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CANADIANJOURNALOFEDUCATION30,1(2007):113136
FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS:AYOUNG
BOYSAPPROPRIATIONOFLITERACY
PRACTICES
KimberlyLenters
UniversityofBritishColumbia
Thiscase
study
addresses
amiddle
class
family
srole
in
their
son
sliteracy
developmentthroughaninvestigationofthesocioculturalpracticesthatsupporthis
literacyacquisition. Rogoffssocioculturalframework,whichproposesthreeplanes
of analysis for observation of human development, is used for the analysis. The
literacy practices ofMax (age 8) are the central focus. The analysis explores how
community, interpersonal, and personal literacy activities connect to form holistic
literacypracticesforhim.Insightsintothenatureofpeerinteractionsaroundliteracy,
gender considerations in family literacy, andboys outofschool literacy practices
emergefromthisanalysis.
Keywords: sociocultural perspectives on literacy;multiliteracies; family literacy;
genderandliteracy
Ltudedecasprsente iciportesur le rledeparentsdeclassemoyennedans le
dveloppement de la littratie de leur fils. Le cadre socioculturel de Rogoff, qui
proposetroisaxesdanalysepourlobservationdudveloppementdeltrehumain,
est utilis dans lanalyse des pratiques socioculturelles qui favorisent la littratie.
LarticleporteessentiellementsurlespratiquesdelittratiedeMax(8ans). Lauteur
analyse le lien entre diverses activits communautaires, interpersonnelles et
personnelles en matire de littratie et lapparition subsquente de pratiques de
littratieholistiqueschezMax. Lanalysefournitdespointsderepresurlalittratie
etlesinteractionsentredespairs,lesdiffrencesentrelessexesetlalittratiefamiliale
ainsiqueles pratiquesdelittratiechezlesgaronsendehorsdumilieuscolaire.
Mots cls: perspectives socioculturelles sur la littratie, multilittraties, littratie
familiale,littratieetsexes
_________________
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114 KIMBERLYLENTERS
The phrase lifelong reader has been ubiquitous in the literature on
literacy instructionoverthepastthreedecades. Researchdemonstrates
that the strongest readers,and theonesmost likely tobecome lifelong
readers,are thosewhoengagedeeplywithreading (Guthrie,2004)and
readforpleasureoutsideofschool(Anderson,Wilson,&Fielding,1988;
Applebee,Langer,&Mullis,1988). Furthermore,someresearchsuggests
thatwhenchildrensvernacularliteracypracticesareacknowledgedand
respected, these practices provide the foundation of prior knowledge
and experience necessary for effective teaching and learning to take
place in school (Hall&Coles,2001,p.220).Thisacknowledgementof
personal literacypractices is also important for fostering in children a
conceptionofthemselvesasindependent,successfulreadersandwriters
(Hall&Coles,2001).Anacknowledgementofthe importanceofoutofschool reading for many children leads to one of the questions
considered in this study:what roledo familiesplay inencouragingan
enduringengagementwithliteracyintheiryoungermembers?
Additionally, boys literacy development has recently become an
important topic inWestern countriesbecause of the apparent crisis in
boys literacy learning.Whether one subscribes to the notion of crisis
regardingboysandliteracyornot(seeFoster,Kimmel,&Skelton,2001;
Martino,2003), it is,nonetheless,anareaof concern formany families
andteachers. Recognizingthatanyattempttounderstandthesubjectof
boys literacyrequiresmorethanabroadbrushanalysisofallboys,the
purposeof
this
case
study
is
to
investigate
the
particular
kinds
of
socio
cultural practices occurring in the context of a family and its wider
communitythatsupportamiddleclassboyinhisliteracydevelopment.
Investigating the sociocultural background of young readers is
fundamentaltoanunderstandingofthatwhichhelpsthemsucceedwith
the more formal aspects of schooling (e.g., Heath, 1994; Barton &
Hamilton,2000).GivenHallandColes (1999)findingsthatboystendto
read less thangirls (a relativelystable trendovermanydecades, ifnot
centuries,andagapthat increasesaschildrengrowup),developingan
understandingofliteracypracticesinfamilieswhoseboysdoparticipate
inawiderangeofliteracyactivitiesmayinformthecurrentdiscussionof
boys literacypractices. Thisinvestigationthusalignswiththeimportant
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 115
injunction to ask, Whichboys? (Millard, 1997) in any investigation
involvingboys literacy.
