Future Energy || Energy Resources in Developing Nations

C H A P T E R

29

Energy Resources in DevelopingNations

Alan Owen and Leuserina GarniatiCentre for Understanding Sustainable Practice, Robert Gordon University,

Aberdeen, Scotland, UK

29.1 CONCEPT AND CONTEXT

29.1.1 Understanding the Concept of ‘Resources’

There are various definitions for ‘resources’ available in literature;some are broader in their scope, some more practical; and others aremore topic-focussed and philosophical in nature. For the purpose ofthis chapter, we refer to the term resources as defined by the MerriamWebster dictionary [1]:

a: a source of supply or support: an available means, b: a natural source ofwealth or revenue, c: a natural feature or phenomenon that enhances the quality ofhuman life, d: computable wealth, e: a source of information or expertise.

Energy for the future incorporates within its understanding the nec-essarily sustainable aspect of energy. Sustainable energy is defined as abalanced composition between energy security and the four compo-nents of sustainability: political acceptability, economic development,social equity and environmental protection [2]. A large component ofsustainable energy is the incorporation of renewable energy into theexisting energy mix, but it does not eliminate the efficient use of con-ventional sources to sustainably ensure energy security. The term alsotakes into account the issues of creating an equitable, accessible internalenergy market and coordinating international collaboration, which in

653Future Energy.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-099424-6.00029-6 © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-099424-6.00029-6

itself requires the efforts of efficiently managing energy consumptionand energy distribution [2].

29.1.2 Understanding the Significance of Resources in theContext of Sustainable Energy in Developing Nations

Energy which is securely provided in an environmentallyacceptable way and is produced at locally appropriate socio-economiclevels is the main challenge facing developing nations globally [3,4].Known as the energy trilemma, the three often conflicting priorities forenergy provision mentioned above are the essential key to achievingthe sustainable development of these nations [5]. Therefore, in the con-text of providing sustainable energy for the future, resources for energysupply in developing nations need to be discussed in the light of sus-tainability, equity and dignity concepts. These relate to the energyresources’ relationships with the ecosystem from which it originatedand within which it is processed, including its human and physical sur-roundings. Hence, this chapter discusses energy resources in develop-ing nations through the following groupings of information:

1. natural resource assessment,2. human resource assessment: capabilities in design, engineering,

operation, maintenance, etc.,3. technological resource assessment: innovations and adaptation,4. capital and infrastructure assessment: market, access and grid.

29.2 ENERGY RESOURCES

29.2.1 Natural Energy Resources

This section selects three of the renewable energy resources availablein most developing nations based on their priorities for progress:marine energy, bio-energy and energy from waste. Marine energy (off-shore wind, tidal and wave energy) is one sector of renewable energyresources which many developing nations of the world have access toand are racing to close the knowledge gap. Bio-energy on the otherhand is one of the most mature renewable energy sectors in developingnations. However, due to its multiple roles in rural remote areas ofdeveloping nations, it has increasingly grown in significance over recentyears. Finally, as developing nations generate a large amount of wastedue to their high population density, waste management has becomemore of a challenge in recent years. Therefore, treating these waste pro-ducts as energy resources is a considerable contribution to energy

654 29. ENERGY RESOURCES IN DEVELOPING NATIONS

VIII. ENVIRONMENTAL AND RELATED ISSUES

supply and security as well as reducing the climate change impact ofthe gaseous emissions.

29.2.1.1 Marine Energy for Coastal/Island Regions

In general, marine energy has one of the biggest gaps in knowledgeand experience compared to the other renewable energy resources.Based on practical experience, two case studies have been chosen tocomplement the breadth of material in marine energy resource assess-ment for developing nations. The marine environment usually found indeveloping nations is a complex construct between natural and socio-logical systems. Existence of ‘Customary Waters’ areas, local tourismand fisheries economic sectors, harbour and port activities, and nationalsecurity are often found to create overlapping leaderships and conflictsof interests. This situation produces a multidimensional matrix of risks,benefits, barriers, drivers and priorities. Therefore, as case-study-basedexamples, field experience in assessing the marine energy resources intwo developing nations: the Maldives and Aceh Province in Indonesiaare included in the following sub-sections.

