists to measure stress.

TaskTask

Complete work 1.1 task and discuss Complete work 1.1 task and discuss (5 minutes) P4(5 minutes) P4

Why is work seen as stressful?Why is work seen as stressful? Are some jobs more stressful than Are some jobs more stressful than

others?others? What makes certain jobs more What makes certain jobs more

stressful than others?stressful than others?

Johansson (1978) – Swedish Johansson (1978) – Swedish Sawmill (Key Study 10)Sawmill (Key Study 10)

Aim: Aim: To measure the psychological To measure the psychological and and physiologicalphysiological stress response in stress response in two categories of employees.two categories of employees.

Method: Method: This was a This was a naturalnatural experiment (could also be classed as experiment (could also be classed as a a casecase study) using an study) using an independentindependent measures design. The participants measures design. The participants were were 2424 workers at a workers at a SwedishSwedish Sawmill. Sawmill. 1414 were classified as being were classified as being in a high stress risk group, these in a high stress risk group, these were the finishers. were the finishers.


The finishers had to work at a set pace, The finishers had to work at a set pace, governed by the production line, their governed by the production line, their work was complex and required a great work was complex and required a great deal of knowledge. deal of knowledge.

They were also responsible for their own They were also responsible for their own and their team’s wages and worked in and their team’s wages and worked in socialsocial isolation. isolation.

So their jobs were So their jobs were repetitiverepetitive, constrained, , constrained, socially isolated, but also complex and socially isolated, but also complex and very responsible. very responsible.

The other group of The other group of 1010 workers were workers were classified as the control group (low risk of classified as the control group (low risk of stress) they were cleaners or stress) they were cleaners or maintenancemaintenance workers.workers.


Each participant was asked to give a Each participant was asked to give a daily daily urineurine sample, body sample, body temperature was checked and they temperature was checked and they were asked to complete a self-report were asked to complete a self-report about about moodmood, alertness and , alertness and caffeinecaffeine and and nicotinenicotine consumption, when consumption, when they first arrived at work and a they first arrived at work and a further four times during the day. further four times during the day.

Baseline readings were taken at Baseline readings were taken at home before the study started.home before the study started.


Results:Results: In the first urine sample of the day, In the first urine sample of the day, the high risk group had the high risk group had adrenalineadrenaline levels levels twice as high as their baseline and these twice as high as their baseline and these continued to increase throughout the day. continued to increase throughout the day.

The control group had a peak of The control group had a peak of 1.51.5 times times their baseline in the morning and this their baseline in the morning and this declined during the rest of their shift.declined during the rest of their shift.

In the self-report, the In the self-report, the highhigh risk group felt risk group felt more rushed and irritated than the more rushed and irritated than the controlcontrol group. group.

They also rated their well-being as lower than They also rated their well-being as lower than the control group.the control group.


Conclusions: Conclusions: The repetitive, The repetitive, machine-paced work, which was machine-paced work, which was demanding in attention to detail and demanding in attention to detail and highly highly mechanisedmechanised, contributed to , contributed to the higher stress levels in the high the higher stress levels in the high risk group.risk group.


EvaluationEvaluation

A major advantage of this study is A major advantage of this study is that it measures stress in two ways: - that it measures stress in two ways: -

physiologicalphysiological (adrenaline levels and (adrenaline levels and self-report), this increases the self-report), this increases the reliability of the study. reliability of the study.

JohannsonJohannson was an occupational was an occupational psychologist and used his findings to psychologist and used his findings to suggest ways in which the working suggest ways in which the working lives of the finishers could be made lives of the finishers could be made less less stressfulstressful. .

TaskTask

P95 taskP95 task How stressful is your job? Why and How stressful is your job? Why and

how could you overcome this?how could you overcome this? What jobs are stressful and why? What jobs are stressful and why?

How could you overcome this stress?How could you overcome this stress?

SuggestionsSuggestions

What suggestions would you make to What suggestions would you make to decrease the stress of the finishers?decrease the stress of the finishers?

Complete tasks on page 7Complete tasks on page 7

Study EvaluationStudy Evaluation

Life events and hassles Life events and hassles (1.2)(1.2)

Life changes are significant changes Life changes are significant changes in a person’s life which disrupt their in a person’s life which disrupt their normal routines. normal routines.

They include both They include both positivepositive and and negative eventsnegative events

Events which are seen as desirable Events which are seen as desirable and and undesirableundesirable. .

A number of researchers argue that A number of researchers argue that life events are a major source of life events are a major source of stress.stress.

Holmes & Rahe – Social Holmes & Rahe – Social ReadjustmentReadjustment Rating Scale (1967) Rating Scale (1967)

(SRRS)(SRRS) Aim: -Aim: - The main aim for this study was to construct The main aim for this study was to construct

an an instrumentinstrument for measuring stress for measuring stress. . Holmes and Rahe defined stress as Holmes and Rahe defined stress as the the

amount of change an individual has had amount of change an individual has had to deal with during a particular period of to deal with during a particular period of timetime..

They claimed that the degree of stress is They claimed that the degree of stress is related to both related to both physicalphysical and psychological and psychological illness.illness.

People are more likely to show People are more likely to show symptomssymptoms following periods of stress. following periods of stress.

The The greatergreater the stress the more serious the the stress the more serious the illness.illness.


(SRRS)(SRRS) ProcedureProcedure Holmes and Rahe examined the Holmes and Rahe examined the

medical records of 5,000 patients medical records of 5,000 patients (all American service men). From (all American service men). From these, they put together a list of these, they put together a list of 4343 life eventslife events which seemed to which seemed to precede (come before) illness.precede (come before) illness.