RESEARCHMETHOD:CONTEXTANDDESIGN
Participants
Iusedanintensitycasesamplingstrategy(Miles&Huberman,1994)to
selectacasethatwas informationrichtodemonstrate thephenomenon
of families whose boys are deeply engaged with literacy. The
participants chosen for this studywere amother and father,Kay and
OwenHollowayRichards,andtheirtwosons,MaxandSam,aged8and
5respectivelyatthetimeofthestudy(pseudonymshavebeenassigned).
Both parentswere educated at the postgraduate level. Kay, a social
worker,worked approximately halftime outside of the home. Owen
worked as a socialworker and taught on a sessionalbasis at a local
university.Max attended thirdgrade at a localprimary school,where
Sam also attended senior kindergarten. (The province in which the
familyresidedoffershalfdaykindergartenforchildrenaged4and5,for
a total of two years of publicly funded preprimary education.)
Although I referencemembers ofHollowayRichards family and their
widercommunitysuchasextendedfamily,peers,andteachersasapart
ofthesocioculturalapproachtothestudy,theliteracypracticesofMax
arethefocalpointforthiscasestudy.
Setting
TheHollowayRichards family resided in a resourcerich,middle class
neighbourhoodofalargeurbanareaincentralCanada. Theirhomewas
situateddirectly across the street from the elementary school theboys
attended. The family frequented a public library, located beside the
school,aboutahalfblockfromtheirhome. Afewdoorsawayfromthe
familyshome,a formerpolice station servedasa thrivingcommunity
centre;bothboyshadattendedafterschoolanddaycarecareprograms
there. Inside the familyshome, textsofall typeswere found inevery
room. Theseranged froma largecollectionofmusiconcompactdisk,
several video cassettes and DVDs of childrens movies, and home
movies,
to
notes
in
the
kitchen
and
study
and
signs
on
the
children
s
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116 KIMBERLYLENTERS
bedroom door; to newspapers, magazines, and collections of books
belongingtoallmembersofthefamily,locatedthroughoutthehouse.
Design
Theoretical Framework. Grounded in a sociocultural approach tounderstanding literacy, I have used Rogoffs (1995) sociocultural
framework that proposes three planes of analysis for observation of
humandevelopment. ThisframeworkbuildsonVygotskysconception
of apprenticeship (Vygotsky, 1978), the theoretical work of Boas in
culturalanthropology(1920,citedinWertsch,Rio,&Alvarez,1995),and
Bakhtins(1981)workinlanguageanddiscourse.Rogoff(1995)describes
threedifferentplanesof focus insocioculturalactivity:apprenticeship,
guidedparticipation,
and
participatory
appropriation.
These
planes
correspondtothecommunityorinstitutional,theinterpersonal,andthe
personal respectively,which are inseparable and nonhierarchical and
involve different grains of focus within the whole sociocultural
activity(p.141).Adetailedandrichunderstandingofliteracypractices
is made possible by employing the finegrained analysis that this
framework offers. A strength of Rogoffs work is its widened focus
related tochildrenscognitivedevelopment. Althoughadultactivity in
apprenticingchildren incognitiveactivitiesremainsan important focal
point, Rogoffmovesbeyond Vygotskywith the notion that attention
must also focus on the the active nature of childrens own efforts to
participate
[in]
and
observe
the
skilled
activities
of
their
community
(p.149). Inthismanner,bothchildrenandadultsareviewedasagentful
participants in a childs cognitive development, which is seen as
participatoryappropriationthroughguidedparticipationinasystemof
apprenticeship.
WithinRogoffsframework,activitiesoreventsareusedastheunit
of analysis, enabling the investigation of the inseparable relationship
betweentheindividualandthesocialandculturalenvironments:inthis
study theunitof analysis is the literacy event. Barton andHamilton
(2000) define literacy events as activities where literacy has a role.
