FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH

FRUIT AND POMACE EXTRACTS

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY, POTENTIAL

APPLICATIONS AND

BENEFICIAL HEALTH EFFECTS

No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form orby any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes noexpressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. Noliability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of informationcontained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged inrendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION

AND HEALTH

Additional books in this series can be found on Novas website

under the Series tab.

Additional e-books in this series can be found on Novas website

under the e-book tab.

FOOD AND BEVERAGE CONSUMPTION AND HEALTH

FRUIT AND POMACE EXTRACTS

BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY, POTENTIAL

APPLICATIONS AND

BENEFICIAL HEALTH EFFECTS

JASON P. OWEN

EDITOR

New York

Copyright 2015 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical

photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher.

We have partnered with Copyright Clearance Center to make it easy for you to obtain permissions

to reuse content from this publication. Simply navigate to this publications page on Novas

website and locate the Get Permission button below the title description. This button is linked

directly to the titles permission page on copyright.com. Alternatively, you can visit

copyright.com and search by title, ISBN, or ISSN.

For further questions about using the service on copyright.com, please contact:

Copyright Clearance Center

Phone: +1-(978) 750-8400 Fax: +1-(978) 750-4470 E-mail: info@copyright.com.

NOTICE TO THE READER

The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or

implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No

liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of

information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special,

consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers use of, or

reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated

and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works.

Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in

this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage

to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise

contained in this publication.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the

subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not

engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert

assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A

DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE

AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS.

Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015935513

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

ISBN: 978-1-63482-510-8 (eBook)

CONTENTS

Preface vii

Chapter 1 Fruit and Pomace Extracts: Applications to Improve the Safety

and Quality of Meat Products 1 P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai

Chapter 2 Valorization of Liquid Effluents from Olive Oil Extraction Activity

in the Production of Ceramic Bricks: Influence of

Conformation Process 29 D. Eliche-Quesada and F. A. Corpas-Iglesias

Chapter 3 Fruit and Pomace Extracts: Applications to Improve the Safety

and Quality of Fish Products 53 F. Gai and P. G. Peiretti

Chapter 4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Pharmaceutic Compounds from

Waste Materials Derived from Vinification Processes 69 Cleofe Palocci and Laura Chronopoulou

Chapter 5 Passion Fruit Pomace Powder: Potential Applications of

Emerging Technologies for Extraction of Pectin 81 Cibele Freitas de Oliveira and Poliana Deyse Gurak

Chapter 6 Hesperetin: Simple Natural Compound with Multiple

Biological Activity 107 Jos Valdo Madeira Junior, Vnia Mayumi Nakajima, Fabiano Jares Contesini, Camilo Barroso Teixeira, Juliana Alves Macedo and Gabriela Alves Macedo

Chapter 7 A Review of the Antimicrobial Activity of Various Solvent Type

Extracts from SOME Fruits and Edible Plants 121 R. C. Jagessar, N. Ramchartar and O. Spencer

Chapter 8 Coconut Water: An Essential Health Drink in Both Natural

and Fermented Forms 145 Mansi Jayantikumar Limbad, Noemi Gutierrez-Maddox

and Nazimah Hamid

Contents vi

Chapter 9 Extraction, Characterization and Potential Health Benefits

of Bioactive Compounds from Selected Cornus Fruits 157 Luminia David and Bianca Moldovan

Chapter 10 Kumquat (Fortunella Spp.): Biochemical Composition and

Prophylactic Actions 189 Theeshan Bahorun, Darshini Narrain, Piteesha Ramlagan

and Chandra Tatsha Bholah

Chapter 11 Aloe Vera Extracts: From Traditional Uses to Modern Medicine 211 Taukoorah Urmeela and Mahomoodally Mohamad Fawzi

Chapter 12 Elderberries Extracts: Biologic Effects, Applications for Therapy:

A Review 227 Mihaela Mirela Bratu and Ticuta Negreanu-Pirjol

Chapter 13 Tumor Cell Growth Activity of Fruit and Pomace Extracts 241 Dragana etojevi-Simin

Chapter 14 Influence of Two Maturation Stages and Three Irrigation Regimes

on Fatty Acid Composition of cv. Arbequina Produced under

Tunisian Growing Conditions 255 Faten Brahmi, Chehab Hechmi, Imed Chraief

and Mohamed Hammami

Index 265

PREFACE

The use of natural or naturally-derived antioxidants, instead of synthetic antioxidants, to

produce foods with a longer shelf life and a higher degree of safety is a growing trend. Fruit

and fruit-processing by-products are considered to be an important source of bioactive

molecules (vitamins C, E, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and dietary fiber) of great

interest for the food industry, although their content varies greatly depending on origin,

source, type of extract and concentration levels. This book discusses biological activity,

potential applications and beneficial health effects of fruit and pomace extracts.

Chapter 1 Meat and meat products are prone to both microbial and oxidative spoilage;

therefore, it is desirable to use a natural preservative with both antimicrobial and antioxidant

properties. This chapter aims to critically review the use of fruit and pomace extracts in order

to improve the safety and quality of meat and meat products, as described in studies recently

carried out worldwide. In particular, the antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of these natural

food additives in fresh or frozen beef, pork and chicken meat products are evaluated.

Chapter 2 Olive oil production industry is characterized by relevant amounts of by-

products that represent an important environmental problem in Mediterranean areas where

they are generated in huge quantities in short periods of time.

In this work the feasibility of using olive wastewater (OW) or olive oil wastewater

(OOW), in bricks, were reported. In order to evaluate how it affects the method of forming

the bricks on the microstructure and properties of ceramic materials, bricks have been molded

by compression or extrusion. The influence of the replacement of fresh water (FW) by wasted

was analyzed. The samples containing FW, OW or OOW (22 wt %) was added to the clay in

order that it acquires enough plasticity to the stage of molding by extrusion. The specimens

molded by extrusion and compression were dried at 110 C (24 hours) and fired at 950 C (3

C/min) for 4 h. Loss on ignition, linear shrinkage, bulk density, water absorption, water

suction, compressive strength, thermal conductivity and microstructural properties values of

the fired samples were investigated depending on the type of waste and method of forming.

Results show that the bricks obtained with olive and olive oil wastewaters are comparable and

slightly better to traditional bricks used fresh water as mixing water in terms of forming and

technological properties of end products. The use of waste decreases bulk density, water

absorption and thermal conductivity, while slightly increases the mechanical strength of

bricks, because of the closed porosity that originates during the combustion process the small

content of organic matter from waste. In addition, the forming by extrusion process turns out

to be more appropriate than the process of compression.

Jason P. Owen viii

The incorporation of OW and OOW wastewaters in bricks can represent a promising way

to valorize these effluents, can alleviate the environmental impact generated by the industry

of extraction of olive oil and, at the same time, represent an economic and water saving for

the ceramic industry.

Chapter 3 The use of natural or naturally-derived antioxidants, instead of synthetic

antioxidants, to produce foods with a longer shelf life and a higher degree of safety is a

growing trend. Fruit and fruit-processing by-products are considered to be an important

source of bioactive molecules (vitamins C, E, carotenoids, phenolic compounds and dietary

fiber) of great interest for the food industry, although their content varies greatly depending

on origin, source, type of extract and concentration levels. After a brief introduction, this

chapter aims to critically review the applications of fruit and pomace extracts from processing

by-products of grape, pomegranate and berry fruits, in improving the safety and quality of

fish products, as described in studies recently carried out worldwide. In particular, the

antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of these natural food additives in the minced muscle of

various marine and freshwater fish species are evaluated.

Chapter 4 Grape cultivation dates back to approximately 6000-8000 years ago.

Nowadays it is still one of the major crops produced worldwide, mostly for wine production.

Accordingly, grape pomace, the solid remain of the wine making process, is produced in

large quantities. The disposal of such waste material is an issue of great ecologic and

economic importance. Some wineries use the material as a fertilizer, while others are selling it

to biogas companies for energy production. However, grape pomace possesses a much higher

potential.

Pomace is composed of grape seeds, stems, pulps and skins and contains

pharmaceutically interesting polyphenolic compounds such as catechin, epicatechin, trans-

resveratrol and procyanidin B1. Such compounds have beneficial effects on human health

including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic and anticarcinogenic activities.

Such interesting compounds may be extracted from grape pomace by the use of organic

solvents, however this procedure has several limitations, including solvent toxicity and the

non-selectivity of the extraction towards lipophilic compounds. Alternative extraction

technologies focus on the use of supercritical fluids. Supercritical CO2 is the most commonly

used solvent, since it is non-toxic, inert and has modest critical values in terms of temperature

and pressure, making its use industrially appealing. By the use of supercritical fluids

extraction, high-quality extracts can be obtained from a variety of raw materials, including

grapes, grape seeds and grape pomace.