MARINE ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT IN ACEH, INDONESIA

To begin to address a significant gap in energy resources analysis,Centre for Understanding Sustainable Practice (CUSP) and Aceh GreenSecretariat, funded by the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) undertook in May 2012 a preliminary tidal current energyresource study in collaboration with Mechanical Laboratory of SyiahKuala University and local fishing communities in Ujung Pancu, Aceh[2].

The site was selected as a ‘test’ site in many senses; the boat skipperand crew had no experience of deploying sub-sea data devices and theboat was poorly equipped for maintaining position in fast movingflows. Insufficient on-site bathymetric data was available at the time tomake a low-risk assessment of the deployment site and depth-soundingequipment was not available on the boat. To resolve this, and as anexample of using local knowledge, the Acoustic Doppler CurrentProfiler (ADCP) was positioned by telling the local fishermen/diverswhat conditions were sought and they identified a location that suited.Despite these difficulties, sufficient data was acquired to give a mean-ingful insight into the flow and much was learned by both crew andresearch staff.

The work clearly shows that a significant untapped resource exists inthe region but that the development of marine renewables for Acehrequires a more thorough and measured evaluation of the availableresource using industry standard systems to analyse the real-timebehaviour of wind, waves and tides. In addition, it is necessary to begin



the process of identifying local capabilities in the field so that AcehProvince can be a knowledgeable and contributory partner in the sci-ence and engineering of marine energy.

MARINE ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT IN THE MALDIVES

Funded by the Scottish Government, CUSP undertook a field studyof the Maldives in April 2011, where local data were derived and stake-holders were interviewed (e.g. Ministry of Environment, the StateElectricity Company (STELCO), the Environmental Protection Agency,the Maldives Meteorological Services and numerous divers, boat cap-tains and fishermen).

The initial work clearly shows how the security and sustainability ofthe marine energy facilities is reliant on the value invested by localcommunities who need to be engaged from the start of the systemestablishment. Capacity building and skills transfer by external aca-demic organisations and technology providers may lead to local job cre-ation and improve the marine energy sector, which should assist theMaldives in meeting their 2020 Carbon Neutral goal, whilst also bring-ing social and economic benefits.

Selection of appropriate technology for deployment in Maldivianchannels requires a three-phased-feasibility study to obtain indepen-dent in-depth current profiles as a further detailing of the currentmodelling done by CUSP. Immature partnerships with specific technol-ogy providers could result in a scenario whereby the Government ofthe Maldives is obliged to use technology that is not suited to the par-ticular channel and current characteristics, and will not deliver maxi-mum energy at the most economical cost [6]. Implementation of marineenergy systems was suggested to be integrated in an energy strategy tofulfil future energy needs in the Maldives, establish a future-proofenergy portfolio and to make the transition to a carbon-neutral nation[6].

29.2.1.2 Importance of Rural Bio-Energy

In many rural areas of the developing world, access to energy can bedifficult and expensive; thereby provision of locally produced bio-energy can offer a viable alternative. In these rural remote areas, tradi-tional biomass (fuel wood and animal dung) is still the main energysupply for cooking and heating fuels in households and small busi-nesses [7]. These sources can be upgraded to the more convenient solidbiofuels (e.g. briquettes, wood chips, pellets), gaseous biofuels (e.g. syn-gas, biogas, hydrogen) and liquid biofuels (e.g. bio-ethanol, biodiesel)[7]. Figure 29.1 summarises biomass, biofuel (biodiesel and bio-ethanol)and biogas sources available as energy resources along with their rele-vant production technologies.