Literacy isdefined in this study as one of a range of communicative
resources available tomembers of a community (Barton&Hamilton,
2000,p.10)andthereforeconceivesthetextsutilized in literatepractice
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 117
as emanating from a range of verbal, visual, and written forms of
communication. I have also used Barton and Hamiltons (2000)
conception of literacy practices as referring to what people do with
literacy, or more specifically, situated literacies related to cultural
ways of utilising literacy (p. 8). This conception includes the values,
attitudes,andsocialrelationships thatshapepeoplesunderstandingof
literacy.
DataSources.Data sources includemyobservationsof the familyshomeandcommunitywithinafourblockradius;videofootageofMax
readingwithhisparents,andaskitwrittenandperformedbyMaxand
hispeers;transcribedinterviewswithMaxandhisparents;andartefactsrepresentativeofhiswritinganddrawingfromthetwomonthperiodof
thestudy. Iconducted thesemistructured interviewswithMax in twosessions; the semistructured interviews with the parents were
conductedseparatelyandcontinuedviaemailthroughaseriesofback
andforthconversations.
DataAnalysis. Ianalyzedthedatabyfirstlocatingtheliteracyevents
andactivitiesthatconnectedtoformholisticliteracypractices,practices
that frequently extend across time and location and involve a host of
participants. Thesepracticeswereanalyzedusingamatrix thatcoded
the events and activities within each practice as demonstrations of
apprenticeship, guided participation, and participatory appropriation,
notingwhereeachevent tookplaceandwho theparticipantswere(see
AppendixA).
The
final
product
was
aset
of
seven
different
literacy
practices (Barton & Hamilton, 2000) taking place within two
constellations:Maxsfamilyand thewidersocialconstellation inwhich
his family is embedded. I triangulated the thickdescriptions ofMaxs
literacy practices with recent research on boys literacy practices to
provide results thatmaybe translatable (Goetz&LeCompte, 1984) in
understanding the literacy practices of other middleclass boys. I
employed peer debriefing and member checking to establish the
credibilityofthestudy.
LITERACYPRACTICESINTHEFAMILYCONSTELLATION
Literacy events within his family constellation provide an excellent
startingplacetounderstandMaxsliteracydevelopment.Ihavegrouped
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118 KIMBERLYLENTERS
these events into larger units, conceptualized as literacy practices, in
recognition of the understanding that they represent culturalways of
utilizingliteracy(Barton&Hamilton,2000). Literacypracticesobserved
include enhancing the bedtime story and incorporating electronic
literacytools.
EnhancingtheBedtimeStory:TheElementofChoice
Related toMaxsapprenticeship into thebedtimestory literacypractice
isOwens interest in introducinghis sons to favouritenovels fromhis
own childhood and the familys interest in reading together popular
favourites such as theHarryPotter series (e.g.,Rowling, 1999). Owen
stated, I try to sharemypassionwith theboys in thehope that it is
contagious.Kay
summed
up
her
approach
to
genre
selection:
Wetryveryhardtomeetourchildrenwheretheyareat,evenifitmeansCaptain
Underpants[(Pilkey,1997)],andTheDayMyButtExploded[sic][(Griffiths,2001)].
However,wegetall thejoysofTheHobbit [(Tolkien,1937/1996)],which Ihad
neverread,andHarryPotter[(e.g.,Rowling,1999)],whichweareALLhugefans
of.(Kay)
ByengagingMaxinthisliteraturethroughtheirownpassionforreading
novels and time spent interacting with them (guided participation)
duringthebedtimestorypractice,OwenandKayledMaxtotheplaceof
participatoryappropriation.Asaresultof thisappropriation,Max took
thenovels
he
read
at
home
(with
Owen
and
Kay
and
on
his
own)
to
schooltoreplacethelevelledreadersmostofhisthirdgradepeerswere
requiredtoreadintheirliteracyprogram.Maxexplained:
Wehavebookbagsand its like levelledbooks: soyouhave thebookatyour
certainlevel. ButImatthehighestlevelthereisandImallowedtobringinmy
ownbooks,anykindofbook,justnot if its likeWebstersCollegeDictionary!