(SRRS)(SRRS) They told They told 100100 people (‘judges’) that people (‘judges’) that

‘marriage’ had been given an ‘marriage’ had been given an arbitraryarbitrary value of value of 500500. .

The judges then had to give a The judges then had to give a number to each of the other life number to each of the other life events, indicating how much events, indicating how much readjustmentreadjustment they’d involve they’d involve relative to marriage.relative to marriage.


(SRRS)(SRRS) So, death of a spouse was judged (on So, death of a spouse was judged (on

average) to require twice as much average) to require twice as much readjustmentreadjustment as marriage. as marriage.

The average (mean) of the numbers The average (mean) of the numbers given to each event was then divided by given to each event was then divided by 10.10.

The resulting values became the The resulting values became the weightingweighting (numerical value) of each life (numerical value) of each life event. event.

For example, the weighting for death of For example, the weighting for death of a spouse was 100 (1000 divided by 10). a spouse was 100 (1000 divided by 10).


(SRRS)(SRRS) The amount of life stress a person has The amount of life stress a person has

experiencedexperienced in a given period (e.g. 12 in a given period (e.g. 12 months) is measured by the total number of months) is measured by the total number of life change units (LCUs).life change units (LCUs).

These units are calculated by adding the These units are calculated by adding the mean valuesmean values (in the right hand column of (in the right hand column of the table on the next page) the table on the next page) associated associated with the events the person has with the events the person has experienced during that experienced during that timetime..

The ranks (left hand column) simply denote The ranks (left hand column) simply denote the order in which the life events appear in the order in which the life events appear in the SRRS. the SRRS.

(NB- When (NB- When participants are participants are given the SRRS, given the SRRS, they’re presented they’re presented only with the list only with the list of life events of life events without mean without mean values and asked values and asked to tick the ones to tick the ones that apply to that apply to them.)them.)


(SRRS)(SRRS) Most life events were judged to be less Most life events were judged to be less

stressfulstressful than getting married. than getting married. But But 66, including death of a spouse, divorce , including death of a spouse, divorce

and personal injury or illness were rated as and personal injury or illness were rated as more stressful. more stressful.

Holmes and Rahe found that people Holmes and Rahe found that people with high LCU scores for the preceding with high LCU scores for the preceding year were likely to experience some sort year were likely to experience some sort of physical illness the following year. of physical illness the following year.

For example, someone scoring over 300 For example, someone scoring over 300 LCU s LCU s


(SRRS)(SRRS) ConclusionConclusion Holmes and Rahe concluded that Holmes and Rahe concluded that

stress could be measured stress could be measured objectivelyobjectively as an LCU score. as an LCU score.

This, in turn, predicts the person’s This, in turn, predicts the person’s chances of becoming ill (physically chances of becoming ill (physically and / or mentally) following the and / or mentally) following the period of stress. period of stress. Stress and illness Stress and illness are not just correlated. are not just correlated.

Stress actually makes us Stress actually makes us illill..


(SRRS)(SRRS) Evaluation TaskEvaluation Task

Look at the list of life events, see if Look at the list of life events, see if any apply to you and work out your any apply to you and work out your LCULCU


(SRRS)(SRRS) In groups, complete the evaluation of In groups, complete the evaluation of

Holmes and Rahe. Holmes and Rahe. You need to consider:-You need to consider:-

Is this SRRS useful? Is this SRRS useful? Are any of the events ambiguous? Are any of the events ambiguous? Are any missing? Are any missing? What about their sampling? What about their sampling? Does it matter if change is unpredictable or not? Does it matter if change is unpredictable or not?

Did Holmes and Rahe take this into account? Did Holmes and Rahe take this into account? Are all life events viewed the same by people- think Are all life events viewed the same by people- think

about divorce? about divorce? Could the relationship between life events and Could the relationship between life events and

illness be the other way round? illness be the other way round? The data is retrospective- people are asked to The data is retrospective- people are asked to

recall the last 12 months- why is this a problem?recall the last 12 months- why is this a problem?

Daily Hassles & UpliftsDaily Hassles & Uplifts

Some researchers have suggested that Some researchers have suggested that daily hassles lead to more daily hassles lead to more stressstress and are a and are a better better predictorpredictor of health problems than of health problems than life events. life events.

Daily hassles are Daily hassles are ‘irritating, ‘irritating, frustratingfrustrating, , distressing demands that to some distressing demands that to some degree characterise everyday degree characterise everyday transactions with the transactions with the environment’environment’ (Kanner 1981) – i.e. the straw that broke (Kanner 1981) – i.e. the straw that broke the camel’s back!the camel’s back!

Daily Hassles & UpliftsDaily Hassles & UpliftsCompleteComplete

Daily hasslesDaily hassles Daily upliftsDaily uplifts

Kanner et al (1981) (study Kanner et al (1981) (study 11)11)

Aim Aim To To comparecompare Hassles and Uplifts Hassles and Uplifts and Life Events as predictors of and Life Events as predictors of psychologicalpsychological symptoms of stress symptoms of stress

Procedure Procedure 100100 Californians (mostly white, Californians (mostly white, protestant with at least 9th grade protestant with at least 9th grade education) completed a hassles and education) completed a hassles and upliftuplift rating scale every month for nine months rating scale every month for nine months and a life events rating scale (SRRS) after and a life events rating scale (SRRS) after 1010 months. months.

Their Their psychologicalpsychological symptoms of stress symptoms of stress were measured using the HSCH and were measured using the HSCH and Bradburn Morale Scale every month for 9 Bradburn Morale Scale every month for 9 months. (NB all of these are self-report months. (NB all of these are self-report measures).measures).


Findings Findings Hassles were consistent from Hassles were consistent from monthmonth to month. to month.

