Funeral Rites and Cultural Diversity in Hellenistic Caria Based on Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence

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Tr n a v s k u n i v e r z i t a v Tr n a v e F i l o z o f i c k f a k u l t a

U n i v e r s i t a s Ty r n a v i e n s i s F a c u l t a s P h i l o s o p h i c a

A N O D O S

Studies of the Ancient World

10/2010

T R N A V A 2011


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A N O D O SStudies of the Ancient World10/2010

Redakn rada/Editors:Prof. PhDr. Mria Novotn, DrSc., Prof. Dr. Werner Jobst, doc. PhDr. Marie Duov, CSc., prof. PhDr. Klra Kuzmov, CSc.

Redakcia/Editorial Sta:prof. PhDr. Klra Kuzmov, CSc.

Potaov sadzba/Layout:Zuzana Turzov

Trnavsk univerzita v Trnave, Filozock fakulta

Kontaktn adresa (prspevky, alie informcie)/Contact address (contributions, further information): Katedra klasickej archeolgie,Trnavsk univerzita v Trnave,Hornopoton 23, SK-918 43 Trnava +421-33-5939371; fax: +421-33-5939370 [email protected]

Publikovan s nannou podporou Ministerstva kolstva SR (Projekt VEGA . 1/0408/09) a Pro ArchaeologiaClassica.Published with nancial support of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic (Project VEGA No. 1/0408/09)and the Pro Archaeologia Classica.

Za znenie a obsah prspevkov zodpovedaj autori.

The authors are responsible for their contributions.

Tla/Printed by: ForPress, s.r.o., Kmekova 1, 949 01 Nitraz tlaovch podkladov Filozockej fakulty Trnavskej univerzity v Trnave

iadna as tejto publikcie nesmie by reprodukovan alebo rozirovan v iadnej forme - elektroniy imeaniy, vrtane fotokpi, nahrvania alebo inm pouitm informanho systmu vrtane webov strnok,bez predbenho psomnho shlasu vlastnka vydavatesk prv.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmied in any form - electronic or meanical, includingphotocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, including web pages, without the priorwrien permission from the copyright owner.

ISBN 978-80-8082-500-3ISSN 1338-5410

Oblka/Cover:Motv Zzranho daa zo stpa Marka Aurlia v Rme. V okienku: Detail osthotechu z Keseciku, Turecko (Foto: A.Baldiran).Motif of the Miracle rain from the column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. In the window: Detail of the osthotech from Kesecik,Turkey (Photo: A. Baldiran).Grafck spracovanie/Graphic elaboration:Mgr. Pavol ima-JurekPotaov spracovanie/Computer elaboration: PhDr. Ivan Kuzma


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Proceedings of the International Conference

THE PHENOMENA OF CULTURAL BORDERSAND BORDER CULTURES ACROSS THE PASSAGE

OF TIME

(From the Bronze Age to Late Antiquity)

Dedicated to the 375thanniversary of Universitas Tyrnaviensis

Trnava, 22 - 24 October 2010


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CONTENTS

PREFACE

BALDIRAN, A.An Osthote with Hunting Scene in umra Sral Hyk............................................................................................. 9

BARTUS, D.Roman Figural Bronzes From Brigetio: Preliminary Notes ................................................................................................ 17

BLAKOLMER, F.Ethnizitt und Identitt in der minois-mykenisen Ikonographie .........................................................................................29

BOUZEK, J.Frontiers in Pre-Roman Thrace ............................................................................................................................................... 41

CHALUPA, A.