AnythingIlike.(Max)
Maxelaboratedthatheoftensharedthecontentofwhathewasreading
withhisclassmatesduringclassreadingtime,evidenceofhistakingon
anapprenticingrolewithhispeers.
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 119
At the timeof thisstudy,MaxcitedTheHobbit (Tolkien,1937/1996)
andSinbad(Fremont,2003)asnovelshereadathomeandtooktoschool.
Sinbad isoneofhis fatherschildhood favourites,and,asnotedearlier,
TheHobbit is a novel hismother cites as one that shemissed in her
growingupyears. Throughthesepractices,Inotehowthethreeplanes
of cultural activity, apprenticeship, guided participation, and
participatoryappropriation,workholisticallyandinarecursivemanner,
withinthefamilyandextendoutwardtoMaxspeers.
IncorporatingElectronicLiteracyTools
TheHollowayRichards family, as is true ofmany families, provided
theirchildrenwithanarrayofliteracytoolsbeyondbooks. Paper,pens,
markers,art
supplies,
and
their
own
desks
were
all
well
utilized
by
Max
andhisbrother. Theuseof thecomputerasa literacy toolwillbe the
focusofthissection. Fromhisearliestdays,Maxsparentsusedahome
computer for work and pleasure. Apprenticed into the use of the
computer for these purposes through observing his parents,Maxwas
alsoguided inhisuseofthis literacy toolthroughbeingshownhowto
findthelettersonthekeyboard,playinggamesoneducationalwebsites,
andnavigating the internet to find information forpersonal interestor
schoolresearch. Asaneightyearold,Maxused thecomputer towrite
plays and stories of his own and to visit websites related to his
Warhammer(GamesWorkshop,n.d.)gaminginterest.
His
use
of
the
computer
as
a
literacy
tool
is
an
area
where
Max
has
moved fromperipheralparticipation to takingongreaterresponsibility
formanagingtheactivity(Rogoff,1995,p.157)becauseitwasmediated
byhisownexpressedinterests. Forexample,whenaskedifheenjoyed
using the computer, he replied, Well, its kind ofboring, unless Im
lookingup informationorontheGamesWorkshopwebsite. Thatsthe
stuff I like to look at: the rest is really boring. After making the
statement, Typings okay, depending on what Im typing, Max
launched intoanenthusiasticexplanationofa storyhewaswritingon
the home computer for severalweeks. In describing the Three Pigs
Adventure,whichheindependentlychosetowrite,Maxsaidheplanned
to turn it into a childrensbook likeCaptainUnderpants (e.g., Pilkey,
1997), but more like the Day My Butt Went Psycho (Griffiths, 2001)
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120 KIMBERLYLENTERS
becauseitisgoingtobealongerchapterbook. Anexcerpt(unedited)
from the Three Pigs Adventure demonstrates how Max has actively
incorporatedterminologyandthemes,suchasbattlinggianttoiletsfrom
theCaptainUnderpantsseriesintohiswriting.
Chapter1
Adventure
Onceuponatimetherewerethreelittlepigs.
2weresmartand1plainstupid. ALL
wantedtotakeanadventure. So,they
wentintothewoodsofdarknessand
thengottothefirstgate. Therewasaman,whose
namewasJohn,atthegate. Hetoldthemtheyhad
toenteracodetogetin. Itwasveryeasy. Theyleftthewoodsandsawatoilet. Itwashugeand
scary. Theyranbackhomeforthenight.
Chapter2
Butwhentheywentback,theyfoundoutthey
wereinpeeworldthenthe
stupidpigsaidIforgetthepointofcoming
here. Wellsaidthesmartpig,letslook
around.Okay,theysaid,letsgo.theysaidbut
theydidntknowtherewaslotsofdangeraheadof
themselves.Wellitsa
longstorythathappenedalongtimeago.oneday.(Maxsstory)
The story goes on to describe the pigs adventure in a manner
reminiscentofTolkiensstorytellingvoice inTheHobbit. It thenmoves
into a third chapter, which introduces characters from The Hobbit,
reflecting another intertextual link in Maxs writing. This example
indicatesMaxindependentlyappropriatedtheuseofthecomputerasa
literacy tool to suit his own personal needs and interests, while
simultaneouslyincorporatinghisgenreinterests.