For men life events correlated For men life events correlated positivelypositively with hassles and with hassles and negativelynegatively with uplifts. with uplifts.

For women, both hassles and uplifts were For women, both hassles and uplifts were positively correlated with life events.positively correlated with life events.

Hassles correlated positively with Hassles correlated positively with psychologicalpsychological symptoms than life events. symptoms than life events.


Conclusions Conclusions HasslesHassles are a more are a more powerful predictor of psychological powerful predictor of psychological symptoms of stress than life events.symptoms of stress than life events.



Lack of Control (1.3)Lack of Control (1.3)

One of the most stressful things we One of the most stressful things we can experience is that feeling of can experience is that feeling of having absolutely no control over having absolutely no control over our situation. our situation.

Why is this so stressful?Why is this so stressful?

Geer & Maisel (study 12))Geer & Maisel (study 12))

Aim: Aim: To see if To see if perceivedperceived control or control or actual control can reduce reactions actual control can reduce reactions to aversive to aversive stimulistimuli..

Geer & Maisel (study 12)Geer & Maisel (study 12)

Method: Method: 6060 psychology psychology undergraduates were shown undergraduates were shown pictures of dead car crash victims pictures of dead car crash victims and their stress levels were and their stress levels were measured using galvanic skin measured using galvanic skin response. response.


Group 1Group 1 were given were given actualactual control control over how long they were exposed to over how long they were exposed to the picture, they could press a the picture, they could press a button to terminate and each picture button to terminate and each picture was preceded by a tone was preceded by a tone (predictability & control). (predictability & control).


Group 2Group 2 were warned that pictures were warned that pictures were were 6060 seconds apart and were seconds apart and were preceded by a tone. preceded by a tone.

However, length of exposure was However, length of exposure was controlled by group 1 (predictability, controlled by group 1 (predictability, no control)no control)


Group 3 Group 3 were just told they would were just told they would see see picturespictures from time to time, again from time to time, again length of exposure was controlled by length of exposure was controlled by group 1 (no predictability and no group 1 (no predictability and no control)control)


Participants had a baseline GSR Participants had a baseline GSR taken when they were relaxed, taken when they were relaxed, measurements were then took at the measurements were then took at the onsetonset of the tone, during the second of the tone, during the second half of the tone and during exposure half of the tone and during exposure to the to the picturespictures..


Results Results Group 1Group 1 (predictability & control) (predictability & control)

experienced the lowest stress experienced the lowest stress response as measured by the response as measured by the GSRGSR, , compared to groups 2 & 3.compared to groups 2 & 3.

Group 2 Group 2 showed showed mostmost stress in stress in response to the tone.response to the tone.


Conclusion Conclusion Participants showed Participants showed less GSR reaction, indicating less GSR reaction, indicating lessless stress, when they had control over stress, when they had control over the length of time they looked at the the length of time they looked at the disturbing pictures. disturbing pictures.

It is likely that being able to It is likely that being able to terminate terminate aversiveaversive stimuli reduces stimuli reduces its stressful impact.its stressful impact.


Complete my notesComplete my notes

Stress Re-capStress Re-cap

Stress is…Stress is…

Stress is a biological response to an external Stress is a biological response to an external stressor/s stressor/s

Biological response to the fight or flight Biological response to the fight or flight mechanism: mechanism:

The bodies stress response causes an increase The bodies stress response causes an increase in blood pressure, reduction in blood flow to in blood pressure, reduction in blood flow to the peripheral blood vessels (hand and feet) the peripheral blood vessels (hand and feet) and an increase in adrenaline and and an increase in adrenaline and noradrenalin (fight or flight chemical) to be noradrenalin (fight or flight chemical) to be released into the blood stream. released into the blood stream.

Over a long period of time this stress response Over a long period of time this stress response causes the body’s immune systems to causes the body’s immune systems to eventually break down. eventually break down.

Why is understanding Why is understanding stress useful:stress useful:

1. Causes psychological problems like 1. Causes psychological problems like anxiety and depression. anxiety and depression.

2. Causes everyday physical illness like 2. Causes everyday physical illness like cough and colds by lowering the cough and colds by lowering the effectiveness of the immune system. effectiveness of the immune system.

3. Can cause heart disease and stroke by 3. Can cause heart disease and stroke by increasing build up of cholesterol. increasing build up of cholesterol.

4. May lead to illnesses like cancer 4. May lead to illnesses like cancer 5. Causes millions of lost sick days from work 5. Causes millions of lost sick days from work 6. Causes accidents and injuries at work due 6. Causes accidents and injuries at work due

to loss of concentration to loss of concentration

Evidence to show different Evidence to show different factors which cause stress: factors which cause stress:

Work, JohanssonWork, Johansson Lack of control, Geer and MaiselLack of control, Geer and Maisel Life events and hassles, Holmes and Life events and hassles, Holmes and

Rahe and KannerRahe and Kanner

JohanssonJohansson

Aim: to investigate whether work Aim: to investigate whether work stressors such as repetitiveness, stressors such as repetitiveness, machine-regulated pace of work and machine-regulated pace of work and high levels of responsibility increase high levels of responsibility increase stress-related physiological arousal stress-related physiological arousal and stress related illness and stress related illness

FindingsFindings

Findings: The high-risk group of 14 Findings: The high-risk group of 14 finishers secreted more stress hormones finishers secreted more stress hormones (adrenaline and noradrenaline) on work (adrenaline and noradrenaline) on work days than on rest days, and higher levels days than on rest days, and higher levels than the control group. than the control group.

The high-risk group of finishers also The high-risk group of finishers also showed significantly higher levels of showed significantly higher levels of stress-related illness such as headaches stress-related illness such as headaches and higher levels of absenteeism than the and higher levels of absenteeism than the low-risk group of cleaners. low-risk group of cleaners.

ConclusionsConclusions

A combination of work stressors- A combination of work stressors- especially repetitiveness, machine-especially repetitiveness, machine-pacing of work and high levels of pacing of work and high levels of responsibility – lead to chronic (long-responsibility – lead to chronic (long-term) physiological arousal. term) physiological arousal.

This in turn leads to stress-related This in turn leads to stress-related illness and absenteeism. illness and absenteeism.

ConclusionConclusion

If employers want to reduce illness If employers want to reduce illness and absenteeism in their workforce, and absenteeism in their workforce, they need to find ways of reducing they need to find ways of reducing these work stressors, these work stressors,

for example by introducing variety for example by introducing variety into employees’ work and by into employees’ work and by allowing them to experience some allowing them to experience some sense of control over the pace of sense of control over the pace of their work. their work.


Each participant had to give a urine Each participant had to give a urine sample four times a day so that their sample four times a day so that their adrenal levels could be measured. adrenal levels could be measured.

Their body temperature was Their body temperature was recorded at the same time as this recorded at the same time as this can give an indication of how alert a can give an indication of how alert a person is.person is.

EvaluationEvaluation These two physiological measures were These two physiological measures were

combined with self report where each combined with self report where each participant had to say how much caffeine and participant had to say how much caffeine and nicotine they had consumed since the last nicotine they had consumed since the last urine test. urine test.

They also had to report on a range of emotions They also had to report on a range of emotions and feelings as well as sleepiness, well-being, and feelings as well as sleepiness, well-being, calmness, irritation and efficiency etc. calmness, irritation and efficiency etc.

They had to scale these feelings on a They had to scale these feelings on a continuum from minimum to maximum using a continuum from minimum to maximum using a scale with millimetres. scale with millimetres.

The score was how many millimetres from the The score was how many millimetres from the base point the participants had marked base point the participants had marked themselves to be feeling. themselves to be feeling.


This combined approach gave both This combined approach gave both qualitative and quantitative qualitative and quantitative measurements enabling Johannson measurements enabling Johannson to compare the two groups of to compare the two groups of workers and understand the impact workers and understand the impact of higher stress levels on the of higher stress levels on the participants. participants.

Stress on the job and its Stress on the job and its relation to control:relation to control:

Numerous studies show that job stress is far and Numerous studies show that job stress is far and away the major source of stress for American adults away the major source of stress for American adults and that it has escalated progressively over the past and that it has escalated progressively over the past few decades.few decades.

Increased levels of job stress as assessed by the Increased levels of job stress as assessed by the perception of having little control but lots of demands perception of having little control but lots of demands have been demonstrated to be associated with have been demonstrated to be associated with increased rates of heart attack, hypertension and increased rates of heart attack, hypertension and other disorders. other disorders.

In New York, Los Angeles, the relationship between In New York, Los Angeles, the relationship between job stress and heart attacks is so well acknowledged, job stress and heart attacks is so well acknowledged, that any police officer who suffers a coronary event that any police officer who suffers a coronary event on or off the job is assumed to have a work related on or off the job is assumed to have a work related injury and is compensated accordingly (including a injury and is compensated accordingly (including a heart attack sustained while fishing on vacation or heart attack sustained while fishing on vacation or gambling in Las Vegas). gambling in Las Vegas).

Geer and Maisel: Stress and Geer and Maisel: Stress and control: control:

Aim : To see if perceived control or Aim : To see if perceived control or actual control can reduce stress actual control can reduce stress reactions to averse stimuli. reactions to averse stimuli.

Geer and Maisel: Stress and Geer and Maisel: Stress and control:control:

Group 2 showed most stress. Group Group 2 showed most stress. Group 1 showed least stress. 1 showed least stress.

Conclusions : that having control Conclusions : that having control over your environment can reduce over your environment can reduce stress responses. stress responses.

Hassles and Uplifts - Hassles and Uplifts - Kanner Kanner

Hassles and uplift task:Hassles and uplift task: Finding your home a pleasant environment 10 Finding your home a pleasant environment 10 Physical appearance 10 Physical appearance 10

Spending time with the family 9 Spending time with the family 9 Crime 9 Crime 9

Visiting, phoning or writing to someone 8 Visiting, phoning or writing to someone 8 Property, investment or taxes 8 Property, investment or taxes 8

Meeting your responsibilities 7 Meeting your responsibilities 7 Outside home maintenance 7 Outside home maintenance 7

Eating out 6 Eating out 6 Misplacing or losing things 6 Misplacing or losing things 6

Hassles and uplift task:Hassles and uplift task: Getting enough sleep 5 Getting enough sleep 5 Too many things to do 5 Too many things to do 5

Feeling healthy 4 Feeling healthy 4 Home maintenance 4 Home maintenance 4

Completing a task 3 Completing a task 3 Rising price of common goods 3 Rising price of common goods 3

Relating well to friends 2 Relating well to friends 2 Health of a family member 2 Health of a family member 2

Relating well to spouse or partner 1 Relating well to spouse or partner 1 Concerns about weight 1Concerns about weight 1

Life events or daily Life events or daily hassles?hassles?

Which is the best indicator of health Which is the best indicator of health issues?issues?

Discuss with a partner and form an Discuss with a partner and form an argumentargument

one group life events and one daily one group life events and one daily hassleshassles

Validity and measurements Validity and measurements

It is possible that a question could It is possible that a question could arise which is entirely about validity – arise which is entirely about validity – the most common way in which this is the most common way in which this is usually addressed is when the area usually addressed is when the area specifically looks at measurements – specifically looks at measurements – as validity obviously means are we as validity obviously means are we measuring what we say we are measuring what we say we are measuring! measuring!

However reliability is a different issueHowever reliability is a different issue

Group taskGroup task

Name the different way of Name the different way of measuring stress explaining when measuring stress explaining when best to use them, strengths, best to use them, strengths, limitation and how to improve these limitation and how to improve these limitations limitations

Physiological Measures(2.1)Physiological Measures(2.1) We have already looked at some forms of We have already looked at some forms of

physiological measurements, here is another:physiological measurements, here is another: According to the biological models of According to the biological models of CannonCannon

and Seyle, stress is characterised by and Seyle, stress is characterised by distinctive distinctive physiologicalphysiological symptoms which can symptoms which can be measure using be measure using polygraphspolygraphs (like lie (like lie detectors)detectors)

A polygraph involves wiring the person up to A polygraph involves wiring the person up to a series of a series of sensorssensors. .

These are used to measure These are used to measure externalexternal physiological symptomsphysiological symptoms such as such as respirationrespiration and heart rate, blood pressure and and heart rate, blood pressure and sweatiness.sweatiness.

Physiological Measures(2.1)Physiological Measures(2.1) EvaluationEvaluation a) These are reliable and a) These are reliable and objectiveobjective and and

produce quantitative results.produce quantitative results. b) Demand characteristics. The act of being b) Demand characteristics. The act of being

tested may create a stress response which tested may create a stress response which can bias the results. This is why lie-can bias the results. This is why lie-detector results are not admissible detector results are not admissible evidence in British courts. evidence in British courts.

c) c) GeneralisabilityGeneralisability: bodily arousal can come : bodily arousal can come from many non-stress causes, weight, from many non-stress causes, weight, activity, drug activity, drug consumptionconsumption. . Also it is Also it is possible to feel stress without having possible to feel stress without having physiological arousal.physiological arousal.

Psychological Measures Psychological Measures (psychometric tests) (2.2)(psychometric tests) (2.2)

Psychological Psychological measuresmeasures are self-report are self-report measures using psychometric tests.measures using psychometric tests.

Holmes and Rahe (1967)Holmes and Rahe (1967) Social Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS).Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS).

H&R defined stress in terms of the change H&R defined stress in terms of the change caused to a caused to a person’sperson’s life (change can be life (change can be positive, negative or neutral but would still positive, negative or neutral but would still be stressful by their definition). be stressful by their definition).

H&R argued that whenever an H&R argued that whenever an individualindividual had had to make “a substantial adjustment to the to make “a substantial adjustment to the environment, the likelihood of stress is high”.environment, the likelihood of stress is high”.

Holmes & Rahe (study 14) and Holmes & Rahe (study 14) and second part to the studysecond part to the study

First examined the medical records of around First examined the medical records of around 50005000 people. people.

They found that, in many cases, significant life They found that, in many cases, significant life changes occurred in the months preceding the changes occurred in the months preceding the onset of illness. onset of illness.

They selected 43 of these life events and asked They selected 43 of these life events and asked a sample of a sample of 394394 people to rate the degree of people to rate the degree of ‘social readjustment’ required for each event ‘social readjustment’ required for each event (death of spouse was given the arbitrary value (death of spouse was given the arbitrary value of 100 and marriage the arbitrary value of 50).of 100 and marriage the arbitrary value of 50).

Based on these results, they constructed the Based on these results, they constructed the final final SRRSSRRS. .

Holmes & Rahe (study 14)Holmes & Rahe (study 14)

Each life event was ranked and Each life event was ranked and assigned a number of assigned a number of life change life change unitsunits (LCUs) from (LCUs) from 100100 to 11. to 11.

A person’s stress score is the sum of A person’s stress score is the sum of all the life change units for events all the life change units for events they have experienced within a they have experienced within a period of period of 1212 months. months.


a)a) ReliabilityReliability and Validity: There was and Validity: There was considerable consensus about which considerable consensus about which events were most and least stressful. events were most and least stressful. However, it is not valid because it doesn’t However, it is not valid because it doesn’t find out about the real meaning of these find out about the real meaning of these events which could vary – bereavement events which could vary – bereavement after a long illness is felt differently to after a long illness is felt differently to premature premature bereavementbereavement..

b) b) UsefulnessUsefulness: Questionnaire, easy to fill in : Questionnaire, easy to fill in and to compile results. Therefore widely and to compile results. Therefore widely used in medicine.used in medicine.

EvaluationEvaluation c) c) EthnocentricityEthnocentricity: look at the items for evidence : look at the items for evidence

that the SSRS assumes American norms and that the SSRS assumes American norms and values.values.

d) Individual d) Individual differencesdifferences: some items may involve : some items may involve wide differences in stress levels. Whether change wide differences in stress levels. Whether change is positive or negative could well effect the stress is positive or negative could well effect the stress level. Marriage and death for example depend on level. Marriage and death for example depend on the circumstances.the circumstances.

e) e) RetrospectiveRetrospective data: Information about life data: Information about life events is usually collected at least 6 months and events is usually collected at least 6 months and often often 1818 months after the events happened. This months after the events happened. This means problems of validity – people may interpret means problems of validity – people may interpret past events in the light of past events in the light of presentpresent illness (or illness (or health).health).

Individual taskIndividual task

Complete the evaluation tableComplete the evaluation table

Exam QuestionExam Question

Evaluate the usefulness of Evaluate the usefulness of measuring stress (15)measuring stress (15)

Personal study 5Personal study 5

Wednesdays lessonWednesdays lesson

Managing stressManaging stress

What techniques can be used to What techniques can be used to manage stress?manage stress?

Make a list and evaluate your Make a list and evaluate your thoughts with a partner.thoughts with a partner.

1) 1) CognitiveCognitive Behavioural Behavioural Therapy (CBT)Therapy (CBT)

CBT (pioneered by Aaron Beck) focuses on CBT (pioneered by Aaron Beck) focuses on the secondary appraisal stage of the the secondary appraisal stage of the cognitivecognitive appraisal theory of stress in that appraisal theory of stress in that it has the dual aim of encouraging it has the dual aim of encouraging participants to be realistic about the nature participants to be realistic about the nature of the stressor and their ability to cope. of the stressor and their ability to cope.

Those suffering stress often Those suffering stress often exaggerateexaggerate the the stressor. For example: stressor. For example:

over-over-generalisationgeneralisation – eg if one person – eg if one person doesn’t like me then everyone hates medoesn’t like me then everyone hates me

catastrophisationcatastrophisation - eg if I have a headache - eg if I have a headache it means I am about to die of a brain it means I am about to die of a brain tumourtumour

The The cognitivecognitive techniques techniques include (ie the ‘C’ in CBT)include (ie the ‘C’ in CBT)

(i) Get patients to be (i) Get patients to be realisticrealistic. This can be . This can be done by one-to-one discussions in which done by one-to-one discussions in which alternative explanations are considered. It alternative explanations are considered. It might involve building up evidence of the might involve building up evidence of the stressor, like keeping a diary, so that the stressor, like keeping a diary, so that the real level can be demonstrated. real level can be demonstrated.

(ii) Design experiments to test (ii) Design experiments to test interpretationsinterpretations, eg see how others react., eg see how others react.

The behavioural techniques include (ie the The behavioural techniques include (ie the ‘B’ in CBT)‘B’ in CBT)

(i) Setting targets and gaining positive (i) Setting targets and gaining positive reinforcement when meeting them.reinforcement when meeting them.

TaskTask

Explain when it would be best to use Explain when it would be best to use CBT with a patientCBT with a patient

Cognitive techniques Cognitive techniques (SIT) (SIT)

Stress Inoculation Therapy: Stress Inoculation Therapy: Can be used to help people learn to Can be used to help people learn to

identify when they will become identify when they will become stressed and use positive thoughts to stressed and use positive thoughts to try and reduce future stress try and reduce future stress responses during sessions of responses during sessions of cognitive therapy. cognitive therapy.

Meichenbaum (1975) Meichenbaum (1975)

Standard behavioural measures have Standard behavioural measures have tried to help people become desensitised tried to help people become desensitised to stress. to stress.

Meichenbaum compared these standard Meichenbaum compared these standard behavioural methods with cognitive ones.behavioural methods with cognitive ones.

Cognitive therapy sessions aimed at Cognitive therapy sessions aimed at enabling people to identify their stressors enabling people to identify their stressors and change their mental processes when and change their mental processes when under stress rather than just their under stress rather than just their behaviours. behaviours.

The study (16)The study (16)

Students ages 17 – 25 responded to an Students ages 17 – 25 responded to an advert about treatment of test anxiety. advert about treatment of test anxiety.

It was a field experiment with It was a field experiment with participants put into three groups, participants put into three groups,

SIT, SIT, standard desensitisation standard desensitisation and a control group. and a control group. Each participant was tested using a Each participant was tested using a

test anxiety questionnaire. test anxiety questionnaire.


The SIT group received 8 therapy The SIT group received 8 therapy sessions giving them insight into sessions giving them insight into their thoughts before tests. their thoughts before tests.

They were then given some positive They were then given some positive statements to say and relaxation statements to say and relaxation techniques to use in test situations. techniques to use in test situations.


The systematic desensitisation The systematic desensitisation groups were also given 8 therapy groups were also given 8 therapy sessions with only progressive sessions with only progressive relaxation training whilst imaging relaxation training whilst imaging stressful situations. stressful situations.


The control group were told they The control group were told they were on a waiting list for treatment. were on a waiting list for treatment.


Findings: performance in tests in the Findings: performance in tests in the SIT group improved the most SIT group improved the most although both therapy groups although both therapy groups showed improvement over the showed improvement over the control groups. control groups.

ConclusionsConclusions

That SIT is an effective way of That SIT is an effective way of reducing anxiety in students who are reducing anxiety in students who are prone to anxiety in test situations prone to anxiety in test situations and more effective than simply and more effective than simply behavioural techniques when a behavioural techniques when a cognitive component is added in. cognitive component is added in.

TaskTask

Describe the strengths and Describe the strengths and weaknesses of using SITweaknesses of using SIT

Behavioural TechniquesBehavioural Techniques BiofeedbackBiofeedback, like drugs, also deals with the , like drugs, also deals with the

physiologicalphysiological symptoms of stress. These symptoms of stress. These physiological symptoms such as raised blood physiological symptoms such as raised blood pressure and increased muscle tension are pressure and increased muscle tension are involuntaryinvoluntary..

We are unable to control them consciously We are unable to control them consciously because they are governed by our because they are governed by our autonomicautonomic nervous system (ANS).nervous system (ANS).

Biofeedback is a method by which an individual Biofeedback is a method by which an individual learns to exert voluntary control over learns to exert voluntary control over involuntary (autonomic) behaviours by being involuntary (autonomic) behaviours by being made aware of what is happening in the ANS.made aware of what is happening in the ANS.

Biofeedback involves four Biofeedback involves four processesprocesses

FeedbackFeedback: : the patient is attached to various the patient is attached to various machines which provide information machines which provide information (feedback) about various ANS activities. For (feedback) about various ANS activities. For example, heart rate can be monitored and example, heart rate can be monitored and displayed visually on a computer screen.displayed visually on a computer screen.