Land availability has become the main attraction for bio-energydevelopment in developing nations [9]. Affordability and availability ofresources has often become the justification put forward for productionand utilisation of bio-energy in developing nations [10]. Adopting bio-energy strategies is suggested as a way to create employment whileproviding an alternative to imported mineral-oil-based fuels (where dri-vers for bio-energy development are different) [11]. Other benefitswhich have been suggested in developing bio-energy in rural areas ofdeveloping nations include: job creation, increase of rural incomes andreduction of poverty. Others argue that increased production from mar-ginal lands and export earnings contributes to development in theseregions [11]. However, it is worth noting that bio-energy projects canonly facilitate socio-economic development when designed and plannedusing participative process (local input and cooperation) [12]. Field-based experience shows that many bio-energy projects failed to delivertheir goal of enhancing the local communities’ welfare through afford-able, secure and environmental energy supply when such projects aredeveloped on an overly large scale and managed purely by externals.

29.2.1.3 Waste as Energy Resource

Climatic conditions and infrastructures in developing nations havecreated situations whereby organic waste substrates are often found tobe abundant [8]. Waste organic substrates from rural and urban regionsof developing nations come from sources grouped as residues (straw,

Energy crops Residues By-products Waste

Harvesting, collecting, etc.

Miscanthus, rapeseed, etc.

Straw, forestresidual wood, etc.

Manure, industryresidual wood, etc.

Sewage sludge,slaughterhouse waste, etc.

Preparation(pressing, drying, mixing, etc.)

Transport(truck, train, conveyor belt, ship, etc.)

Preparation(pressing, drying, mixing, etc.)

Power Heat

Thermo-mechanic conversion

Combustion

Solid fuel Gaseous fuel Liquid fuel

Charcoalproduction

Gasification Liquefaction Pressing/extraction

Fermentation Anaerobicdigestion

Aerobicdecomposition

Thermochemical conversion Physical–chemical conversion Biochemical conversion

Solidfuels

CoalSyngas

Methanol Vegetable oil Biodiesel Ethanol

Biogas Esterification

Electrical energy(fuel cells)

Thermal energy

FIGURE 29.1 Power and heat generation process from residues, by-products andwastes [8].



forest residual wood), production by products (manure, industrialresidual wood) and waste stream (sewage sludge, slaughterhousewaste). Fuel production from waste can take place either by decomposi-tion (gasification/pyrolysis/hydrolysis) or biological process (anaerobicdigestion/fermentation). The most economically feasible energy(power/heat/cooling) generation from this fuel are through incinera-tion of mixed waste, anaerobic digestion of organic waste and gasifica-tion of part of the refuse-derived fuel [13].

For example, organic wastes coming from both rural and urbanregions, domestic or industrial, offer suitable feedstock for energy pro-cessing through anaerobic digestion combined with municipal watertreatment. Another robust technology by which energy can be gener-ated from waste is capturing methane directly from landfills.Combustion of the biogas or biomass derived from waste organic sub-strates is usually the technology of choice to produce power and directheat in these nations.

Meanwhile, urbanisation induces a consumer-based society [14]. Indeveloping nations where the urban population is high and continuesto grow, waste is generated at elevated levels across all areas. In themore central urban regions, municipal wastes generated from domesticactivities and organic industrial activities have created significant chal-lenges in disposal management. However, these organic wastes can beturned into a sustainable source of energy and should be treated assuch.

Figure 29.2 provides a comparison between various scenarios forproduct and by-products of solid wastes. When generating sustainableenergy from wastes, some resource inputs are required in addition tothe input waste itself. The balance between energy input and energyoutput often becomes the decision-making factor in choosing scenariosof wastes management.

29.2.2 Human Resources

29.2.2.1 Availability of Skills

Typically, as in the case for natural resources, information on theavailability of skills in developing nations are somewhat segregated innature. Overlapping and conflicting information between one institu-tion and another are common, thereby requiring another layer of reso-lution mechanism to some basic baselining exercise to capture thecomplete picture from which decision-making can be based.

Most of the availability of skills specific to renewable energy are gen-erally concentrated at high academic levels and lie in the universitiesand research centres funded by national governments. This in itself has



narrowed down activities in skills development towards research anddevelopment, without sufficient engagement at practical implementa-tion levels. Very limited skills specific to renewable energy in generalare available at polytechnic and vocational school levels, and even morelimited in local communities [2]. However, general skills in mechanics,electrical and electronics at polytechnic and vocational school levels areusually present and are readily adaptable to renewable energy technol-ogy generation, operation and maintenance techniques.