Chapter 5 The term passion fruit comprises several species from the genus Passiflora

L., family Passifloraceae; the genus Passiflora consists of approximately 400 species, with

over 150 being native from Brazil. The most important variety cultivated in Brazil for

commercial purposes is the yellow passion fruit, Passiflora edulis Sims f. flavicarpa Degener,

which is used for pulp and juice processing. Passion fruit are climacteric fruits classified

botanically as fleshy fruit with round shape; the edible part of passion fruit (40 %) consists of

pulp with seeds, and approximately 60 % of the peel consists of mesocarp and epicarp. The

valorization of agricultural residues is receiving more attention nowadays, and many

researchers have been evaluating the conversion of by-products into food ingredients and

other value-added materials. Residues obtained from fruits represent an imminent

environmental risk due to the high quantity generated in a short period and their polluting

characteristics. Meanwhile, passion fruit pomace has been highlighted for reuse for its

Preface ix

interesting composition, overcoming environmental issues and adding value to this raw

material. The yellow passion fruit pomace contains bioactive compounds and high levels of

dietary fiber, such as pectin. Pectin is a complex polysaccharide material that can be extracted

from the cell walls of non-graminaceous plants. The structure of pectin is based on 1,4-linked

-D-galacturonic acid and has L-rhamnose residues with side-chains of neutral sugars (mainly

D-galactose and L-arabinose). Pectin is a soluble fiber, and it can be used as a gelling agent

and stabilizer in a variety of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. The utilization of a

suitable method for pectin extraction is significant to maximize its extraction yield and

improve the product quality. Numerous scientific publications have studied the influence of

extraction conditions on the physicochemical characteristics and functional properties of

pectin extracted from various plant tissues. Pectin can be extracted from apple pomace (15-

20% dry matter), citrus albedo (30-35% dry matter), beet pulp (15-20% dry matter) and

passion fruit pomace (10-20% dry matter). The most commonly used method for the

extraction of pectin is direct boiling, named conventional method, which takes up to

approximately two hours to obtain a good yield of pectin. Due to a relatively long period of

direct heating, the extracted pectin undergoes thermal degradation and a lot of time and

energy is spent. Several kinds of new technologies have been studied for enhance extraction

of pectin. Moderate electric field and high pressure are emerging technologies that can be use

to extract the pectin using less time and low temperature. For these reason, this review will

explorer extraction mechanism of these technologies.

Chapter 6 Bioactive compounds are extra nutritional constituents that naturally occur in

small quantities in plant and food products. Most common bioactive compounds include

secondary metabolites, such as antibiotics, mycotoxins, alkaloids, food grade pigments, plant

growth factors, and phenolic compounds. Flavonoids constitute the largest group of plant

phenolics, accounting for over half of the eight thousand naturally occurring phenolic

compounds. Currently, flavanones are obtained by chemical synthesis or extraction from

plants, and these processes are only produced in the glycosylated form. However, there are

environmentally friendly bioprocesses that deserve attention regarding phenolic compound

production, especially in aglycon forms. One of these flavonoids is the hesperetin, that has

recently been recognized for their influence on human metabolism, acting in the prevention of

some chronic diseases, as well as proving to be an important antioxidant in food. In the last

few years, great attention has been paid to bioactive phenolic compounds due to their ability

to promote benefits for human health. Hesperetin is reported to be a powerful radical

scavenger and a promoter of cellular antioxidant defense-related enzyme activities. This

compound exhibited anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting of LPS-induced expression of

the COX-2 gene in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Hesperetin is a potent chemopreventive agent;

its supplementation during the initiation, post-initiation, and entire period stages of colon

carcinogenesis in the male rat model in vivo significantly reversed these activities. In

addition, the aglycon flavanone presents activity against parasites from tropical diseases.

Considering the folk claims, several medicinal compounds (including hesperetin) have been

evaluated for this antifilarial activity. Recent studies showed that hesperetin inhibited (>60%)

the adult worms growth (Wuchereria bancrofti) at 7.8 and 31.2 g/ml concentration. The

bioactive aglycon phenolic compound demonstrates antiviral activity. Experimental tests

showed hesperetin presents inhibition activities of genotype 2 (DENV-2) virus replication.

This flavonoid seems to be usefull also in the treatment of some non-communicable diseases,

such as cardiac diseases, diabetes, hypertension. A hesperetin suspension administered in

Jason P. Owen x

adult male C57BL/6 mice inhibited cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, oxidative stress and

myocytes apoptosis induced by pressure overload and protected against cardiac dysfunction.

In another study, hesperetin enhanced ApoA-I-mediated cholesterol efflux in THP-1

macrophages, which was accompanied by an induction of the ABCA1 gene, which is critical

for cholesterol metabolism. The effect of hesperetin on ABCA1-dependent cholesterol efflux

may be explained by its potency of activation of LXR and PPAR enhancers. In a study

conducted with Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats, hesperitin reduced vascular leakage,

dilatation of retinal vessels and basement membrane thickening. In another study also with

Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats, hesperitin treatment rescued retinal neuroinflammation,

oxidative stress, apoptosis and oedema as a result of chronic uncontrolled hyperglycaemic

state. These studies indicate that hesperitin can be used for the prevention of induced

neurovascular complications caused by descompansated diabetes. Intravenous administration

of hesperetin-7-O-b-D-glucuronide decreased blood pressure in anesthetized spontaneously

hypertensive rat. Furthermore, it enhanced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in response to

acetylcholine, decreased hydrogen peroxide-induced intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and

monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 mRNA expression in rat aortic endothelial cells.

Hesperitin can also be used in management of obesity due to its influence in the control of

hunger and satiety. In this context, the flavanone aglycone caused an increase in the secretion

of cholecystokinin (CCK) in STC-1 cells through increase in intracellular calcium

concentration by the TRP (transient receptor potential) and TRP 1 ankirin channels. The

addition of hesperidin analytical standard in the same model caused no effect. The increase in

CCK would be interesting because this hormone assists in the control of food intake. The

purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the study of obtainment and biological

properties of hesperetin.

Chapter 7 As part of a research initiative to evaluate plants used for their nutritional and

herbal values, the antimicrobial activity of the n-C6H14, CH2Cl2 and CH3CH2OH extract of

Brassica rapa chinensis vegetable, Artocarpus altilis and Solanum melongena fruit and

leaves of Moringa oleifera were investigated. Each plant part was subjected to selective

extraction using solvents of varying polarity: n-C6H14, CH2Cl2, EtOAc and CH3CH2OH.

using the Disc Diffusion Assay under asceptic conditions at a concentrations of 0.025g/ml,

0.05g/ml and 0.1g/ml against pathogens: E.coli, S.aureus, Bacillus species and C. albicans.

Also, the combined CH3CH2OH and n-C6H14 extracts of A. altilis plus Brassica rapa

chinensis at high concentrations were investigated. For each concentration, experimental discs

on a single plate were prepared in triplicates versus a single reference disc. The diameter of

the zone of inhibition, DZOI was measured from which the Area of Zone of Inhibition

(AZOI) was calculated. The highest AZOI of 209.34 mm2 was induced by the CH3CH2OH

extract of Brassica rapa chinensis against E. coli at a concentration of 0.025g/ml and the

CH3CH2OH extract of A. altilis at a low concentration of 0.025g/ml which induces AZOI of

94.89 mm2. The lowest AZOI of 12.56 mm

2 was induced by Brassica rapa chinensis against

Bacillus at a concentration of 0.025g/ml. Zero AZOI was induced by n-C6H14 extract of A.

altilis against all four pathogens at a low concentration of 0.025g/ml. Zero AZOI was also

induced by the n-C6H14 extract of A. altilis at a low concentration of 0.025g/ml against all

four pathogens and the CH3CH2OH extract of A. altilis at a high concentration against all

pathogens. Selective antimicrobial activity were observed in several instances. Interestingly,

the CH2Cl2 and CH3CH2OH extract at low concentration were more antimicrobial than that at

high concentration of A. altilis. A similar trend was noted for the n-C6H14 and CH3CH2OH

Preface xi

extract of Brassica rapa chinensis. Thus these two plants can be used as both antimicrobial

and nutritional agents.