Mithraism in Ancient Syria: Persian Cult on the Borders of the Roman Empire............................................................. 57

DABACAK, C.An Essay on the Heating Costs of Roman Baths .................................................................................................................. 67

DIMITROVA, Y.Rodopi Mountain Between Thrace and Aegea Region:Some Elements of a Border Culture of Early Iron Age in Southern Bulgaria .................................................................. 71

DOKSANALTI, E. M. - MIMIROLU, . M.Giresun/Aretias - Kalkeritis Island ......................................................................................................................................... 85

DUBCOV, V.Ger ohne Grenzen? Transfer der religisen Ikonographie in der Bronzezeit Alter Orient und die frhe gis ....................................................................................................................................... 103

GOLUBOVI, S. MRI, N.Territory of Roman Viminacium - From Celtic to Slavic Tribes ....................................................................................... 117

HLAVOV, S.Greek Heroes on the Borders of the Historical Periods ..................................................................................................... 127

KLONTZA-JAKLOV, V.The Meaning of Time in Late Bronze Age Europe and its Reection in Material Culture .......................................... 133

KOVCS, P.Sarmatian Campaigns During the First Tetrary ............................................................................................................. 143

KOVLIK, L.The Gate Wall and the Doors of Greek Propyla ................................................................................................................. 155

KUERKOV, K.The Upland Selements of the Pchov Culture and Germanic Tribes Beyond the North-PannonianFrontier, in the Mountainous Part of Central Slovakia ...................................................................................................... 163

LAZAR, I.The Inhabitants of Roman Celeia- An Insight into InterculturalContacts and Impacts Trough Centuries ............................................................................................................................. 175

MUSILOV, M.Bratislavaer Burg - Arx Boiorum im Lite der neuesten arologisen Funde

Archologische Forschung - Winterreithalle ................................................................................................................................187

NMEROV, A.Relations Between Greeks and Scythians in Bla Sea Area ....................................................................................................207


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NOVKOV, L.Funeral Rites and Cultural Diversity in Hellenistic CariaBased on Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence ........................................................................................................... 213

ONDERKA, P. DUFKOV, M.Die meroitise Ste in Wad Ben Naga, Republik Sudan ............................................................................................... 223

PAPOUEK, D.Centrality and Cosmopolitism in the Lukan Imagination of Paul of Tarsus:A Case of Jerusalem ................................................................................................................................................................ 247

POBEIN, G.Sources and History: Crossing From Arives to Historiography and BaThe Development of Historiographical Method and Epistemein Respect of Using Arival Sources ................................................................................................................................... 255

POPOV, H. JOCKENHVEL, A.At the Northern Borders of the Mycenaean World: Thracian Gold Mining from the Late Bronze

and the Early Iron Age at Ada Tepe in the Eastern Rhodopes ......................................................................................... 265VAA, K.The inuence of Roman provincial poery manufactureon the production of the Suebic wheel-made poery ....................................................................................................... 283

TRANTALIDOU, K. BELEGRINOU, E. ANDREASEN, N.Pastoral Societies in the Southern Balkan Peninsula.The Evidence From Caves Occupied During the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Era ......................................................... 295

VERK, M.Die grieisen Bewanung im Lite des kulturellen Austauses ............................................................................ 321

ZIMMERMANN, Th.

Legal Aliens on Haian Grounds? Tracing the Presence of Foreignersin 3rdMillennium Central Anatolia ....................................................................................................................................... 335


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Preface

The publication of ANODOS 10/2010 contains 27 articles in English and German whichwere presented in the form of papers and posters at the international conference ThePhenomena of Cultural Borders and Border Cultures Across the Passage of Time (From theBronze Age to Late Antiquity) which was held in Trnava on the 22th - 24th of October 2010.The participants consisted of scholars from eleven countries (Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia,Slovenia, Hungary, Austria, Germany, the Czech Republic, the USA and the Slovak Republic).Graduate and post-graduate students from Trnava participated in both the organization of theconference and the actual programme. The conference was organized on the occasion of the375thanniversary of Universitas Tyrnaviensis (1635-1777), the rst university in the territoryof the Kingdom of Hungary, which then included the historical town of Trnava. The currentrenewed Trnava University in Trnava (1992), situated in the Slovak Republic, follows the ideasand academic identity of the original university.