29.2.2.2 Knowledge Management

Information sharing between private and public entities in develop-ing nations continues to be challenging. This has initiated manynational and international aids in allocating support in coordinatingefforts to enhance awareness, sharing and co-assistance. Knowledgegeneration and exchange are promoted by regional and global keyplayers in governmental and non-governmental organisations, networksand partnerships, research and financial institutions, private sector

Scenario A

Scenario B1

Scenario B2

Scenario B3

Scenario C

Scenario D

Input waste Open dump GHG emissions

GHG emissionsInput waste

Resource inputs

Sanitary landfill


Resource inputs

Sanitary landfill

Gas flaring


Resource inputs

Sanitary landfill

Gas flaring

Generator Electricity

CompostInput waste

Resource inputs

Composting Refining

Sanitary landfill GHG emissions

DigestateInput waste

Resource inputs

AD system Refining

Sanitary landfill GHG emissions

Electricity Generator

FIGURE 29.2 Scenarios of products generated from solid wastes [14].



representatives, and local initiatives. Information sharing andawareness-raising have been concentrated around technologies andexamples of best practices and to a lesser degree on policies and incen-tives [15].

El Fadel et al. [15] have grouped the key entities in the renewableenergy knowledge generation and exchanges into the following:

1. Networks and partnerships with main mandate of collecting,analysing, updating and disseminating renewable energy-relatedinformation, knowledge and practices (e.g. Global Bio-EnergyPartnership (GBEP); Global Forum for Sustainable Energy (GFSE);Global Village Energy Partnership (GVEP); Renewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP); Renewable Energy PolicyNetwork for the 21st Century (REN21) and UN Energy).

2. Regional governmental and non-governmental organisations (e.g.Energy Environment and Development Network for Africa(AFREPREN); The Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS); Regional Centre for Renewable Energy and EnergyEfficiency (ECREEE); United Nations Economic Commission forLatin America and the Caribbean (UNCLAC)) tend to concentrateon barrier analysis which is often conducted in support of thepartnerships with international organisation focusing on enablingenvironment and performing assessments on policy and policymeasures (e.g. International Energy Agency (IEA); InternationalRenewable Energy Agency (IRENA)).

3. International financial institutions (e.g. Asian Development Bank(ADB); African Development Bank (AfDB); Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF); Inter American Development Bank (IADB) and theWorld Bank) provide funding for promoting clean developmentprojects identified in the documents produced networks andpartnerships in group 1, while regional organisations and initiativesprovide information and advice on available funding mechanisms(e.g. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA);Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP);REEP; REN21; UN Energy).

In summary, the trend in knowledge management for renewableenergy in developing nations is around efforts to facilitate technologytransfer (i.e. demonstration projects), capacity building (through train-ing and education), policy advocacy (analyses and reviews) andenabling (formulation) information sharing at international levels (read-ily available databases and platforms) [15]. Meanwhile, the gaps stillfound within these efforts include: lack of enabling environment due tolimited infrastructure, unequal geographical distribution of initiatives,stringent market regulations limiting penetration of technologies, lack



of effectiveness evaluations on capacity building and policy formula-tion, and duplication of efforts.

29.2.3 Technological Aspect: Innovation and Adaptation

29.2.3.1 Technology Relevance

In addition to the emphasis on efficiencies, technologies developedin industrialised countries are designed for capital intensive and labourminimal [3]. However, the developing nations have different supplyand demand requirements for renewable energy, thereby often creatinga mismatch between the proposed technology to be implemented andthe technology that will create optimum impact. Adapting complex andsophisticated technologies to the local contexts remains a challenge. Onthe other hand, the engineering capabilities of the indigenous communi-ties to design, manufacture, install, operate and maintain their owntailor-made technologies for their specific contexts are also still verylimited, especially in the most vulnerable regions of the developingworld. These two contradictory issues have become the precursor forthe needs and priorities for appropriate technology.

29.2.3.2 Appropriateness Elements of Technology

Appropriate technology elements need to become the guiding princi-ples to optimally harness energy resources in developing nations.Coming from a Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic(WEIRD) perspective, it should be noted that appropriate technologydoes not mean crude technology; it means technology that is fit for pur-pose in the desired location and valued by the people who use it.Different regions and communities will have different technology needsand should be, wherever possible, independent of international supplychains, which, in general, reflect the energy intensive final journey ofresource intensive and exploitative practices [2]. Politics, culture andsociety influence the subjective definitions of appropriate technology.However, as a general approach, appropriateness can be considered asfulfilled when elementary, intermediate or advanced technologies areseen to be best served by existing local natural resources, workforce,skills and capital [16].

Technological independence is an often neglected element of appro-priate technology. Appropriateness is usually approached throughresource assessment and technology matching. However, the followingneeds to be included:

• The hard (material, equipment, facilities) and soft (knowledge,organisation, management) aspects of energy technology cannot be



separated from one another in providing solutions to equal energyaccess.

• Different regions and communities will have different technologyneeds and should be, wherever possible, independent ofinternational supply chains, which, in general, reflect the energyintensive final journey of resource intensive and exploitativepractices.

Therefore, appropriateness requires an optimum match betweenavailability of resources (natural material, human, techniques and capi-tal), local needs (present situation and future projection) and applicabletechnology, which is independent from international supply chain.

Understanding the indigenous characteristics of local communities ininteracting and adapting to technologies is an often-missed aspect ofknowledge transfer. Promoting the rights of indigenous people inacquiring the basic knowledge in technical and management aspects ofsustainable energy systems brings the ability to implement appropriatetechnology, utilise it optimally based on local contexts and improvedesign for future requirements. Wherever possible, there should be uni-versal access to knowledge of developing sustainable energy technolo-gies for locally appropriate use.

These technology systems must be developed with the desire toencourage independence, not just for financial gain, especially by thosenations with an eye only for developing new markets for their own pro-ducts. This entails the need for correct technical know-how and mana-gerial capabilities transfer mechanism for capacity building and humandevelopment in the technology deemed appropriate for the local situa-tion. Sets of methodologies for selecting the most appropriate sustain-able energy technology to match local raw materials and socialrequirements must be developed to avoid exhausting capital withoutsufficient gains in terms of monetary values and community welfare.

29.2.4 Capital and Infrastructure: Market, Access and Grid

Capital and infrastructure as resources are necessary in promotingsustainable energy generation. This is especially determinant in the con-text of developing nations, where usually there is not only the lack ofinvestment funds, but also the non-existence of proper conditions forinvestment. Exploration of alternatives utilising local technologies, tak-ing into account involvement of beneficiaries are often needed, as dis-semination of renewable energy in developing nations does not meanusing the same models as in developed nations [17]. This means thatfinancial mechanisms need to be adapted to decentralised systems toovercome barriers from high initial price of implementation.



Furthermore, because existing infrastructure dictates the limit and scopeof technology implementation, they need to be addressed and adjustedif necessary at initial stages.

As financing has historically been known to be one of the main bar-riers for sustainable energy implementation in developing nations,greater efforts should be addressed towards attracting actors and agentswith an ability to mobilise adequate financing: private sector, govern-ments and international institutions. A balance needs to be struckbetween public subsidies, aid sector and private investments in acces-sing the wide-ranging social and economic benefits for developingcountries [18].

Working towards supply chains, there are several developmentstages which require financing mechanisms to be in place. The stagesconsist of research and development, demonstration, investment, dis-semination and operation. Based on its level of coordination, financingmechanisms to move one developmental stage to another can begrouped into local (microfinancing, end-use financing), national (invest-ment funds, corporate financing, commercial banks) and global efforts(global funds, international financing and official aid funding bodies).

Developing sustainable energy projects for the long-term necessitatesthe emphasis on cost�benefit analysis for the whole cycle of project,but on the other hand, market decisions are based on short-term plan-ning [17]. Therefore financial project designs must be able to performappropriate roles within both the relevant stakeholders and markets.