The n-C6H14 and CH3CH2OH extract of Solanum melongena fruit and leaves of Moringa

oleifera were tested for their antimicrobial activity at three different concentrations of 5%,

10% and 20% of crude extracts against Eschericia coli, Staphyloccocus aureus and Klebsiella

pneumoniae. Both the n-C6H14 and CH3CH2OH extracts of Solanum melongena fruit and

Moringa oleifera leaves showed antibacterial activity at a higher concentration of 20% of

crude extract. The order of bacteria susceptibility to Moringa oleifera extract been S. aureus

> K. pneumoniae > E.coli whereas that for Solanum Melongena extract been S. aureus >

E.coli > K. pneumonia. The area of zone of inhibition ranging from 44.15 mm2 to 53.55 mm

2.

These investigations suggest that the extracts of Brassica rapa chinensis, Artocarpus altilis,

Moringa oleifera and Solanum Melongena can be used as antibacterial agents in addition to

their nutritional value.

Chapter 8 Coconut water is the liquid endosperm fluid of the coconut fruit which

contains high amounts of essential nutrients and minerals. This endosperm fluid is a widely

consumed as a beverage in many parts of the world as it provides hydration along with

increased nutritional, health and medicinal benefits. In addition to being used as a medium

constituent, it also acts as a natural biocatalyst. One of the fermented products of coconut

water, coconut water kefir, is made by fermenting coconut water with the kefir granules

which contain essential lactic acid bacteria and yeast spp. known to have health benefits for a

disease-free life. It has many applications in the food industry and functional food market. It

is used as one of the important constituents in a variety of products or can be consumed as-it-

is. It is known to have no undesirable side effects and is said to improve digestion. This

paper reviews the functional properties of coconut water, its applications in the food industry

and recent advancements in this area.

Chapter 9 Cornus is a genus of the Cornaceae plant family, represented by about 30-60

species of woody plants commonly named Dogwoods, widely spread in Europe, Asia and

North America.

From about 2000 years ago, traditional Chinese medicine used different parts of plants

belonging to Cornus genus for treatment of various diseases such as kidney and

gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes, uterine bleeding and bladder incontinence. The fruits and

the bark of Cornus species have been widely used for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-

malarial, anti-bacterial, anti-histamine, anti-allergic, anti-microbial, anti-parasitic, tonic,

febrifuge and vulnerary properties as well as for their inhibitory effect on tumor cell

proliferation.

A high number of bioactive compounds have been identified in Cornus fruits, including

ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, anthocyanins, flavonoids, iridois, terpenoids, compounds

that exert health effects especially by acting as potent antioxidants.

This review will focus on the recent data reported on the extraction, characterization and

biological activities of bioactive compounds isolated from fruits of selected Cornus plants in

order to understand the high nutritional value of these fruits and their possible use as source

of bioactive compounds for developing new pharmacological products.

Chapter 10 Natural plant products continue to be of increasing interest due to the wide

range of health benefits they confer to humans. Citrus fruits have been extensively studied for

their health-promoting potential and have been widely applied in the medical and food

industry. Kumquat, a tropical fruit originally included in the genus Citrus has been classified

Jason P. Owen xii

a century ago in the genus Fortunella. The latter has so far been poorly studied compared to

the genus Citrus, most probably due to its limited distribution and consumption. This chapter

reviews selected interesting findings on phytochemical content of kumquats with emphasis on

their prophylactic effects at biochemical and molecular levels.

Chapter 11 Aloe vera, one of natures most curative medicinal plants, has been

traditionally used as alternative treatment against a plethora of human ailments in various

countries like China, India, and Egypt, amongst others. Its therapeutic attributes have been

well investigated and proven by numerous in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. Native to

North Africa, this succulent plant has been shown to be beneficial in the treatment and

management of a wide range of conditions including skin disorders, constipation, non-insulin

dependent diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disorders, cancer and even AIDS. During the past

recent years, the commercialisation of crude Aloe vera extracts and/or formulated products

has experienced a boom in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic and the wellness industries.

The beneficial effects of Aloe vera can be attributed to the panoply of phytonutrients and

phytochemicals including non-nutritive constituents like phenolic compounds present in the

plant. This chapter attempts to give an updated overview of the therapeutic uses of Aloe vera

extracts and related formulation in the treatment and manage of human diseases.

Chapter 12 As many berries, the fruits of Sambucus nigra (L.) contain large amounts of

flavonoids with different structures, mostly anthocyanins (mainly cyanidin-3-glucoside and

cyanidin-3-sambubioside) and small quanities of flavonols and flavonol ester.

Flavonoids are a broad class of low-molecular-weight secondary metabolites

encompassing more than 10,000 scaffolds, and are commonly found in leaves, seeds, bark

and flowers. Their role in plants is to afford protection against ultraviolet radiation, pathogens

and herbivore animals. Due to their activity as safe and potent antioxidants, they are

considered as important nutraceuticals.

Due to the content in anthocyanins, elderberries have an attractive bright purple color,

which make elderberry anthocyanins extracts valuable foodstuff colorants but also therapeutic

agents.

There are many studies showing the biologic effects of certain elderberries extracts, such

as: in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activities, anti-inflammatory properties, stimulant of cell

division. Some of them offers contradictory information.

There are also reports concerning attempts to formulate and develop new

pharmaceutical/nutraceutical products.

This chapter tries to join together the information concerning the main therapeutic effects

of elderberries extracts as they are presented in the recent publications.

Also, it presents some attempts to apply the elderberries extracts in pharmacy as active

principles.

Chapter 13 Fruit and fruit waste by-products that are usually obtained after industrial

processing should be regarded as a potential nutraceutical resource capable of offering low-

cost, nutritional and health promoting dietary supplements. They can contain significant

amounts of carotenoids, phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins and other bioactive

phytochemicals that can modulate cell proliferation, oxidative reactions in cellular systems

and exert excellent anti-oxidative, anti-microbial, anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic

activities. Fruit and fruit pomace extracts of different genotypes of tomato, pepper, raspberry,

bilberry and rosehip exerted pronounced and selective tumor cell growth inhibition effects in

cervix, breast and colon tumor cells. They also demonstrated favorable non-tumor/tumor cell

Preface xiii

growth ratios and increased apoptosis/necrosis ratios. These are the qualities that favor their

use as healthy food and promote the development of dietary supplements on their basis. Anti-

tumor activity of different fruit species, genotypes and their waste by-products was compared

and discussed with regard to different extraction procedures and bioactive phytochemicals

content.

Chapter 14 The effects of three-irrigation managements (50% evapotranspiration [ETc],

75% ETc and 100% ETc) and two-maturation degrees (maturation I and maturation II) on the

fatty acid composition of fruits from olive grown in Tunisian conditions were evaluated. At

maturation grade I, at the highest level of water supplied to the variety arbequina of olive

produced under Tunisian growing conditions, a statistically significant decrease of oleic acid

percentage (from 66.71 to 64.73%) and an increase of gadoleic and linolenic acids levels

(from 0.6 to 1.53% and from 0.84 to 1.1% respectively) were observed. At the second

maturation stage, an inverse trend of the fatty acids composition at the different water

managements was noted for the linolenic acid. Hence, when the percentage of palmitoleic

acid increased (from 2.42 to 3.16%) the percentage of oleic acid decreased (from 64.94 to

63.35%) as the amount of water supplied to the olive tree increased. These results could be

due the fact that the levels of saturated, polyunsaturated, monounsaturated fatty acids and

oleic to linoleic acid ratio may have undergone some changes during ripening and also to the

three different amounts of water supplied to the olive tree. Therefore, the authors noticed

that, the oleic linoleic acid ratio in the second stage of maturation increased proportionally

with water managements and proportionally with maturation.

In: Fruit and Pomace Extracts ISBN: 978-1-63482-497-2

Editor: Jason P. Owen 2015 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

FRUIT AND POMACE EXTRACTS:

APPLICATIONS TO IMPROVE THE SAFETY

AND QUALITY OF MEAT PRODUCTS

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai Institute of Sciences of Food Production,

Italian National Research Council, Grugliasco, Italy

ABSTRACT

Meat and meat products are prone to both microbial and oxidative spoilage;

therefore, it is desirable to use a natural preservative with both antimicrobial and

antioxidant properties. This chapter aims to critically review the use of fruit and pomace

extracts in order to improve the safety and quality of meat and meat products, as

described in studies recently carried out worldwide. In particular, the antimicrobial and

antioxidant effects of these natural food additives in fresh or frozen beef, pork and

chicken meat products are evaluated.

Keywords: Meat, citrus, apple, grape, pomegranate, plum, berry, antioxidant, antimicrobial

INTRODUCTION

Fruits and pomace extracts are rich sources of antioxidants and can serve as a source of

natural antioxidants for meat products. These antioxidants include fat-soluble vitamins and

precursors, such as carotenoids and tocopherols, as well as flavonoids and the water-soluble

vitamin C (Banerjee et al., 2012). The high content of bioactive compounds (vitamin C,

carotenoids, tocopherols, phenolic compounds and dietary fiber) present in fruit by-products

Tel.: +39 011 6709232; fax: +39 011 6709297.E-mail address: francesco.gai@ispa.cnr.it

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 2

can be used as natural food additives (antioxidants, antimicrobials, colorants, flavorings, and

thickening agents) (Schieber et al., 2001; Abd El-Khalek & Zahran, 2013).

