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P e r r y G o t t e s f e l d
O C C U P A T I O N A L K N O W L E D G E I N T E R N A T I O N A L
w w w . o k i n t e r n a t i o n a l . o r g
Future Challenges inBattery Recycling
Global Lead Poisoning Epidemic
• The World Health Organization estimates that 240 million people are overexposed and 99 % of those with blood levels above 20 µg/dl are in the developing world.
• Lead exposures account for 853,000 deaths annually vs. 852,000 for all other occupational risk factors (or 1.1 million AIDS related deaths).
• Greatest burden is in low and middle income countries.
LEAD POISONING
Children with Low Level exposures:
• IQ deficits, lower school performance, lower scores on standardized tests,
• Behavior problems,
• Hearing deficits,
Adults:
• High blood pressure linked to heart disease and stroke;
• Reproductive system effects include miscarriages, preterm deliveries, low birth weight, miscarriages, & stillbirths.
Recent Actions On Low Level Lead
• In 2012 CDC eliminated the “level of
concern” for children of 10 μg/dl and
adopted a reference value (5 μg/dl);
• 535,000 children in the U.S. have BLLs
exceeding the reference value;
• The National Toxicology Program (NTP) 2012:
“sufficient” evidence that blood lead levels
<10 μg/dL in adults are associated with
adverse cardiovascular function;
Recent Actions on OccupationalLead Poisoning Prevention
• U.S. CDC/NIOSH 2015 changed the case definition
for adults to level ≥5 μg/dL (“notifiable condition”).
• Cal-OSHA updating occupational lead standard:
• Proposed changing the airborne lead PEL from
50 μg/m3 to 2.1 μg/m3 (with goal to keep
workers blood lead level below 10 μg/dl).
• Proposed medical removal protection for
blood lead levels:• BLL ≥ 30 μg/dl; or
•Last 2 BLLs ≥ 20 μg/dl; or
•Avg. BLL in last 6 mos. ≥ 20 μg/dl ; or
•Final medical determination
• Washington State Labor & Industries
Global Mined Lead Production (1995-2014)
Source: U.S. Geological Survey “Lead 2015”
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lead/
2.500
3.000
3.500
4.000
4.500
5.000
5.500
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Millio
n T
on
s
Actual
Global Mined Lead Production
LEAD CONSUMPTION
https://www.lme.com/en-gb/metals/non-ferrous/lead/production-and-consumption/
85% into batteries40%
10%30%
20%
GROWTH IN LEAD BATTERY MARKET
Lead Battery Manufacturing
1914 Today
Welding battery plates together by melting
lead with an open flame.
Source: “Lead Poisoning in the Manufacture of Storage Batteries”
Alice Hamilton, M.A., M.D., 1914
California Lead Battery Recycling Plant Ordered To Close
▪ Lead battery recycling
plant outside Los Angeles
ordered to close in 2015.
▪ Exide agreed to spend at
least $47 million dollars on
cleaning up the site and
contaminated properties
up to 1.7 miles away!
▪ Actual cleanup cost may
exceed $500 million
dollars.
11
18
113
134
254
661
958
1,005
1,702
4,185
12,640
27,385
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Quemetco Inc,City of Industry, CA
Johnson Controls Battery Group Inc,, Florence, SC
Revere Smelting & Refining Corp, Middletown, NY
Quemetco Inc, Indianapolis, IN
Exide Technologies, Muncie, IN
Exide Technologies Reading Smelter Div, Reading, PA
EnviroFocus Technologies, Tampa, FL
Gopher Resource LLC, Eagan, MN
Sanders Lead Co Inc, Troy, AL
East Penn Manufacturing Co Inc, Lyon Station, PA
Exide Technologies, Forest City, MO
Buick Resource Recycling Facility LLC, Boss, MO
Air Emissions (in pounds)
U.S. Lead Battery Recycling Plant Air Emissions
Lead & Lead Compounds 2013
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Toxic Release Inventory
11 secondary refineries in 9 States have capacities of at
least 30,000 tons per year. Source:https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lead/mcs-2017-lead.pdf
0
50,000,000
100,000,000
150,000,000
200,000,000
250,000,000
300,000,000
350,000,000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
kg
Year
Source U.S. Customs HT Codes 8548100540 and 8548100580
U.S. Exports of Used Batteries to Mexico
0
50,000,000
100,000,000
150,000,000
200,000,000
250,000,000
300,000,000
350,000,000
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
kg
Year
EPA Publishes
Proposed Lead
Standard
EPA Issues Final
Rule Reducing
NAAQS for Lead
Court
ordered EPA
to
review/revise
Lead air
quality
U.S. Exports of Used Batteries to Mexico
EPA notice
of proposed
rulemaking
Source U.S. Customs HT Codes 8548100540 and 8548100580
Lead Air Emissions From Recycling Facilities Reporting To Mexico, Canada and U.S. (2010)
OK International
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Quemetco, Inc.