At the same time, in 2010 it had been ten years since the Department of Classical Archaeo- logy at Trnava University had established the tradition of organizing international scienticconferences on specic themes in chronological sequence from the Late Bronze Age to LateAntiquity. The idea came from Prof. Dr. Mria Novotn, the founder of the Department and ofthe Classical Archaeology study programme in Slovakia. The conferences have been held everytwo-three years so far (in 2000, 2003, 2005 and 2007) and they have had the following themes:Contacts between Middle Europe and the Mediterranean, Jewellery and Costume, Armsand Armour, and Cult and Sanctuary through the Ages. Contributions have been published

in four volumes of Anodos - Studies of the Ancient World (1/2001, 3/2003, 4-5/2004-2005 and6-7/2006-2007). Another conference of this kind was organized under the title Trade andProduction through the Ages at Selcuk University in Konya (Turkey) in 2008, in co-operationwith Selcuk University (our partner institution).

The conference in 2010 and the publication of its proceedings have been nanciallysupported by the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic (Project VEGA No. 1/0408/09)and by the voluntary association Pro Archaeologia Classica.

Editors

Trnava, 25 November 2011


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Anodos. Studies of the Ancient World 10/2010, 213-221.

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Funeral Rites and Cultural Diversity in Hellenistic CariaBased on Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence

Lucia Novkov

Keywords:Altar Tombs,Grave Temenos, Heroon, Temple Tombs,Inscriptions, Caria

Abstract:The object of interest is examination of the epigraphic and archaeological evidence related to theburial rites in the Hellenistic period characteristic by the variety of funeral monuments.New cogitationsand techniques of funeral architecture appeared in the whole Hellenistic world but in Caria strong localtradition is in evidence. The heroic aspects of the deceased are best to be observed by examining the

particular monuments and their architectural symbols as well as epigraphic evidence and contextual

data. Aim is to accentuate that necropoleis and singular grave temenoi in particular were space whereliving interacted with the world of dead. Burial rites can be partial reconstruct with the help of supportiveinformation however they did not survive in the form of material nds.

Southwest shore of Caria is where several dierent cultural inuences happened tointermix. This resulted in the formation of Greco-Carian cultural zone. The inuence of the Greekculture had major impact on later development of religious, funeral and urban architecture inthis region. Indispensable was the inuence of domestic ethnicities, especially under rule ofthe local dynasty of Hekatomnids (390-330 BC). During this period, designated also as IonianRenaissance of Caria1,the region was intensely hellenized: modern cities were projected, therefore

the region quickly became part of later Greek world. Euergetism was the main mechanismof public building program. In Hellenistic period this practice expanded to the whole Cariaand became one of the characteristics of this era. Two primary changes should be mentioned:members of the local ruling dynasties became notable euergetai of numerous poleis and manywealthy individuals adopted this model2. Eort to obtain heroic status post mortem is visible

by development of funeral architecture: especially by the construction of the monumental builttombs and numerous epigraphic evidence.

On the basis of current research it is presumed that monumental funeral architecture earlyappeared on the western coast of Asia Minor3. Monumental tombs of rulers, like in Halicarnassusand Belevi, were built, which has signicant meaning for later sepulchral architecture. Majorityof the Hellenistic monumental tombs represent expressive and symbolic edicial structures

built for glorication and illustration of the power and wealth: they served as sanctuaries forworship of heroic deceased as well. This model was accepted rst by members of ruling dynastsand later by various social groups. The funeral architecture in Caria reects cultural, religiousand social conventions in the lives of inhabitants. Burial continuity and maintenance of localelements still remained: occurrence of heroon, unlike the other prevailing funeral monumentssituated right in or close to the urban structures. Funeral temenoi seem to be separated fromcivic landscape and their sacral character demands separations from world of living. Perceptionof the status of the deceased, who inuences the life of the mortals, is essential componentspart of the oldest cult of the dead4. To obtain help of the ancestor sacrice close to his tomb wasrequired (Fig. 1, 2).

1 Pedersen 1989, 47-54.2 Wrle et al. 1995, 114-23.3 Cormack 2004, 24-7.4 Antonaccio 1995, 17-23.


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Fig. 1.Grave temenos - enclosed sacral space unit devoted to the deceased characteristic by the presence of a built tomb with analtar and a place for ritual activities.

Fig. 2. Reconstruction of grave temenos from Trysa (Cormack 2004, Fig. 114).