Application of various fruits and their by-products to meat products as natural

antioxidants has been attempted by many researchers. Introducing natural antioxidants into

meat products increases their nutritional value by bringing a health benefit to consumers, and

reducing the doses of synthetic antioxidants currently being used (Bisboaca & Bara, 2011).

By-products of plant food processing are a major disposal problem for the industry

concerned, but they are also promising sources of compounds which may be used because of

their favorable technological or nutritional properties (Schieber et al., 2001).

Significant interest has recently focused on the addition of natural antioxidants to foods

to replace synthetic antioxidants, due to their potential to prolong the shelf life of food

products by inhibiting and delaying lipid oxidation (Rey et al., 2005). Synthetic additives can

reduce food spoilage, but consumers are concerned about chemical residues in food;

therefore, one of the major emerging technologies is the application of natural additives (Abd

El-Khalek and Zahran, 2013). Full utilization of fruits could transform the industry into a

lower-waste agribusiness, increasing industrial profitability (Ayala-Zavala and Gonzlez-

Aguilar, 2011), but application of these natural plant extracts at higher levels might be limited

if the sensory quality of the meat were to be affected. The discovery of new compounds with

specific roles in human metabolism has encouraged food technologists to develop new

processes and soft technologies to preserve the beneficial characteristics of these compounds

(Gonzlez-Aguilar et al., 2008). However, different practical aspects should be borne in mind

concerning their possible application in meat products: extraction efficiency, availability of

sufficient material for subsequent application, and health and safety considerations (Viuda-

Martos et al., 2009).

The use of plant-derived nutraceuticals may afford meat processors the opportunity to

develop novel meat products with enhanced nutritional and health benefits (Carpenter et al.,

2007). But sometimes, when these ingredients are added at high concentrations, their use

results in products of lower sensory and physicochemical quality (Fernndez-Gins et al.,

2005).

The antioxidant potential of fruit and berry extracts against muscle lipid oxidation has

been profusely documented. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to review the information

and studies on fruit and pomace extracts and their applications in meat.

APPLE

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is a good source of total phenolics, carbohydrates,

pectin, minerals and fiber with a well-balanced proportion between soluble and insoluble

fractions (Gorinstein et al., 2001). Apple pomace is a co-product of the apple juice industry,

abundantly available, safe and can be implemented without further fractionation or

purification (Lantto et al., 2006) making it a potential fiber source for food enrichment

(Figuerola et al., 2005) and giving it potential in restructured meat products (Huda et al.,

2014). Furthermore, apple pomace powder, a recovered co-product of an industrial process,

may contain suitable enzyme activities for food protein stabilization (Lantto et al., 2006). The

Fruit and Pomace Extracts 3

incorporation of apple pomace into meat products (Table 1) could help to overcome the fiber

deficit in the current human diet (Huda et al., 2014).

Fernndez-Martn et al., (2000) studied the addition of three non-meat ingredients: apple

fiber, potato starch and plasma proteins to pork meat (low-fat) batters. They processed batters

by cooking alone (70 C) and by a high-pressure/temperature combination (400 MPa/70 C)

and determined some batter characteristics such as water holding and various texture

parameters. No particular interactions were detected between meat batter proteins and non-

meat ingredients. Apple fiber behaved as an inert filler in both kinds of processed batter,

increasing hardness but proved ineffective at improving cohesiveness and water holding in

cooked-only batters.

Lantto et al., (2006) studied the effects of a co-product of an industrial process (freeze-

dried apple pomace powder) containing both tyrosinase and transglutaminase enzyme

activities on heat-induced rheological changes, and on gel hardness in unheated pork meat.

The efficiency of the apple pomace powder was compared with commercial microbial

transglutaminase, mushroom tyrosinase and polyphenol oxidase. All the enzymes studied

were able to improve the gel hardness of unheated meat homogenate at 4C to a certain

extent. These authors concluded that apple pomace powder containing protein-modifying

enzymes other than proteinase has the potential to improve gel formation during heating in

pork meat homogenate.

Table 1. Recent articles about meat and meat products with apple by-product

Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference

Pork meat batters Apple fiber Behave as an inert filler &

Increase hardness

Fernndez-Martn et

al., 2000

Mutton nuggets Apple pomace Reduce hardness, texture, flavor &

overall acceptability scores

Huda et al., 2014

Pork meat

homogenate

Apple powder Improve gel hardness & may

contain suitable

enzyme activities for food protein

stabilization

Lantto et al., 2006

Raw pork sausages Apple puree Together with plum, decrease fat &

increased moisture

Nuez de Gonzalez et

al., 2008a

Low fat chicken

nuggets

Apple pulp Increase dietary fiber content,

redness,

yellowness & chroma index

Verma et al., 2010

Huda et al., (2014) determined pH, cooking yield, emulsion stability, proximate

composition, texture analysis and sensory properties of mutton nuggets produced with the

addition of apple pomace at levels of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. The results of this study

indicate that mutton nuggets containing apple pomace had improved cooking yield and

emulsion stability compared to the control, while pH values were significantly higher for the

control than in the treated samples. Obviously, crude fiber content increased significantly

with increasing levels of apple pomace, while protein, ash and fat contents were significantly

higher in the control and decreased in the treated samples. Among these samples, the mutton

nuggets with 15% apple pomace had significantly higher moisture content. Among textural

properties, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness and gumminess did not change for the apple

pomace-incorporated treatments, whereas the addition of this by-product significantly

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 4

decreased hardness in the meat products. Sensory evaluation showed significant reductions in

flavor, texture, and overall acceptability scores in the treated samples; however, the scores

were in the range of acceptability and 5% apple pomace showed the best acceptability among

the treated samples.

Nuez de Gonzalez et al., (2008a) evaluated the antioxidant properties of 3% or 6% dried

plum and apple purees in both raw and precooked pork sausages, stored either refrigerated or

frozen. The results of objective color evaluations showed that the addition of dried plum and

apple purees together and dried plum puree alone changed the internal color attributes of raw

pork sausage to a small degree by darkening the samples, slightly diluting internal redness,

and increasing yellowness. Consumer sensory evaluations indicated that pork sausage patties

with 3% dried plum and apple purees together or 3% dried plum puree alone were liked as

much as the butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)/ butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) treatment or

control.

Verma et al., (2010) studied the effect of adding apple pulp, at levels of 8%, 10% and

12%, and of a formulation replacing 40% of the common salt with a salt-substitute blend

consisting of potassium chloride, citric acid, tartaric acid and sucrose, on the physico-

chemical, textural and sensory properties of low-fat chicken nuggets. Addition of apple pulp

and replacement of common salt resulted in lower pH, cooking yield, emulsion stability, ash

and protein contents and in higher moisture, dietary fiber and color parameters (redness,

yellowness and chroma index) when compared to control. Textural properties (hardness,

springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness values) of chicken nuggets were

affected by addition of apple pulp and common salt replacement. Sensory evaluation showed

significant reductions in the texture, flavor and overall acceptability scores in treated samples,

while their appearance, saltiness and juiciness scores were almost similar to the control.

CITRUS FRUIT

Citrus fruits are mainly used for juice, oil and pectin production. The by-products

obtained during the processing of citrus fruit to obtain juice are promising new sources of

phenolic antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds (myricetin, mangiferin, gallic acid and

hydrolysable tannins, which are most likely gallotannins, constitute the major antioxidant

polyphenolics) and offering new commercial opportunities to the food industry (Gonzlez-

Aguilar et al., 2008). The antimicrobial activity of citrus by-products obtained from industrial

manipulation of citrus fruit depended on the volatile oils present in their rinds; indeed,

mandarin rind powder was the most effective, followed by orange rind powder and then

grapefruit rind powder. Since limonene was present at very high and similar concentrations in

the three citrus peels, the greater antimicrobial activity of mandarin essential oil might not be

attributable to limonene, but probably to the presence of other essential oil constituents, given

the higher proportion of oxygenated monoterpenes in mandarin. Citrus fruits are an important

source of flavonoids (hesperidin, narirutin, naringin and eriocitrin) and vitamin C (Schieber et

al., 2001). Kinnow or Tangerine (Citrus reticulata) is a citrus fruit variety grown in northern

Indian states. In the process of juice extraction, 3034% of kinnow peel is obtained as a major

by-product. Kinnow peel is a rich source of vitamin C, carotenoids, limonene, and

polyphenolic antioxidants (Anwar et al., 2008). Hesperidin was selected by Fernndez-Lpez

Fruit and Pomace Extracts 5

et al., (2007) as the most suitable compound for monitoring polyphenol changes in sausages

added with citrus fiber during processing. Citrus bioflavonoids reportedly have wide-ranging

antimicrobial properties effective against a broad range of human pathogens, fungi and food

spoilage organisms (Fernndez-Lpez et al., 2005). Citrus by-products can be considered as

potential ingredients of meat products (Table 2), because of their ability to reduce residual

nitrite levels, thus avoiding the possible formation of nitrosamides and nitrosamines (Viuda-

Martos et al., 2009). Health concerns relating to the use of nitrates and nitrites in cooked and

dry cured meats tend toward decreased usage to alleviate the potential risk to consumers from

formation of carcinogenic compounds.