To attract private capital to sustainable energy projects, governmentof developing nations are promoting public�private relationships andfinancial plans based on microfinancing [17]. At least three action levelsshould form a concentrated effort: development of public�privateagreements for financing sustainable energy projects, increased role ofinternational aid providing the necessary conditions to stimulate invest-ment in remote areas and the impulse of models of innovative financing[17]. Involving international aid and microfinancing programmes atlong-term interventions and programmes (as opposed to the traditionalisolated cooperation projects) should significantly increase access ofenergy services to the poorest communities of developing nations [17].

29.3 IMPLICATION OF RESOURCES EXPLOITATIONON WATER AND FOOD RESOURCES

Impacts of large- versus small-scale sustainable energy resourceexploitation is an ongoing discussion amongst sustainable developmentpractitioners working on the ground. The main concern of developing alarge-scale renewable energy generation is the flexibility of existing

66329.3 IMPLICATION OF RESOURCES EXPLOITATION ON WATER AND FOOD RESOURCES


natural systems in adapting to land use changes. The question whichremains unanswered is how to quantify the social and environmentalcost for developing a renewable energy resource exploitation scheme.This is especially the case when assessments include specific considera-tions on the indigenous populations’ immediate and future require-ments, whilst also fulfilling the global demands for energy resourcescoming from sustainable sources.

Developing bio-energy in particular, but not excluding other energynatural resources will create a chain of implications on water and foodas resources themselves. Concerns around bio-energy expansion relatesto a number of risks including food competition, land use changes andincreased pressures on water resources [7,19]. Recent increasing of foodprices has been seen to be largely contributed to by the demand for bio-fuels [7]. Land use alterations to cater for bio-energy plantations havecaused ecological, economic, as well as social impact in major develop-ing nations such as Brazil and Indonesia, who between them share themajority of the world’s rainforests. Large-scale ploughing of non-agricultural land and peat land area degradation has also contributedto the massive release of total carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.Driven by international investments, some of these natural land conver-sions include alterations from Brazilian rainforests into soybean andsugar plantations; and the Indonesian rainforests and peat lands intopalm oil plantations [7]. Water supply is another issue which is relatedto bio-energy production. Irrigation water which is often the require-ment for a large-scale plantation will add to the pressure on alreadystressed water resources [7].

Waste to energy resource utilisation also has its own associated envi-ronmental impact. The concerns especially relate to the possibility ofgenerating contaminant emissions in the flue gas, hazardous material inthe ash and pollution in the excess water [13]. Air emission aspectsinclude acid gases (hydrochloric acid and sulphur oxides), particulatematter, organic compounds (dioxins and furans), inorganic compounds(trace metals) and nitrogen and carbon oxides. The pathways for airemissions to reach humans or the environment can be direct (throughinhalation) or indirect (through the food chain). Considering the identi-fied pathways, water and food resources are part of the receptors forimpact of waste to energy resource exploitation. For this, technologyinnovation in the waste to energy sector is developing rapidly in thelast years to meet the more stringent legal requirements.

Meanwhile, impacts of marine energy resource exploitation havebeen assessed mostly in the more developed regions of the world,where marine energy projects have taken off. There is still a great needfor assessments of impacts in the developing nations. In developingnations, where the marine environment plays a large part in offering



food security and livelihood to the local communities, this shouldinclude an attempt to understand both the environmental and socio-economic impact of resource exploitation in both on-grid and off-gridcoastal/island regions.

29.4 CONCLUSIONS

This chapter has outlined issues related to energy in developingnations that may not be immediately obvious to a WEIRD mindset. It isclear from field experience that simply transferring complex technologyis of little help without the indigenous skill-sets being developed tosupport the subsequent service life. Secure, environmentally acceptable,sustainable energy sources are as important to the social, political andeconomic future of developing nations as they are to the overdevelopednations. Substantial indigenous wisdom exists which can be used if theexternal fieldworker takes the time to engage and form constructiverelationships with local communities.

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Future Energy || Energy Resources in Developing Nations