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Monumental tombs as an object ofancestor cult are connected with Mausoleumin Halicarnassus and other Carian chambertombs. Scientists generally admit that ancestorcult had important role within reigning groupof society in the Archaic and Classical Caria5.The funeral practice of the Greek cities of AsiaMinor was building the sepulchral chamber forhimself and his family by wealthy citizen duringlife. In principle this was a rectangular burialchamber, sometimes with small entrance roomand vaulted niches inside for the sarcophagi.High podium of the tomb eectively separatesthe deceased from the world of living and istreated as a consequence of the older Anatolian

tradition. This concept was later widelydispersed and frequently occurred in the Romanperiod6. Funeral altars as architectural elementare one of the most prevailing substructuresof burial temenoi on the Carian coastlandand neighbouring islands7. Their presencesuggests the space for sacrice and supports theperception that the deceased was recipient ofcult activities (Fig. 3).

Heroization of the deceasedHeroization of the deceased via family members is derivate from older cult of heroes and

ancestor cult8. Certain model of the Bronze Age cultic activity appeared again in the Classicaland Hellenistic period. The oldest heroes, who obtained divine aributes and honours postmortem, were usually mythic entities - city founders, law-givers, or gentilicial ancestors. Laterthis conception was basically changed: the prominent citizens obtained heroic honours aertheir death. It is not accidental that private heroic cult can be visible during the Hellenistic era.It is assumed that consequences of political and legislative changes within the polis aordedthe opportunity for renewal these habits. The individual need to accentuate the social role isemphasized and started to boom simultaneously with the lost political and cultural orientationon polis9. With languishing meaning of polis in the Hellenistic age individuals were seeking for

ancestor adoration, by way of honours and divinization post mortem. In the Hellenistic funeralinscriptions from this area the term is aested: not only as message of the heroic deceasedbut also as recipient of the cult activity10(Fig. 4-7).

Monumental tombs have special status in the history of the Hellenistic architecture whiletheir local formal variation make the typological unication more dicult. Monuments on thesouth-west coast of Asia Minor evidently contributed to development of later types more than

just by simple architectonic details. Rock-cut tombs with temple facade and various subgroups of

5 Carstens 1999, 48-53.6 Cormack 2004, 24-7.7 Berges 1986, 12-26.8 Antonaccio 1987, 27-35.9 Alcock 1991, 447-8.10McLean 2002, 262-6.

Fig. 3. Intramural temple tomb with high elevated podium,Aizanoi, Roman period (Cormack 2004, Fig. 21).


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Fig. 4. Distribution of rock-cut tombs in Caria region.

built tombs (altar tombs, column and portico tombs, close units grave temenoiand temple tombs)11refer

to the aim of the heroization of deceased. It is closely connected with the aspects of elevation ofthe dead: by the help of architectural elements (high stepped podium, elevated burial chamber),features originated from sacral architecture or decorative elements accentuating heroic status,which all played an important role for later development of such kind of buildings. Theseaspects are preferably discerned by preserved architectural features of singular buildings andcontextual situation as well. Besides the architectonical structures it is funeral altar- -with free standing lion statuesthat represents instalment of various tombs and grave temenoi(Fig. 8, 9).

Mentionedarchaeological ndings suggest that necropoleis and grave temenoi in particularwere places for interaction of the living with the dead and uniquely refer to the dead asrecipient of cultic activity. Organizing commemorative ceremonies on the honor of the deceased

member of family was considered as one of the essential duties in the life of ancient society.

11Fedak 1990, 15-29.


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Fig. 5. Ionic facade rock-cut tomb, Caunus (Roos 1985, Fig. 119).

Fig. 6.Monumental built tomb, Alinda (Fedak 1990, Fig. 92).

In many cases rituals for the dead continued aer the end of ocial period of mourning. Suchcommemorative ceremonies spread around the whole Greek East were rosaliaaer that sacriceor funeral banquet had followed12. Commemorative ceremonies included libation, sacrice of

burial gis for the dead, incense and owers put on the altar or grave. The rite was sometimes

organized by trade associations serving as burial societies.

12McLean 2002, 276-8.


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Fig. 7.Archokrateion of Lindos doble-storied tomb with rock-cut burial chambers and altars (Fedak 1990, Fig. 107).