Alesn-Carbonell et al., (2005) assessed that albedo of citrus fruits could be an

interesting functional ingredient to improve the cooking properties of beef patties, because

better fat and water retention reduces cooking losses in meats. Furthermore, if an increase in

dietary fiber is normally recommended in some specific diets, the increased fiber content

constitutes an additional nutritional benefit for the consumer. The use of citrus fiber could be

attractive to some consumers as a positive alternative to conventional fillers in meat-based

products. The effects of citrus fruit (lemon, orange, mandarin, etc.) extracts and their by-

products (albedo, rind and fiber powder, etc.) have been reported on lipid oxidation of meat

products, whether fresh (Alesn-Carbonell et al., 2005), cooked (Viuda-Martos et al., 2009)

or dry cured (Fernndez-Lpez et al., 2008).

Abd El-Khalek and Zahran (2013) evaluated the use of fruit by-products such as

mandarin rind powder, orange rind powder, and grapefruit rind powder, with or without

irradiation on color change, microbial growth and lipid oxidation of raw ground beef meat

stored at 41C.

Table 2. Recent articles about meat and meat products with citrus by-products

Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference

Ground beef meat Citrus by-products Increase nutritive value, preserve

& extend shelf life

Abd El-Khalek &

Zahran, 2013

Dry-cured

sausages

Raw & cooked lemon

albedo

Decrease nitrite levels & delay

oxidation development

Alesn-Carbonell et al.,

2003, 2004

Beef burger Lemon albedo Improve cooking properties &

increase fiber content

Alesn-Carbonell et al.,

2005

Raw ground goat

meat

Kinnow rind powder Antioxidant effect Devatkal & Naveena,

2010

Goat meat patties Kinnow rind powder Antioxidant effect Devatkal et al., 2010

Swedish-style

meatballs

Orange & lemon

extracts

Control rancidity & off-flavor

development

Fernndez-Lpez et al.,

2005

Dry-cured

sausages

Orange dietary fiber Decrease residual nitrite levels Fernndez-Lpez et al.,

2007

Dry-fermented

sausages

Orange dietary fiber Decrease residual nitrite levels &

favor micrococcus growth

Fernndez-Lpez et al.,

2008

Fresh ground

chicken

Citrus extract Slight preservative effect Mexis et al., 2012

Dry-cured sausage

& Bologna

sausage

Lemon albedo &

orange dietary fiber

Reduce nitrite levels, thus

avoiding the formation of

nitrosamines & nitrosamides

Viuda-Martos et al.,

2009

Bologna sausage Orange dietary fiber Improve shelf life of meat

products

Viuda-Martos et al.,

2010a,b

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 6

They found that color parameters were significantly affected by the additives used. All

treatments increased lightness values significantly compared to the control over the 21 days

of storage, while treatment with 2% grapefruit rind powder and control had the highest

redness values and gave greater stability to the samples with regards to red discoloration of

ground meat compared to other treatments. The results show that at day 0 different treatments

caused a significant increase in yellowness values over the control value. All by-product

additives significantly extended the shelf life of ground meat compared with the control,

reducing total bacterial, lactic acid bacteria and total mold and yeast counts. Concerning lipid

oxidation, control meat showed significantly higher malonaldehyde content throughout the

storage period than treated meat. Abd El-Khalek and Zahran (2013) concluded that citrus by-

products combined with NaCl or irradiation preserved ground meat and extended its shelf

life for more than 21 days and can therefore be used in biotechnological fields as natural

preservatives for the food industry. In contrast, Mexis et al., (2012) found that the addition of

citrus extract had only a slight preservative effect on fresh ground chicken meat.

Alesn-Carbonell et al., (2003, 2004) studied the effect on compositional, textural, and

sensory characteristics of different types of lemon albedo (raw and cooked) when these by-

products were added at different concentrations (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%) to dry-cured

sausages. Products that contained 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% of cooked albedo and 2.5% of raw

albedo demonstrated sensory properties similar to conventional sausages (Alesn-Carbonell

et al., 2003). Addition of 7.5 % of dehydrated cooked albedo or 5% of dehydrated raw albedo

yielded products with sensory properties similar to those of control sausages (Alesn-

Carbonell et al., 2004). These authors concluded that the addition of lemon albedo to dry-

cured sausages improves their nutritional properties and may have beneficial effects due to

the presence of active biocompounds that decrease residual nitrite levels and delay oxidation

development. Furthermore, they suggested that a good source of dietary fiber, such as lemon

albedo, could be successfully used in other processed meats or other food products, including

dairy and bakery products.

Alesn-Carbonell et al., (2005) studied the effect of adding four concentrations (0%,

2.5%, 5% and 7.5%) of lemon albedo prepared using four different methods (either cooking

and/or drying and mincing) on the quality attributes of beef burgers including: pH, fat

oxidation, compositional analysis, cooking characteristics, color, texture profile analysis and a

range of sensory attributes. These authors found that pH and lipid oxidation of samples were

slightly affected by the type of albedo, while some treatment types significantly improved the

cooking properties of meat patties when compared with the controls. Color parameters

showed differences in lightness, yellowness and redness, while gumminess, springiness,

hardness and chewiness grew as albedo concentration increased.

Devatkal & Naveena (2010) studied the effect of 2% kinnow fruit by-product powder +

2% salt on color and oxidative stability of raw ground goat meat stored at 4C. Addition of

salt resulted in a reduction in redness scores. Lightness increased in controls and was

unchanged in treated samples during storage, while redness scores declined and yellowness

showed inconsistent changes. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values in

meat treated with kinnow fruit was lower than control meat throughout storage and the

percentage reduction in TBARS values was 123%. Salt accelerated TBARS formation, and

by-products of kinnow fruit counteracted this effect. Therefore, they concluded that this

powder had the potential to be used as a natural antioxidant to minimize autooxidation and

salt-induced lipid oxidation in raw ground goat meat. Devatkal et al., (2010) evaluated the

Fruit and Pomace Extracts 7

anti-oxidant effect of extracts of kinnow rind powder in goat meat patties. The results of this

study showed that this extract was a rich source of phenolic compounds with free radical-

scavenging activity; the authors concluded that extracts of this powder had potential for use as

a natural anti-oxidant in meat products.

Fernndez-Gins et al., (2003) showed that the addition of orange fiber powder (0.5, 1,

1.5, and 2%) to cooked Bologna sausage improved its nutritional value, decreased residual

nitrite levels, and delayed the oxidation process. These authors reported that microbial growth

was not modified by citrus fiber during storage and the products were harder and less springy

and chewy at all concentrations of citrus fiber in comparison with untreated samples. All

samples had similarly satisfactory quality scores except sausage with 2% orange fiber

powder, which scored the lowest.

Fernndez-Lpez et al., (2005) evaluated the antioxidant and antibacterial effect of

orange and lemon extracts in cooked Swedish-style meatballs in comparison with rosemary

and garlic extracts. They found that the application of citrus extracts and rosemary improved

the acceptability of the product. Activity in a lard system was established for all the extracts

and further determination of the development of rancidity measured as TBARS consistently

showed that about 50% of rancidity can be controlled by the citrus preparations, while water-

soluble and oil-soluble rosemary extracts were more effective, almost completely eliminating

rancidity. They concluded that the application of orange and lemon extracts could serve to

control the development of rancidity and off-flavors, and could have additional effects such as

water binding.

The use of orange fiber at five concentrations (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2%) as an

ingredient in dry-cured sausages was studied by Fernndez-Lpez et al., (2007). They found

that TBARS values increased in all samples during drying, with higher increases in control

than in treatment samples and concluded that this juice industry by-product has a protective

effect from oxidation and due to the decrease in residual nitrite level could prevent

nitrosamide and nitrosamine formation in meat products. The authors supposed that the high

reactivity of nitrites could lead to a reaction with the polyphenols present in orange fiber.