Indianapolis, Indiana
(110,000metric
tons/year capacity)
Tonolli Canada,
Mississauga, Ontario
(70,000 metric
tons/year capacity)
Recicladora
Industrial
Acumuladores,
Santa Catarina,
Nuevo Leon (110,400
metric tons/year
capacity)
Em
issi
on
s to
Air
(k
g)
Facility Name and Location
Lead Battery Recycling
NEW RECYCLING TECHNOLOGY?
Aqua Metals claims:
• “AquaRefining is a room temperature, water-based
process that is fundamentally non-polluting”
• “Clean recycling of lead-acid batteries using an
ambient temperature process that does not
produce gas, doesn’t product slag, doesn’t
produce solid waste but does produce very high
purity lead”
Sources: http://investors.aquametals.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=254050&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=2278037 https://seekingalpha.com/article/3977530-aqua-metals-aqms-ceo-stephen-clarke-first-quarter-2016-corporate-update-earnings-call
Source: http://www.sustainablebrands.com/news_and_views/chemistry_materials/sustainable_brands/nevada_facility_begins_clean_lead_recycling
AQUA METALS UNCOVERED
• The process requires refining lead (separation of
impurities by melting lead) at temperatures of
1050˚F (565˚C) in large 50 ton “kettles”;
• The company claims to be exempt from 40 CFR Part
63 Subpart X NESHAPs definition of a “secondary
lead smelter”;
• Earthjustice has petitioned the EPA to revise the
NESHAP standards to clearly apply to all secondary
lead processing facilities and all battery recyclers.
Are Li-ion Batteries a Better Alternative?
• Lithium-ion batteries contain hazardous metals (including cobalt, manganese, nickel) and solvents.
• With current technology Lithium-ion batteries are not “recycled” but are “downcycled”.
• The best processes results in 5 - 40% recovery of some metals but the rest is waste slag.
• Challenges are the low value of key components and the number of different chemistries (without labeling or color coding).
• We calculated the waste batteries that will be generated from vehicles based on projections from International Energy Agency (IEA) and using 8 years as an average battery warranty period.
HOW MUCH WASTE?
0
10,000,000
20,000,000
30,000,000
40,000,000
50,000,000
60,000,000
2028 2038
Projected Kilotons of Waste Lithium Ion Batteries from Electric (BEV)
and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEV)
BEV PHEV
2028
20 X
Why Must We Act Now?
• Battery consumption is growing.
• We have no plan to deal with waste li-ion.
• Few countries adequately regulate the lead
battery industry.
• There are very few lead recycling plants with
adequate emission controls.
• It will cost billions of dollars to deal with the
legacy of lead contaminated soil and
resulting poisoning cases unless we address
this now!
LI-ION BATTERY RECOMMENDATIONS
• Require all lithium ion batteries to be color coded
by chemistry (eg. Li-iron-phophate vs. Li-Nickel-
cobalt);
• Clarify waste classification for lithium-ion batteries as
hazardous or “universal” waste.
• Require auto, solar and wind power companies to
take back used li-ion batteries with a specified
“refundable deposit” amount;
• U.S. should ban exports of used li-ion batteries.
LEAD BATTERY RECOMMENDATIONS
• Provide financial incentives and/or regulatory
requirement for third party testing/certification for
manufacturers to extend lead battery life;
• Specify an increased mandatory refundable
deposit or purchase discount amount to encourage
higher rates of return for used batteries;
• Extend lead battery recycling provisions of the
SCAQMD to all of California;
• U.S. should ban exports of used lead batteries to
countries with weaker standards for stack emissions
and ambient air;
SUPPLY CHAIN RESPONSIBILITY
• Vehicle manufacturers, telecommunications
companies, Internet server farms, and the
photovoltaic solar industry should develop and
support minimum standards for manufacturing and
recycling lead and lithium ion batteries.
• Plants should be certified against industry specific
standards with an annual third party independent
audits.
• IBM, Sprint, and AT&T, have agreed to voluntarily
stop exporting used lead batteries from the U.S.
….other should follow.
WHEN WILL WE EVER LEARN?
“You will observe with Concern how long a useful truth may be known, and exist, before it is generally received and practiced on.”
Benjamin Franklin
“Letter on Lead Poisoning”
July 31, 1786
Perry Gottesfeld
Occupational Knowledge International
www.okinternational.org
QUESTIONS?