Fig. 8. Funeral round altars .


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Epigraphic evidence

Besides archaeological ndings the epigraphic evidence refers to the deceased as recipientof cultic activity the best. Various kinds of inscriptions help us to understand how did the gravetemenoi with miscellaneous monuments functionate, how the world of living was connectedwith the world of dead and to reconstruct burial habits that did not survive in the form ofmaterial resources as well. In advance several types of inscriptions, which concern deceased,way of burial and honours post mortem, can be dened: funeral inscriptions (tituli sepulchrales),honoric inscriptions (tituli honorarii), consolation decrees (tituli memoriales) and varia (e.g.sacral calendars). Honours mentioned in honorary inscriptions are widely similar to the privateactivities of the commemorative rites: crowning (the grave), positing the altar, giving oeringsor organizing funeral banquets etc.

A fragment of stela (w. 37 cm, h. 47 cm, d. 14.5 cm), which became clearly of interestto a wide range of scholars, was discovered in Labranda in 2002 13. The inscription is part ofa honorary decree for Olympichos, son of Olympichos, who have been active in western Cariain the second half of the 3rdcentury BC. In the text below is Olympichos, governor or strategosof Mylasa district, referred as benefactor, who obtained status resembling the city founders - . The decree was probably issued by the people and the council of Mylasa.Original text is dated to the 240 BC, its copy comes from the end of the 2 ndcentury BC. It ispresumed that the rituals for Olympichos were still performed or inscription was copyied what

indicates that they were abound to be renewed in the time of unstable political situation.

13Isager and Karlsson 2008, 39-52.

Fig. 9. Free standing statues of lions-guardians of the grave area.


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Translation: ...with all... and let (the same honours) be valid for his descendents as well. A bronzestatue of him shall be set up in the sacred agora in the most conspicuous place. Also, a ve pecheis tallbronze statue of the People shall be set up, crowning the statue of Olympichos. On the base shall bewrien: The People (crowns) Olympichos son of Olympichos as a benefactor. And in front of the statueshall be founded an altar for him in white stone similar to the one for Maussollos in the sanctuary ofZeus Labraundos. In his honour a procession and an oering shall be arranged every year at the 14th ofthe month of Apellaios, the day on which the People regained its freedom and democracy. The oering forhim shall consist of two bulls, and on this day participants in the feast will be the priests, the victors inthe stephanic games, and all the magistrates. The priests shall take care of the oering and the banquetand the treasurers provide the expense from the common revenues. A truce for all shall reign for threedays. The citizens and all the others shall come together wearing crowns during these days. He shall alsobe praised in hymn during the quadrennial Taureia in the same way as for the city founders. It shall be

proclaimed at the gymnic games for Zeus Osogo that the People crowns Olympichos son of Olympichosas a benefactor of the city with the gold crown and a statue in bronze for his virtue and his benefactionstowards it. To ensure that it will be apparent to all how the People of Mylasa honours its benefactors, and

in order to commemorate him this decree shall be inscribed on stelai of stone and one of them placed in thesanctuary of Zeus Labraundos14.

Procession, sacrice, solemn banquet or crowning was regular part of funeral andcommemorative rites for the deceased. Some of honours mentioned above are more special anddesignated for members of ruling dynasts: rituals for Olympichos shall be included in the culticcalendar of Mylasa and to have an altar or statue in the agora was an honour appropriate toa hellenistic monarch. Similar kind of honours together with appropriate funeral monuments -were primarily established for rulers, nobles and other persons of power. Over time reciprocallyspread within the wealthy members of society and in many Greco-Roman cities are aested forlocal benefactors. Honorary decree for Adrastus of Aphrodisias dated to the third quarter of the1st century AD reers about heroon, public burial and burial rites within the city. Inscription,

though dated to the Roman period, reects older burial tradition aested in Hellenistic times.Translation:...? because of] his generosity to the People, behaving with goodwill for the common