They also determined the polyphenol composition of each formulation and its evolution

during dry-curing, and found that hesperidin was the most important phenolic compound in

orange fiber and in sausages to which this fiber has been added.

Fernndez-Lpez et al., (2008) studied the effect of adding three concentrations (0%, 1%

and 2%) of orange fiber to Spanish dry-fermented sausages on their stability. Microbiological

(aerobic mesophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae and

mold and yeast counts), chemical (moisture, lactic acid and residual nitrite level),

physicochemical (pH and water activity) and sensory analyses were performed by these

authors. They concluded that the use of orange fiber as an ingredient has no negative effects

upon the fermentation or dry-curing processes of dry-fermented sausages. They found that

orange fiber addition during fermentation affected residual nitrite levels and counts of

micrococcus, while fiber addition during dry-curing affected pH and water activity, while

decreasing residual nitrite level and favoring micrococcus growth. Both effects have a

positive impact on sausage quality and safety. Finally, similar scores for all sensory attributes

were found for control sausages and sausages with 1% orange fiber, while the excessively

low pH reached in sausages with 2% orange fiber could cause changes in texture and color

that could affect the perception of taste, appearance and color.

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 8

Mexis et al., (2012) investigated the combined effect of a citrus extract (0.1% and 0.2%)

and an oxygen absorber (Ageless FX type) on shelf-life extension in fresh ground chicken

stored at 4 C. The authors monitored microbiological changes (total viable count, lactic acid

bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, and Clostridium spp.), physicochemical changes

(pH, total volatile nitrogen, and color) and sensory changes (odor, color, and taste) as a

function of treatment and storage time. Results showed that addition of the citrus extract led

to a shelf-life extension of about 2 days, while the use of the oxygen absorber substantially

increased product shelf life by approx. 3 days as compared to control samples. A 4-5 day

product shelf-life extension was achieved using the combination of 0.1% citrus extract and

oxygen absorber.

Viuda-Martos et al., (2009) described the latest advances in the use of citrus by-products

(albedo, dietetic fiber obtained from the whole co-product, and washing water used in the

process to obtain the dietetic fiber) in meat products as a potential ingredient to reduce

sodium or potassium nitrite content. These salts are widely used as a curing agent in cured

meat products, because they develop the characteristic flavor, inhibit outgrowth and

neurotoxin formation by Clostridium botulinum, delay the development of oxidative

rancidity, react with myoglobin and stabilize the red meat color. Citrus fiber shows the

highest potential to reduce any nitrites that have not reacted with myoglobin, followed by

albedo and finally washing water. Viuda-Martos et al., (2010a) found that 1% orange dietary

fiber and spice essential oils (0.02% rosemary essential oil or 0.02% thyme essential oil)

could find a use in the food industry to improve the shelf life of a Bologna-type sausage

called mortadella. Fibre content affected the moisture, fat, ash content and color coordinates

of lightness and yellowness. The treatments analysed lowered the extent of lipid oxidation

and the levels of residual nitrite, while analysis of the samples revealed the presence of

hesperidin and narirutin. The treated samples stored in vacuum packaging showed the lowest

aerobic and lactic acid bacteria counts and no psychotropic bacteria or enterobacteria were

found in any of the treatments. Sensorially, the most appreciated sample was the one

containing orange dietary fiber and rosemary essential oil, stored in vacuum packaging.

Viuda-Martos et al., (2010b) studied the effect of adding 1% orange dietary fiber and 0.02%

oregano essential oil and of various storage conditions (air, modified atmosphere and

vacuum) on the shelf-life of Bologna sausage. These authors found that samples with orange

fiber and oregano essential oil showed the lowest aerobic and lactic acid bacteria counts and

lowest TBARS values when they were stored in vacuum packaging, while samples with

orange fiber and oregano essential oil showed similar sensory evaluation scores when stored

either in air or in vacuum packaging. Viuda-Martos et al., (2010a,b) concluded that orange

dietary fiber and essential oils could find a use in the food industry to improve the shelf life of

various meat products.

GRAPE

Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) seed extract has been investigated for use as an antioxidant in a

few meat types and has been reported to improve the oxidative stability of goat meat

(Rababah et al., 2011), turkey patties, and cooled stored turkey meat (Lau & King, 2003;

Mielnik et al., 2006). Many studies have shown that grapes are used for increasing shelf life

Fruit and Pomace Extracts 9

in meat and meat products (Ahn et al., 2002; Ahn et al., 2007; Kulkarni et al., 2011). Grape

extract would probably be a more effective preservative in precooked or cooked meat

products (Ban et al., 2007), especially when lipid oxidation of high-fat ground meat

products compromises quality (Tables 3a and 3b).

Table 3a. Recent articles about meat and meat products with grape by-product

Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference

Cooked ground beef Grape seed extract Improve oxidative stability &

reduce warmed-over flavor

development

Ahn et al., 2002

Cooked ground beef Grape seed extract Positive effect on microbial

growth, color change & lipid

oxidation

Ahn et al., 2007

Raw beef patties Grape seed extract Increase shelf life Ban et al., 2007

Ground chicken thigh

meat

Grape seed extract Inhibit TBARS formation &

mitigate the prooxidative effects

of NaCl

Brannan, 2008

Ground chicken thigh

& breast

Grape seed extract Inhibit intensity of musty &

rancid odor, & rancid flavor

Brannan, 2009

Cooked pork patties Grape seed extract Decrease lipid oxidation Carpenter et al., 2007

Pork burger Red grape pomace

extract

Increase color stability &

acceptability & decrease lipid

oxidation

Garrido et al., 2011

Fried beef patties Grape seed extract Inhibit formation of heterocyclic

amines

Gibis & Weiss, 2012

Pre-cooked, frozen,

re-heated beef

sausage

Grape seed extract Protect against oxidation &

retain fresh odor & flavor longer

Kulkarni et al., 2011

Ground dark turkey

meat

Grape seed extract Inhibit development of TBARS Lau & King, 2003

Ahn et al., (2002) evaluated the effectiveness of selected natural antioxidants added to

meat samples at levels of 0.02%, 0.05% and 0.1% to reduce warmed-over flavor development

in cooked ground beef. They found that 0.1% grape seed extract reduced hexanal content by

97% after 3 d of refrigerated storage, while treated meat showed significantly lower TBARS

values than control meat. These authors reported no adverse effects of this natural plant

extract on flavor and aroma at the 0.02% level.

Ahn et al., (2007) studied the effects of 1% grape seed extract on the growth of foodborne

pathogens, color changes, and lipid oxidation of cooked ground beef compared to untreated

and butylated hydroxyanisole/butylated hydroxytoluene-treated meat.

When compared to the control, grape seed extract effectively reduced numbers of

Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhimurium, and retarded the growth of Listeria

monocytogenes and Aeromonas hydrophila. The color of cooked beef treated with grape seed

extract was less light, more red, and less yellow than those treated with butylated

hydroxyanisole/butylated hydroxytoluene and other plant extracts (pine bark and oleoresin

rosemary). The control showed significantly higher hexanal content and TBARS during

storage than cooked ground beef treated with plant extracts. Indeed, grape seed extract

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 10

retarded the formation of TBARS by 92% after 9 days, and significantly lowered hexanal

content throughout the storage period.

Table 3b. Recent articles about meat and meat products with grape by-product

Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference

Pork patties Grape extract Increase the quality & extend the

shelf-life

Lorenzo et al., 2014

Cooked turkey breast

meat

Grape seed extract Improve oxidative stability

during heat treatment & storage

Mielnik et al., 2006

Cooked pork patties Grape skin Provide partial protection against

lipid oxidation

Nissen et al., 2004

Pig liver pt Grape seed extract Reduce the oxidative

deterioration of lipid

Pateiro et al., 2014

Irradiated & non-

irradiated chicken

breast meat

Grape seed extract Prevent & minimize major

sensory changes during

irradiation

Rababah et al., 2005

Irradiated & non-

irradiated chicken

breast meat

Grape seed extract Decrease the amount of TBARS,

hexanal

& pentanal values

Rababah et al., 2006

Baladi Goat Meats Grape seed extract Minimize lipid oxidation Rababah et al., 2011

Cooked beef & pork

patties

Grape seed extract Reduce oxidative rancidity &

improve shelf life

Rojas & Brewer, 2007

Raw beef & pork

patties

Grape seed extract Provide minimal protection

against oxidation

Rojas & Brewer, 2008

Beef patties Grape pomace

extract

Inhibit some foodborne

pathogens

Sad et al., 2011

Raw & cooked

chicken meat

Grape seed & peel

extracts

Prevent lipid oxidation & alter

color of cooked meat

Selani et al., 2011

Ban et al., (2007) proposed grape seed and green tea extracts as preservatives for

increasing the shelf life of low-sulphite raw beef patties, comparing the antimicrobial and

antioxidant activities of both extracts with ascorbate. These authors evaluated meat spoilage

(total viable and coliform counts, pH, color parameters, metmyoglobin and TBARS) and

pointed to the possibility of using low-sodium metabisulphite/vegetable extract combinations

to preserve raw-meat products. In particular, they found that ascorbate, grape seed and green

tea extracts delayed microbial spoilage, redness loss and lipid oxidation, and improved the

preservative effects of SO2 on beef patties, especially against meat oxidation. No anomalous

sensory traits were caused by either extract.

Brannan (2008) examined the effect of 0.1% grape seed extract and 1% NaCl on ground

chicken thigh meat during refrigerated storage at different relative humidity levels. Grape

seed extract delayed the reduction of water activity that occurred during refrigerated storage,

but had no effect on pH or moisture content compared to the untreated control. This extract is

an effective antioxidant in ground chicken thigh meat that inhibits the formation of TBARS

compared to the untreated control, helps to mitigate the prooxidative effects of NaCl, and may

alter the effects of NaCl on protein solubility in salted chicken patties.

Brannan (2009) performed sensory, instrumental color, yield, pH, water activity, and

binding strength analyses on ground chicken thigh and breast with or without grape seed

extract during refrigerated storage. This author concluded that grape seed extract may be an

Fruit and Pomace Extracts 11

effective antioxidant in precooked chicken breast systems. Indeed, this extract inhibited the

intensity of musty and rancid odor, and rancid flavor compared to control patties, but in

chicken thigh and breast, grape seed extract caused significantly darker, redder, and less

yellow patties, while the differences in sensory scores were only due to storage time or

precooking.

Carpenter et al., (2007) assessed the effect of grape seed extract (01000 g/g muscle) on

lipid oxidation, color, pH, microbial status and organoleptic properties of raw and cooked

pork patties during chilled storage. The addition of grape seed extract resulted in minor

increases in the surface color of raw and cooked pork and decreases in TBARS in raw pork

patties on days 9 and 12 of storage, relative to controls. The redness value of raw and cooked

pork patties increased marginally with increasing grape seed extract concentration. The eating

quality of cooked pork, mesophilic plate counts and pork pH was unaffected by grape seed

extract addition.

Garrido et al., (2011) studied the effect on meat quality (pH, microbial spoilage, lipid

oxidation and color parameters) of two different types of red grape pomace extracts (0.06

g/100 g final product) obtained by different extraction systems in pork burgers packed under

aerobic conditions. The addition of these two extracts did not affect their microbial spoilage

and pH value. The lightness value of pork burgers decreased (darker meat) on day 6 when

grape pomace extract was added. These authors concluded that the new extraction system

(methanolic extraction + High-Low Instantaneous Pressure) could be a valid alternative to

optimize the purity of the grape pomace extracts in order to use them as a preservative in

meat foodstuffs.

Gibis & Weiss (2012) assessed the ability of water-in-oil marinades containing grape

seed extract (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 g/100 g) to reduce formation of heterocyclic amines in fried

beef patties. These authors found four heterocyclic amines (MeIQx, PhIP, Harman, and

Norharman) in low concentrations in fried patties and the content of MeIQx (2-amino-3,8-

dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline) and PhIP (2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo

[4,5b]pyridine) reduced significantly, by 57% and 90%, respectively, after use of marinades

containing the highest extract concentration. The antioxidant capacity of grape seed was also

compared with rosemary extract and resulted about two times greater. They concluded that

both lipophilic and hydrophilic fractions of these extracts contain polyphenols that are

apparently able to partition to the reaction site, thereby inhibiting heterocyclic amine

formation. Marinating is thus a useful pre-treatment for meats prior to heating, and it should

be considered as a recommended method for decreasing daily exposure of consumers to

heterocyclic amines.

Kulkarni et al., (2011) compared grape seed extract (100, 300, and 500 ppm) to common

antioxidants (ascorbic acid at 100 ppm of fat and propyl gallate at 100 ppm of fat) in a pre-

cooked, frozen, stored meat model system sausage (70% lean beef, 28% pork fat and 2%

salt). After addition of grape seed extract or common antioxidants, the meat product was

formed into rolls, frozen, sliced into patties, cooked on a flat griddle to 70 C, overwrapped in

PVC, then frozen at 18 C for 4 months. Based on sensory characteristics, instrumental color

and TBARS values, grape seed extract at concentrations of 100 and 300 ppm generally

performed as well as propyl gallate in maintaining product quality throughout the storage

period and these samples retained their fresh cooked beef flavor and odor longer than controls

during the 4-month storage period.

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 12

Lau & King (2003) reported that the addition of 1% and 2% grape seed extract with 85.4

g of gallic acid equiv/100 g to dark poultry meat patties effectively inhibited the development

of TBARS, with treated samples having 10-fold lower TBARS values compared to untreated

controls.

Lorenzo et al., (2014) evaluated four natural extracts from grape, tea, chestnut and

seaweed with potential antioxidant activity. The addition of these natural antioxidants had a

preservative effect in porcine patties during 20 days of storage in modified atmosphere packs

at 2 C. Among the four natural compounds tested, grape and tea extracts showed the most

potential as alternatives to commercial antioxidants and both led to a decrease in

Pseudomonas, total viable counts, lactic acid and psychotropic aerobic bacteria compared to

the control. In particular, grape extract inhibited discoloration in refrigerated patties by

reducing the increase in yellowness and loss of redness. These authors stated that the

protective effect on the desirable red color of raw patties may influence consumer purchase

decisions.

Mielnik et al., (2006) tested the efficiency of four concentrations of grape seed extract (0,

0.4, 0.8, and 1.6 g/kg) in retarding the oxidative rancidity of cooked turkey breast meat.

Development of lipid oxidation over the 13 days of refrigerated storage was evaluated by

means of TBARS and volatile compound (hexanal, pentanal, octanal, 2-octenal, 1-octen-3-ol,

2-octen-1-ol, and 1-penten-3-ol) formation. The authors found that the ability of this extract

to prevent lipid oxidation was concentration-dependent and concluded that the addition of

grape seed extract combined with vacuum-packaging should be considered as a good method

for improving lipid stability in cooked poultry meat.

Nissen et al., (2004) compared the antioxidative efficiency of extract of grape skin with

rosemary, green tea, and coffee extracts in precooked pork patties over 10 days of storage at

4C in atmospheric air. They used descriptive sensory profiling following reheating and

quantitative measurements of hexanal, TBARS and vitamin E as indicators of lipid oxidation.

All extracts retarded lipid oxidation during processing of the pork patties, because their initial

oxidative status showed a significantly lower level of secondary oxidation products and

higher levels of vitamin E when extracts were incorporated. The effect of the extracts

incorporated in the meat was clearly related to the degree of lipid oxidation and an overall

ranking of the antioxidative efficiency of extracts in increasing order became apparent:

Coffee

Fruit and Pomace Extracts 13

they concluded that it would be advisable to replace the synthetic antioxidant with these

natural extracts.

Rababah et al., (2005) evaluated the effectiveness of commercial grape seed extract (3000

ppm), green tea extract (3000 ppm), and a combination of the two (6000 ppm) on the sensory

evaluation of irradiated chicken breasts (at a dosage of 3.0 kGy) using instrumental,

descriptive, and consumer tests. The results showed that infusing plant extracts into skinless,

boneless chicken breast meats could be an effective technique for minimizing undesirable

changes in sensory properties during irradiation, which increases texture attributes, though

does not affect sensory flavor attributes apart from giving the meat a brothy flavor. These

authors concluded that the infusion of chicken meat with green tea extract is an effective

method for enhancing the sensory changes caused by irradiation, while the addition of grape

seed extract increased the darkness and redness of the meat samples. Rababah et al., (2006)

also investigated the effect of irradiation on volatile compounds and TBARS contents in raw

and cooked non-irradiated and irradiated chicken breast meat infused with green tea and

grape seed extracts and stored at 5C for 12 d. They found that irradiation increased hexanal

and TBARS values both of meat infused with plant extracts and controls, while cooking the

samples increased the amounts of TBARS and volatiles. They concluded that though

irradiation increased lipid oxidation, infusion of chicken meat with plant extracts could

reduce the lipid oxidation caused by irradiation because the addition of plant extracts

decreased the amount of TBARS as well as hexanal and pentanal values in comparison with

un-infused meat. Finally, Rababah et al., (2011) evaluated the effect of commercial grape

seed or green tea in combination with synthetic tert methyl-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) at

different concentrations on lipid oxidation and the redness of goat meats stored at 5C for 3,

6, and 9 days. They found that the infusion of goat meat with TBHQ and these plant extracts

is an effective method for minimizing lipid oxidation caused by storage; in particular, TBHQ

was the most effective antioxidant at retarding lipid oxidation in goat meat, while grape seed

and green tea extracts/combinations at a higher level (6000 ppm) were more effective than at

a lower level (3000 ppm).

Rojas & Brewer (2007) determined the effect of grape seed extract (0.01% and 0.02%),

oleoresin rosemary (0.02%) and water-soluble oregano extract (0.02%) mixed with salt (2%)

on oxidative and color stability in cooked beef and pork patties stored at 4C for 2, 4, 6, and 8

d. The higher grape seed extract concentration resulted in the best antioxidant activity in both

beef and pork and did not affect instrumental color measures of redness, yellowness, or color

intensity, and appeared to reduce visual green discoloration in beef patties. Therefore, grape

seed extract at 0.02% has the potential to reduce oxidative rancidity and improve shelf life in

refrigerated cooked beef and pork patties. Rojas & Brewer (2008) also studied the effect of

grape seed extract, oleoresin rosemary and water-soluble oregano extract mixed with salt on

the oxidative and color stability of raw beef and pork patties, vacuum packaged and stored

frozen at -18C for 1, 2, 3 and 4 months. Lipid oxidation was assessed using TBARS and

descriptive sensory evaluation and varied little between different extracts, while minimal

oxidation occurred, probably because the product had not been precooked; therefore little, if

any, lipid oxidation would have been initiated, and the product was vacuum packaged, which

excluded oxygen, thus limiting the progress of any oxidative rancidity that may have been

initiated. Moreover, the authors stated that the concentrations of polyphenolics in these

extracts varied substantially from those used in other studies. Grape seed extract addition

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 14

provided small degrees of protection against oxidation in both meat species and did not alter

the sensory perception of oxidation, redness, yellowness or color intensity.

Sad et al., (2011) compared the antimicrobial effects against food spoilage

microorganisms, yeast and moulds and lipolytic bacteria and against foodborne pathogens,

coliform bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae of grape pomace ethanolic extracts obtained from 5

different grape varieties grown in Turkey (Emir, Gamay, Kalecik Karas, Narince, and

kzgz). The extracts were concentrated, incorporated into beef patties at 0%, 1%, 2%,

5%, and 10% concentrations and stored in the refrigerator (4C) for 2, 12, 24, and 48 h.

During the storage period, microorganism numbers generally decreased in proportion to

extract concentration and all the microorganisms tested were inhibited by the extract

concentration of 10%. Furthermore, foodborne pathogens and spoilage microorganisms were

also inhibited by 5% of Emir (white grape cultivar), Gamay (red grape cultivar), and Kalecik

Karas (red grape cultivar) varieties in beef patties. The authors concluded that environmental

and agricultural factors can also influence the composition of grape pomace extracts and this

should be taken into account when classifying grape cultivar extracts in respect of their

antimicrobial effectiveness.

Selani et al., (2011) studied the effect of grape seed and peel extracts obtained from two

different grape varieties (Isabel and Niagara) grown in Brazil on pH, lipid oxidation, color

and sensory properties of raw and cooked processed chicken meat stored at 18C for nine

months. Neither extracts altered the pH values of raw and cooked samples or the color of raw

samples, but they led to alterations in the color of the cooked product (darkening and lower

intensity of red and yellow color). In the sensory evaluation, only the Niagara variety

interfered with the natural chicken meat flavor and odor. These two grape residue extracts,

that showed considerable amounts of total phenolic compounds, containing the flavonoids

catechin and epicatechin as major compounds, were effective in inhibiting the lipid oxidation

of meat, with results comparable to a synthetic antioxidant (0.01% BHT) or a commercial

mixture of sodium erythorbate, citric acid and sugar. These authors stated that the use of

residues from the wine industry as natural antioxidants, combined with the use of vacuum

packaging and storage under freezing temperatures, may be considered an effective method

for retarding lipid oxidation in both raw and cooked processed chicken meat.

PLUM

Various dried plum puree ingredients have been promoted to aid the retention of juices in

precooked meat and poultry products (Table 4) and have been reported to function as

antioxidants, antimicrobials, fat replacers, and flavorings (Karakaya et al., 2011). In fact,

plum (Prunus domestica L.) contains a known humectant, sorbitol, which has the potential to

alleviate the dry mouth-feel in low-fat meat because it naturally binds moisture (Lee &

Ahn, 2005). These authors evaluated the effects of plum extract (1%, 2% and 3%) on the

quality characteristics of vacuum-packaged, irradiated ready-to-eat turkey breast rolls at 0 and

7 days of storage. They found that the addition of plum extract had no detectable effect on the

proximate composition, but decreased lightness value and increased redness and yellowness

values of this ready-to-eat product due to the original color of plum extract. However, the

color of sample with 3% plum extract was dark and might not be appealing to consumers. The

Fruit and Pomace Extracts 15

juiciness of turkey breast rolls was increased by plum extract, while texture was not

influenced. The authors recommended the addition of 3% or higher of plum extract with the

aim of improving mouth-feel and antioxidant effect in irradiated turkey breast rolls.

Table 4. Recent articles about meat and meat products with plum by-product

Meat product Type of ingredient Impact on product Reference

Turkey breast rolls Plum extract Increase juiciness, control lipid

oxidation & production of

aldehydes

Lee & Ahn, 2005

Precooked pork

sausage patties

Dried plum puree Increase sweetness Leheska et al., 2006

Chicken breast

fillets marinated

Dried plum products Suitable substitute for alkaline

phosphates as a marinade

Jarvis et al., 2012

Raw pork sausages Dried plum puree Suppress lipid oxidation Nuez de Gonzalez et al.,

2008a

Boneless beef roasts Fresh & dried plum

juice concentrate,

spray dried plum

powder

Reduce lipid oxidation &

warmed-over flavor

Nuez de Gonzalez et al.,

2008b

Boneless ham

muscles

Fresh & dried plum

juice concentrate,

spray dried plum

powder

No differences Nuez de Gonzalez et al.,

2009

Low fat beef patties Plum puree Increase juiciness & texture

scores

Yldz-Turp & Serdarolu,

2010

Leheska et al., (2006) evaluated the phenolic content and sensory attributes of precooked

pork sausage patties enhanced with 5% or 10% dried plum puree in comparison with 5% or

10% blueberry puree. Results indicate that adding dried plum puree to precooked pork

breakfast sausage increased total phenolics. Trained sensory panel evaluations showed that

dried plum puree treatments were significantly sweeter than all other treatments, in fact, as

the fruit amount increased, sweetness scores also increased with the dried plum puree

treatments being sweeter than the blueberry puree treatments. On the consumer panel, 70% of

children said they would eat the dried plum puree sausages again, while 90% said they would

like to eat the blueberry puree sausage again. Therefore, the concentration of dried plum

puree may need to be reduced to increase the number of children who would choose to eat the

sausage again.

In order to address the growing demand for more natural poultry products, Jarvis et al.,

(2012) determined physical and sensory attributes of vacuum-marinated boneless breast meat

containing various dried plum ingredients (0.06% dried plum fiber, 0.06% dried plum

powder, 1.1% and 2.2% plum juice concentrate, 0.06% and 0.22% fiber/powder mix), as

compared to the traditional marinade with 0.06% and 0.45% sodium tripolyphosphate

(STPP). The combination of plum powder and plum fiber marinade was found to have similar

sensory characteristics when compared to STPP in boneless/skinless chicken breast fillets for

a majority of the attributes measured. Plum concentrate at 1.1% produced an equivalent

marinade pick-up as compared to STPP, and drip loss was comparable to STPP for both

concentrations of plum concentrate. Cooking loss for the STPP treatment was similar to the

P. G. Peiretti and F. Gai 16

plum fiber/powder mix at 0.22% and the 1.1% plum concentrate. No differences were

observed in thaw loss for any treatment as compared to STPP. The authors concluded that a

blend of plum fiber and powder or a plum concentrate could be a suitable substitute for the

alkaline phosphates commonly used in chicken breast meat marinades.

Phenolic compounds in dried plums appear to be the main contributors to their

antioxidant capacity. Therefore, this may be a useful natural ingredient for retarding lipid

oxidation in raw ground or precooked pork sausage that routinely contains higher levels of fat

than other processed meat products. Nuez de Gonzalez et al., (2008a) determined the

antioxidant properties of dried plum purees (3% or 6% dried plum puree and 3% or 6% dried

plum and apple puree) in both raw and precooked pork sausages stored either refrigerated or