RelaxationRelaxation: : The patient is taught techniques The patient is taught techniques of relaxation in order to reduce activity of the of relaxation in order to reduce activity of the sympathetic nervous system. The result sympathetic nervous system. The result should be reduced heart rate, blood pressure should be reduced heart rate, blood pressure etcetc..

Successful behaviours are repeated because Successful behaviours are repeated because they are rewarding.they are rewarding.

The patient then needs to transfer the skills The patient then needs to transfer the skills learned to the real world.learned to the real world.

TaskTask

Argue reasons for and against Argue reasons for and against biofeedbackbiofeedback

Budzynski et al brief (study Budzynski et al brief (study 17)17)

Conducted research into the Conducted research into the effectivenesseffectiveness of of biofeedback as a way of treating tension biofeedback as a way of treating tension headaches. headaches.

He assigned 18 participants into 3 groups of six. He assigned 18 participants into 3 groups of six. Group A had biofeedback sessions, Group A had biofeedback sessions, Group B were taught relaxation techniques Group B were taught relaxation techniques and Group and Group CC were a control who received no were a control who received no

intervention. intervention. Group A reported a significant decrease in Group A reported a significant decrease in

headachesheadaches, this shows biofeedback can be , this shows biofeedback can be effective.effective.

Aim :Aim :

To see if biofeedback techniques To see if biofeedback techniques work and help reduce tension work and help reduce tension headaches or whether the effect is headaches or whether the effect is due to the placebo effect. due to the placebo effect.

The placebo effect is a positive The placebo effect is a positive psychological effect that can occur psychological effect that can occur even when there is no actual even when there is no actual treatment. treatment.

Method :Method : Experimental method with patients trained in Experimental method with patients trained in

the laboratory. the laboratory. Data was collected using muscle tension Data was collected using muscle tension

measurements (EMG) with an measurements (EMG) with an electromyography, a machine which gives electromyography, a machine which gives feedback by a graph by applying electrodes to feedback by a graph by applying electrodes to the muscles. the muscles.

Patients were also given a psychometric test for Patients were also given a psychometric test for depression (MMPI) and asked to complete depression (MMPI) and asked to complete questionnaires on their headaches. questionnaires on their headaches.

It was an independent measures design with It was an independent measures design with participants randomly assigned to one of three participants randomly assigned to one of three groups. groups.

Participants :Participants :

18 replied to a newspaper advert in 18 replied to a newspaper advert in the USA. the USA.

They were screened by telephone They were screened by telephone and then had psychiatric and and then had psychiatric and medical examinations to ensure medical examinations to ensure there were no other reasons for their there were no other reasons for their headaches. headaches.

There were 2 males and 16 females There were 2 males and 16 females aged 22-44 with a mean age of 36. aged 22-44 with a mean age of 36.

Participants :Participants :

Group A had real biofeedback Group A had real biofeedback training with relaxation using the training with relaxation using the EMG EMG

Group B had biofeedback training Group B had biofeedback training but with false (pseudo) feedback but with false (pseudo) feedback

Group C were used as a control Group C were used as a control group group

Procedure :Procedure :

All groups kept a diary of their All groups kept a diary of their headaches for two weeks, rating headaches for two weeks, rating them from 0 mild to 5 severe. them from 0 mild to 5 severe.

Groups A and B were told to practice Groups A and B were told to practice relaxation after the training for 15 – relaxation after the training for 15 – 20 mins each day. 20 mins each day.

Results :Results :

After 3 months group A’s muscle After 3 months group A’s muscle tension was significantly lower than tension was significantly lower than the other two groups. the other two groups.

Reporting of headaches in group A Reporting of headaches in group A also fell significantly compared to also fell significantly compared to their base line which it did not in the their base line which it did not in the other two groups. other two groups.

Conclusions :Conclusions :

Biofeedback is an effective way to Biofeedback is an effective way to reduce stress levels by reducing reduce stress levels by reducing tension. tension.


EffectivenessEffectiveness BiofeedbackBiofeedback has been found to be has been found to be

successful in treating a wide assortment successful in treating a wide assortment of behaviours. of behaviours. BradleyBradley (1995) compared (1995) compared the effectiveness of using biofeedback the effectiveness of using biofeedback versus relaxation to control muscle versus relaxation to control muscle tension headaches. After treatment the tension headaches. After treatment the biofeedback group had significantly biofeedback group had significantly fewer headaches than the relaxation fewer headaches than the relaxation group.group.


+No+No side effects.side effects. It does not alter the body in any It does not alter the body in any permanentpermanent

way as drugs do. The only effects (or side way as drugs do. The only effects (or side effects) are increased relaxation, which can effects) are increased relaxation, which can only be only be desirabledesirable..

ExpensiveExpensive. . The technique requires The technique requires specialist equipment. If the success of specialist equipment. If the success of biofeedback is mainly due to relaxation biofeedback is mainly due to relaxation rather than feedback there is no need for rather than feedback there is no need for these expensive and time consuming these expensive and time consuming procedures.procedures.

EvaluationEvaluation Treating the symptoms not the problem. Treating the symptoms not the problem.

BiofeedbackBiofeedback has short-term gains. has short-term gains. But, it does not treat the source of stress But, it does not treat the source of stress

such as workplace tension. such as workplace tension. But, it might provide the patient with a But, it might provide the patient with a

potentially long lasting means of dealing with potentially long lasting means of dealing with stress symptoms- relaxation techniques.stress symptoms- relaxation techniques.

Biofeedback gives people a feeling of Biofeedback gives people a feeling of controlcontrol. .

This sense of control, rather than biofeedback This sense of control, rather than biofeedback itself may produce beneficial effects.itself may produce beneficial effects.

TaskTask

Why is social support helpful in Why is social support helpful in managing stress?managing stress?

DiscussDiscuss

Social support and coping with Social support and coping with stress (3.3)stress (3.3)

Some Some stressstress management management programmes promote the importance programmes promote the importance of social support and encourage the of social support and encourage the stressed person to access this. stressed person to access this.

Research suggests that individuals Research suggests that individuals with wide support networks with wide support networks experience less stress in response to experience less stress in response to a stressor and can a stressor and can copecope with stressful with stressful situations more successfully than situations more successfully than individuals without this network.individuals without this network.

CohenCohen and Willis (1985) claim and Willis (1985) claim there are there are fourfour types of social types of social

supportsupport (1)(1) Esteem Esteem support: support: When people are suffering from When people are suffering from

stress they can suffer from stress they can suffer from lowlow self- self-esteemesteem

Attention, love and care and being Attention, love and care and being held in high regard can raise self-held in high regard can raise self-esteem. esteem.

This can help the individual to This can help the individual to overcome stress.overcome stress.

Social SupportSocial Support

(2)(2) Informational Informational support support When individuals are suffering from When individuals are suffering from

stress it often helps if they can get stress it often helps if they can get useful information form other people.useful information form other people.

Information from others can be used Information from others can be used to help the individual suffering from to help the individual suffering from stress to stress to reassessreassess the situation that the situation that is causing the problem, especially if is causing the problem, especially if the person giving the information the person giving the information has faced a similar situation.has faced a similar situation.


(3)(3) Instrumental Instrumental support support When When individualsindividuals are suffering are suffering

from stress, they often need from stress, they often need practical supportpractical support

This support can alleviate some of This support can alleviate some of the stress that the person is under the stress that the person is under and can help the individual to cope.and can help the individual to cope.


(4) Social (4) Social companionshipcompanionship Interpersonal interaction can help Interpersonal interaction can help

the individual who is suffering from the individual who is suffering from stress in that they often feel stress in that they often feel lessless stressed after spending time with stressed after spending time with and talking to other people.and talking to other people.


Evidence suggests that when Evidence suggests that when individuals experience individuals experience highhigh levels levels of social support:of social support:

They experience illness less than They experience illness less than others.others.

They recover faster when they do They recover faster when they do become ill.become ill.

There is less chance of dying as a There is less chance of dying as a result of illness.result of illness.

Waxler-Morrison et al Waxler-Morrison et al (study 18)(study 18)

AimAim To look at how a woman’s To look at how a woman’s socialsocial

relationships influence her response relationships influence her response to breast cancer and to breast cancer and survivalsurvival..


Procedure Procedure Prospective study (starts with Prospective study (starts with

participants and follows them to find out participants and follows them to find out which which behavioursbehaviours they show in the future, they show in the future, the opposite of a retrospective study, the opposite of a retrospective study, which asks participants to recall past which asks participants to recall past behaviours) behaviours)

involving involving 133133 women under the age of women under the age of 5555, , from from VancoverVancover Canada, Canada, with a diagnosis of breast cancer. with a diagnosis of breast cancer.


They completed a self-administered They completed a self-administered questionnaire on questionnaire on demographicdemographic details and existing social networks, details and existing social networks,

18 were also interviewed.18 were also interviewed.


Findings Findings The six aspects of social network The six aspects of social network

significantly linked with survival significantly linked with survival were: - marital status, support from were: - marital status, support from friends, friends, contactcontact with friends, total with friends, total support, social network and support, social network and employmentemployment..


Conclusions Conclusions The more The more socialsocial networks and social networks and social

supportsupport a woman has the higher her a woman has the higher her chance of chance of survivalsurvival. .

This assumes that social support This assumes that social support reduces stress. reduces stress.

However, the main factor However, the main factor influencing survival is the state of influencing survival is the state of the cancer at the time of diagnosis. the cancer at the time of diagnosis.

Early detection is key to survival.Early detection is key to survival.

Evaluate this studyEvaluate this study

StressStress

Remember stress is not Remember stress is not necessarily a bad thing! necessarily a bad thing!

Stress is blamed for a whole range Stress is blamed for a whole range of physical illnesses and of physical illnesses and psychologicalpsychological disorders. disorders.

It is said to be costing industry vast It is said to be costing industry vast sums of money in absence from work sums of money in absence from work and poor and poor performanceperformance at work. at work.

Stress is now pictured almost Stress is now pictured almost exclusively in negative terms.exclusively in negative terms.

StressStress But, it is important to remember that the But, it is important to remember that the

stress response is a stress response is a valuablevaluable survival survival mechanism which motivates people.mechanism which motivates people.

It warns of a threat in the environment It warns of a threat in the environment and and galvanisesgalvanises the individual to take the individual to take action and deal with the situation. action and deal with the situation.

But, many of the techniques of stress But, many of the techniques of stress management are designed to calm management are designed to calm people down and subdue the stress people down and subdue the stress response.response.

StressStress

Stress Stress is also is also motivationalmotivational, without a , without a bit of stress in our lives many of us bit of stress in our lives many of us would not perform at our best. E.g. would not perform at our best. E.g. Stage fright and performance anxiety Stage fright and performance anxiety often bring out the best in people.often bring out the best in people.

Stress management is big Stress management is big business; business; millions of pounds are millions of pounds are spent every year by organisations spent every year by organisations and individuals dealing with and individuals dealing with stressstress..

Documents

G543 Section Two Stress. Starter task P95 (try this) P95 (try this)