interest in all things, having continuously provided everything what was deserving of honor. In returnfor which the People gave and decreed for him burial and funerary rites in the city, in the public ergasteriaopposite the Council-chamber, returning his goodwill as stated in the decree. Now, when the council wasdiscussing these maers, Adrastus came forward, being on this occasion too concerned for his native cityand, unwilling that the income of the city should be reduced, but preferring what was helpful for the city,thought it proper that the place of the tomb should be relocated in ?his own ergasteria; it was decided bythe Council and the People, that while the original decree of a tomb should stand, he should be allowed to

prepare the Heroon in ?his own ergasteria15.The marble block (w. 91 cm, h. 37 cm, d. 46 cm) seems like a building block of the wall of

the tomb implied in the text. Burial within the city and funerary rites - presumably not onlythose of the actual funeral but regular rituals that would take place at heroon - are exceptional16.Heroon - in contrary of burial temenoi - is situated right in or close to the urban structures. Thisterm designates a funerary monument at which cult of hero was perpetuated. It can be a singleedice or sumptuous funerary ensemble. Will of Epiktete, one of the most important epigraphictestimonials relating to private hero cult in Hellenistic period, describes the dead as heroesand their resting places as memorial edices where cult activities were held17. Since Hellenisticperiod private hero cult housed in sizeable structures sprang up in numerous localities of south-west coast of Asia Minor.

14Isager and Karlsson 2008, 44.15Reynolds 1996, 124.16Reynolds 1996, 121-6.17IG XII 3, 330.


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Epigraphic evidence also inform about honours conferred on individuals with lowersocial status. Sacrice for heroic descent could have a symbolic meaning that has survived untilthe Roman Age18. Archaeological ndings meanwhile refer to the dead as a recipient of culticactivity. Location of the tomb created the decisive and inseparable aspect of its inheritance andmeaning. In Caria there are numerous examples of sepulchral buildings situated within thenecropoleis and tombs located in inhabited area as well. Tomb space was oen enclosed bywalls creating grave temenos.

Mgr. Lucia NovkovTrnava University in TrnavaDepartment of Classical ArchaeologyHornopoton 23SK-918 43 [email protected]

Bibliography

Alcock, S. E. 1991. Tomb cult and post-classical Polis.AJA 95/3: 447-8.Antonaccio, C. M. 1987. The Archaeology of Early Greek Hero Cult. Princeton.Antonaccio, C. M. 1995.An Archaeology of Ancestors. Tomb cult and hero cult in Early Greece. London.Berges, D. 1986. Hellenistische Rundaltare Kleinasiens. Freiburg.Carstens, A. M. 1999. Sepulchral architecture on the Halicarnassos Penisula. In Proceedings of the XVth International

congress of classical archaeology, edited by R.F. Docter and E.M. Moorman. Amsterdam.Cormack, S. 2004. The Space of Death in Roman Asia Minor . Wien.Fedak, J. 1990. Monumental Tombs of the Hellenistic Age: A Study of Selected Tombs From the Preclassical to the Early

Imperial Era. Phoenix Supp.Vol. 27. Toronto.Isager, S., and L. Karlsson. 2008. A new inscription from Labraunda- Honorary decree for Olympichos: I. Labraunda

No. 134 (and No. 49). EA 41: 39-52.

McLean, B. H. 2002.An Introduction to Greek epigraphy of the Hellenistic and Roman Periods from Alexander the Great downto the Reign of Constantine (323 BC- 337 AD). Michigan.

Pedersen, P. 1989. Some general Trends in architectural layout of 4thc. Caria. InArchitecture and society in HecatomnidCaria. Proceedings of the Uppsala Symposion 1987, edited by T. Linders and P. Helstrom, 47-54. Uppsala.

Reynolds, J. M. 1996. Honouring benefactors at Aphrodisias: a new inscription InAphrodisias Papers 3. The seingsand quarries, mythological and other sculptural decoration, architectural development, Portico of Tiberius and tetrapylon,edited by Ch. Rouch and R.R.R. Smith, 121-6. Ann Arbor.

Wrle, M. et al. 1995. Stadtbild und Burgerbild im Hellenismus. Munich.

18Cormack 2004, 22.


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Funeral Rites and Cultural Diversity in Hellenistic Caria Based on Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence