FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS

Design, Processing and Applications

MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY SERIES

Series editor: Renee G. Ford

The Materials Technology series is dedicated to state-of-the-art areas of materials synthesis and processing as related to the applications of the technology. By thorough presentation of the science underlying the technology, it is anticipated that these books will be of practical value both for materials scientists and engineers in industry and for engineering students to acquaint them with developments at the forefront of materials technology that have potential commercial significance.

Ceramic Injection Molding Beebhas C. Mutsuddy and Renee G. Ford Hardbound (0412 53810 5)

Cryochemical Technology of Advanced Materials Yu. D. Tretyakov, N.N. Oleynikov and O.A. Shkyajhtin Hardbound (0 412 63980 7)

Modelling of Materials Processing Gregory C. Stangle Hardbound (041253810 5)

Porous Materials Kozo Ishizaki, Sridhar Komameni, Makota Nanko Hardbound (0412711109)

FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS

Design, Processing and Applications

edited by

Y. Miyamoto Professor, Joining and Welding Research Institute

Osaka University

W. A. Kaysser Director, Institute for Materials Research

German Aerospace Center

B.H. Rabin President, GA Powders, Inc.

A. Kawasaki Professor, F aculty of Engineering

Tohoku University

Renee G. Ford President, Renford Communications, Ltd.

SPRINGER SCIENCE+ BUSINESS MEDIA. llC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Functionally graded materials : design, processing, and applications I edited by Y. Miyamoto.

p. em. --(Materials technology series)

I. Functionally gradient materials. I. Miyamoto, Yoshinari. II. Series: Materials technology series (Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC) TA418.9.F85F86 1999 620.1'1--dc21 99-40751

Copyright ® 1999 by Springer Science+ Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1999 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition1999

CIP

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo­copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Springer Science+ Business Media, LLC

Printed on acid-free paper.

ISBN 978-0-412-60760-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-5301-4 ( eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-5301-4

ABOUT THE SCULPTURE SHOWN ON THE COVER

The cover image of "Winged Torso", a sculpture which is composed of a cast polyester resin substrate that has been flame-sprayed fIrst with zinc and then with bronze. After polishing, the patina of the fmal piece is similar to foundry bronze and the high fIdelity of the substrate's features is maintained. Throughout history, sculpture has been the focus of interaction between mankind's need for creative expression and the available materials technology. The Fusion Bronze™ process used to create this sculpture by Boston sculptor Barbara Rubin-Katz l unites flame sprayed functionally graded metals with the sculptor's art.

FUSION BRONZE™

The Fusion Bronze™ process utilizes molten metal spray technology in which an electric current melts a bronze wire. The molten bronze (at about 1 OOO°C) is entrained in a flow of compressed air in a confmed space. This creates a jet of very small liquid bronze particles that can coat a sculptural substrate (plaster, resin, Fiberglas™, or even paper, wax, or wood) with a bronze overlayer. If the sculptural substrate is a material which might be deformed or destroyed by contact with molten bronze, a layer of zinc, which melts at about 400°C, is applied fIrst and then the bronze is deposited. The zinc acts as a thermal plane dissipating the heat as the bronze is applied. Thus the fusion bronze overlayer is truly a Functionally Graded Material (FGM).

Substrate - Cast Polyester Resin

/ Zinc Layer o

0.10 inch

Schematic of the Microstructure of a FGM, Fusion Bronze sculpture.

Surface Oxide or Sulfide Patina

IBaroara Rubin-Katz trained at the Philadelphia College of Art and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and also studied classical figurative sculpture with Evangelos Frudakis in Philadelphia. On moving to Boston she continued her studies under the guidance of the late Peter Abate, a noted New England sculptor and teacher. She started showing her work publicly in the late 1980's and from the outset received recognition and awards. Since the early 1990's her work has been seen in many exhibitions at the Copley Society of Boston, the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Fanueil Hall, Hellenic College, Montserrat College of Art, Bradford College, Worcester Polytechnic Institute and many regional galleries. In 1992 the Copley Society of Boston awarded Barbara Rubin-Katz the highly esteemed designation of "Copley Artist".

Contents

Contributors IX

Preface Xlll

Acknowledgements xv

INTRODUCTION 1

LESSONS FROM NATURE 7

GRADED MICROSTRUCTURES 29

MODELING AND DESIGN 63

THE CHARACTERIZATION OF PROPERTIES 89

PROCESSING AND FABRICATION 161

APPLICATIONS 247

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 315

Index 319

Contributors

Prof. N. Arakt(5.3.2, 5.3.4)* Department of Energy and Mechanical Engineering, Shizuoka

University, Hamamatsu 432-8011, Japan Dr. L. Chen (1) Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Katahira 2-1-1,

Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-0812, Japan Dr. N. Cherradi_(5.3.3) 38 Avenue de Montoie CH-I007 Lausanne, Switzerland Prof. M. J. Cima_( 6.7.1) Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Mass. Ave., Room 12-011,

Cambridge, MA 02139, U.S.A. Prof. F. Erdogan (5.4.3a, 5.4.3b) Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Lehigh

University, Bethlehem PA, 18015, U.S.A. Dr. R. G. Ford (Ch.1 - 8) Editor-in-chief, Materials Technology, P.O. Box 72, Harrison, NY

10582-0072, U.S.A. Prof. M. Gasik (7.5) Laboratory of Materials Processing and Powder Metallurgy, Helsinki

University of Technology, Vuorimiehentie 2A, FIN-02150 Espoo, Finland Prof. A. M. Glaeser_(6.6.2) Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineering, Hearst

Mining Building, University of Cali fomi a Berkley, CA 94720 U.S.A. Prof. T. Hirai (6.3.5, 7.2.1b) Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Katahira 2-1-1,

Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-0812, Japan

x Contributors

Dr. K. Hirano (5.4.3c) Department of Materials Science and Bioengineering, Mechanical

Engineering Laboratory, AIST, MIT!, Namiki, 1-2, Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan

Mr. T. Hirano (4.3.2, 7.3.2c) Electronic Engineering Laboratory, Daikin Industries, Ltd., Aza-Ohtani,

Okamoto, Kusatsu-City, 525-0044, Japan Prof. B. I1schner (6.2.1, 6.2.3a) Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, MX-D, EPFL Ecublens, CH-1015

Lausanne, Switzerland Dr. H. Imai (7.3.3) Research Association for Nuclear Facility Decommissioning, 821-100,

Funaishikawa, Tokai, Ibaraki, 319-1111, Japan Dr. Y. Itoh (7.3.3) Power and Industrial Systems Research and Development Center,

Toshiba Corporation, Ukijima 2-1, Kawasaki, Kawsaki-City, 210-0862, Japan

Dr. C. Kawai (5.5.4) Itami Research Laboratories, Sumitomo Electric Industries, Ltd., 1-1-1,

Koya-Kita, Itami, Hyogo, 664-0016, Japan Prof. A. Kawasaki (Ch.5, 5.1,5.3.1,5.3.5,5.4.1,5.4.2,5.4.4,5.4.5,5.5) Department of Materials Processing, Faculty of Engineering, Tohoku

University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan Prof. Dr. W. A. Kaysser (Ch.6 and 7, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6. 3. 3a,

6.3.4, 6.3.6, 6.3.7a, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6.1, 6.6.3, 6. 7.2, 7.1, 7.2.1c, 7.3.1, 7.3.2a, 7.3.2b, 7.3.4, 7.4)

Director, Institute of Materials Research, German Aerospace Center 51140 Cologne, Germany

Prof. Y. Koike (7.7) Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1, Hiyoshi,

Kohoku-ku, Yokohama, 223-0061, Japan Prof. M. KoizumU 1) REC, Ryukoku University, Otsu, 520-2123, Japan Mr. K. Kurihara (6.3.5) Fujitsu Laboratories Ltd., 10-1, Wakamiya Morinosato, Atsugi-shi,

Kanagawa, 243-0122, Japan Prof. J. J. LannuttU6.2.1a) Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ohio State University,

477 Watts Hall, 2041 College Road, Columbus, OH 43210-1179 U.S.A. Prof. M. I. MendelsonJ6.3.3b, 7.2.1b, 7.2.2, 7.2.3) College of Science and Engineering, Loyola-Marymount University,

Loyola Blvd. at 80th West St., Los Angeles, CA 90045-2699 U.S.A.

Contributors Xl

Prof. Y. Miyamoto (Ch.l- 8, 1, 5.2, 6.2.3f, 6.7.1, 7.7, 7.8.2, 8) Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University, Ibaraki,

Osaka 567-0047, Japan Dr. T. Nagano (6.7.3) Japan Science and Technology Corporation, Ceramic Superplasticity

Project, Fine Ceramic Center, Atsuta, Rokuno 2-4-1, Nagoya 456-8587, Japan

Dr. M. Niino (1) Kakuda Research Center, National Aerospace Laboratory, STA Kakuda,

Miyagi 981-1525, Japan Prof. I. Nishida (7.3.2c) National Research Institute for Metals, 1-2-1, Sengen, Tsukuba-shi,

Ibaraki, 305-0047, Japan Prof. F. Nogata (2) Department of Mechanical System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,

Gifu University, Yanagido 1-1, Gifu, 501-1193, Japan Dr. H. Ohnishi (7.8.1) Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Artificial Joint Section and

Biomaterial Research Laboratory, Osaka Minami National Hospital, 677-2, Kido-Cho, Wachinagano-Shi, Osaka, 586-0001, Japan

Dr. B. H. Rabin (Ch. 3 and 4, 3, 4) President, GAPowders Inc., 2300 N. Yellowstone Idaho Falls, ID 83404,

U.S.A. Mr. K. S. Ramesh (4.3.4) Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352-9668,

U.S.A. Dr. P. Sarkar (6.3. 7b) Advanced Industrial Materials and Processes Group, Alberta Research

Council, 250 Karl Clark Road, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6N 1E4 Prof. M. Sasaki (6.3.5, 7.2.1b) Department of Materials Science, Faculty of Engineering, Muroran

Industrial University, Muzumoto, 27-1, Muroran, 050-0071, Japan Mr. N. Shimoda (6.3.3b) Steel Research Laboratories, Nippon Steel Corporation, 20-1, Shintomi

Futtsu, Chiba, 293-8511, Japan Prof. I. Shiota_(7.4.1) Department of Chemical Engineering, Kogakuin University, 2665-1,

Nakano, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0015, Japan Dr. Y. Tada_(7.2.1a, 7.2.1b) Foundation for Promotion of Japanese Aerospace Technology, 1-16-6

Izumi-Chuo, Izumi-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 981-3133, Japan Prof. M. Tamura_(6.2.2)

xu Contributors

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Defense Academy, 1-10-20 Hashirimizu Yokosuka-City, 239-8686, Japan

Dr. T. Tateishi (7.8.3) Bio-Group, National Institute for Advanced Interdisciplinary Research,

AIST, MITI, Higashi 1-1-4, Tsukuba 305-0046, Japan Dr. R. L. Williamson (3, 4)

Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, P.O. Box 1625, Idaho Falls, ID 83404, U.S.A.

Dr. J. Yoo (6. 7.1) Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Mass. Ave., Room 12-011

Cambridge, MA 02139, U.S.A. Prof. J. Yoshino (7.6) Department of Physics, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ohokayama,

Meguro, Tokyo 152-0033, Japan

* The numbers in parentheses are the contributed sections and edited chapters.

Preface

Seven years have elapsed since Dr. Renee Ford, editor-in-chief of Materials Technology, first suggested to me to publish a book on Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs). She said that the FGM concept, then largely unknown outside of Japan and a relatively few laboratories elsewhere, would be of great interest to everyone working in the materials field because of its potentially universal applicability. There was no book about FGMs in English at that time, although the number of research papers, review articles, and FGM conference proceedings had been increasing yearly. We discussed what the book should cover, and decided it should present a comprehensive description from basic theory to the most recent applications of FGMs. This would make it useful both as an introduction to FGMs for those simply curious about what this new materials field was all about, and also as a textbook for researchers, engineers, and graduate students in various material fields. The FGM Forum in Japan generously offered to support this publication program.

Because it is very difficult for an individual author to write a book that covers such a wide range of various aspects of many different materials, I invited more than 30 eminent materials scientists throughout the world, who were associated with FGM research, to contribute selected topics. I also asked several leading researchers in this field to edit selected chapters: Dr. Barry H. Rabin, then at the U.S. Department of Energy's Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory and now President of GA Powders, Inc.; Dr. Wolfgang A. Kaysser, Director of the Institute for Materials Research at the German Aerospace Center in Cologne; and Dr. Akira Kawasaki, Professor of Materials Science at Tohoku University in Japan. Dr. Ford reviewed each edited chapter and rewrote the book in a

XIV Preface

uniform style. This approach proved to be very time consuming, and is the major reason for the time it has taken to complete this book for publication. However, it has been constantly updated to reflect the latest developments.

A unique feature of this book is that its writing and production has been accomplished completely electronically. Nothing was printed on paper until the book's actual pUblication. Internet communication has developed rapidly worldwide since we started the actual writing and editing in 1994. We decided to use e-mail for communicating and for transmitting the files to each other. However, at the beginning we encountered some confusion and incompatibility when exchanging files. Part of the problem was due initially to inexperience with using the Internet and part due to our different computer systems - some of us are Macintosh users and others use pes. However, we soon overcame our hardware and software incompatibilities, developed a system for file identification so we could keep track of the most recent versions of each chapter, and became quite adept at electronic editing. Older manuscripts were updated quickly and the latest research results were added easily using e-mail. Many of the figures and tables were reformed or newly prepared using computer graphics by my colleagues, Dr. J. S. Lin and Miss K. Agu assisted by some of my students. Finally, Dr. Rabin formatted the entire manuscript for submission to the publisher electronically. We are proud that this is the first book written and edited completely electronically spanning three continents.

The sculpture on the book's cover is by the contemporary artist, Barbara Rubin-Katz. Throughout human history, sculpture has been the focus of interaction between the need for artistic expression and the materials technology available. The fusion bronze process used in creating this sculpture, which unites flame sprayed functionally graded metals with the sculptor's art, exemplifies this tradition. This abstract sculpture of a torso symbolizes that optimized FGMs can be used to create beauty as well as function.

Dr. Yoshinari Miyamoto, Editor

Professor of Materials Science, Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University. Japan

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the sponsorship of FGM FORUM, The Society for Non-Traditional Technology, Kotohira Kaikan Bldg. 1-2-8, Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0001, Japan. We also appreciate the tremendous patience and support shown by all the contributors.