These two examples demonstrate some of the holistic literacy
practicesinMaxsliteratelifeasamemberofhisfamily.Simultaneously,
they illustrateaspectsof thesociocultural foundationofMaxs literacy
practicesbothinthepastandatthetimeofthisstudy,whilesettingthe
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 121
stage for understanding his enthusiasm for a wide range of literacy
activityoutsideofthefamilyconstellation.
LITERACY PRACTICES IN THE WIDER COMMUNITY
CONSTELLATION
ThissectionprovidesexamplesofMaxsparticipatoryappropriationof
literate practicebeyond his immediate family. Interconnected literacy
events are grouped into the following literacy practices: extending
genres of choice into personalwriting, turning play intobookmaking,
writingplayscripts,developingcartooningskills,andsongwriting.
ExtendingGenresofChoiceintoPersonalWriting
Maxsparents
philosophy
regarding
what
constitutes
good
reading
materialwhich translated into theirwillingness to readbooks such as
Adventures of Captain Underpants (Pilkey, 1997) with their sons was
sharedby some of the families ofMaxs friends. This phenomenon
within the familyswider sociocultural constellation led to this series
becoming apopular topic ofdiscussionbetweenMax andhis friends,
subsequentlyleadingtotheirparticipatoryappropriationofthereading
activity through the coconstruction of their own series of stories
entitled, Tushyman. Max elaborated: Wemade,me and some ofmy
friends,wemadeup this superhero calledTushyman. Hes related to
CaptainUnderpantsbasically. Andwewrite anddraw comics for it.
Stuff like that. Active participation, at the heart of participatory
appropriation, isseen in thewritingof thesestories takingplaceathis
ownhomeandthehomesofhispeers,aswellasduringindoorrecessat
school (ondayswhen inclementweather kept students indoors).This
extendedwriting activitywas a source of great fun and tremendous
prideforMaxandhisfriendsovertheperiodofaboutayearandahalf,
whiletheywereinthesecondgradeandtheearlypartofthethirdgrade.
TurningPlayintoBookmaking
WhenMaxwasinthesecondgrade,heandOwenreadthroughASeries
ofUnfortunate Events (e.g., Snicket, 1999). The shared reading of this
seriesfollowed thesamepatternastheothernovels introducedtoMax
byhisparents: theystartedreading thenovels together,andMaxsoon
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122 KIMBERLYLENTERS
tookover,readingonhisown. Inthispractice,Maxlikelybecamewell
acquainted with the language and tone utilized in the series. The
unfortunateeventsalsobecameanactivityaroundwhichMaxandhis
friendsorganized theirplay. Forexample,aroleplayinggame,which
tookplaceontheschoolplaygroundatrecess,wasdeemedsocoolthat
wewantedtoturn it intoabook. Aftertalkingaboutitforsometime
withone friend,Bradley,butnotactuallygettingaround towriting it,
Maxjustdecidedtostartwritingitonedayathomewhenhewasjust
wanting to write something. The resultant piece, Souls of Swords,
demonstratesMaxsparticipatoryappropriationoftheliteratepracticeof
transformingplay into text,theappropriationofthewordsand toneof
theSeriesofUnfortunateEvents(e.g.,Snicket,1999),andincorporationof
characters from The Lord of the Rings, along with the action of theplaygroundgame(seeFigure1).
Similarly,MaxandhisfriendMikebegananewstoryentitledSuper
Snowman. Maxelaborated:Hes likeasnowmanthatfightscrimeand
stuff. Something likecrime. Likewhatweplayandstuff. Inbothof
thesewrittenproducts,Maxworked interdependently withhispeers,
takingonactive anddynamically changing rolesasheandhis friends
usedwriting to capture the fun they experienced in their play. These
stories provide another strong example of peer apprenticing; an
illustrationofRogoffscontentionthattheapprenticeshipmodeldoesnot
solelycompriseanadulttochildtransmissionmode.
WritingPlayScripts
Whilestillinthesecondgrade,MaxandhisfriendsattendedCubScout
camp. Severalmonthsafterthecamp,Maxsschoolheldatalentshow
where studentsauditioned forapart ina show tobepresented to the
whole school and their families. Max and three of the friendswho
attendedtheCubScoutcampusedtheirmemoryofaskitthattheyhad
seentowriteaplayscriptforthetalentshow. Theirversionoftheskit,
entitledBigRedLollipop,wasscribedinskitformatbythemotherofone
oftheboys. Inthismanner,theskittheyhadviewedatCubScoutcamp
apprenticed them into the performance genre. Then through the
mothers help with the scriptmaking, they took part in the guided
participation needed to define their roles and practice the skit. This
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 123
guidance enabled them to confidently present their own skit for the
talent show (participatory appropriation). In this example, cultural
practices in the wider community guided and influenced the boys
literacypractice.
Figure1:SoulsofSwords
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124 KIMBERLYLENTERS
DevelopingCartooningSkills
Owen and Kay had both grown up reading comic books, comic
anthologies,andcomicstripsinthenewspaper,inadditiontootherprint
forms of literature. InKayshousehold, comicswerenot classified as
goodliterature butweretolerated. Owenhadamonghispossessionsa
collectionofCalvinandHobbesanthologies(e.g.,Watterson,1992)when
heandKaymet;Maxexpressedinterestinthiscollectionatanearlyage.
Comicstripsinmagazineswereamonghisfavouritetextstoreadwhen
hewas in kindergarten and grade one. In particular he enjoyed the
Bionicle comic strips in Lego magazines, the comic strips found in
Chickadeemagazines, and theCaptainUnderpants series (Pilkey,1997),
whichiswritteninagraphicnovelformat.
The librarianatMaxs schoolhad recentlybecome concernedwith
findingalternativewaystoengageboys in literacy. Abouttwomonths
beforethisstudybegan,alongwithafatherfromtheschoolcommunity,
she initiatedaboysonlyreadingclub.Comicbookswereused inthe
clubashighinterestreadingmaterial. AlthoughMaxhadreadcomics
andusedcartooning inhisbookmaking,asevidenced in theTushyman
series forexample,hebeganexperimenting,alongwitha friend, with
more formal cartooning techniques outside the reading club, using a
howtocartoonbook(Hart,1994). Thiscartooningbookandtheguided
participation affordedby the study of comics as a genre in theboys
readingclublaunchedMaxintothepursuitofpractisingandperfecting
hiscartooningskills. Asaresult,hiscartooningtookonamorepolishedqualityofwhichhewasveryproud. Thisactivitysparkedaninterestin
hisyoungerbrotherSamwhoproudly toldme thathisbrotherdraws
cartoons and that he himself hadjust coloured a cartoon thatwas a
small body and a big head duck that says Quack! Through his
participatory appropriation of the cartoon genre,Max apprenticed his
youngerbrother. Additionally, Kay reported thatMaxwould take a
cartooning course througha local communityprogram, thereby taking
part in another set of sociocultural literacy activities thatwould lead
him through apprenticeship, guided participation, and participatory
appropriationofthepracticeofcartooningatahigherlevel.
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 125
SongWriting
Owen has an electric guitar and amplifier with which he has
experimentedformanyyears. Asapreschooler,Maxbecameinterested
in playingwith this guitar; at the age of seven he received his own
electricguitar.GuidedparticipationensuedasMaxbegantotakeguitar
lessonsandplaybandwithhisfriends. Maxalsobecameveryinterested
in rock starBruceSpringsteen,afterOwenandKay introducedhim to
hisalbums. Kaydescribedthissharingastheirendeavourtofeed[our
sons]interestswheneverpossiblewithwrittenmaterial. Forexample
OwengaveMaxamagazinefeaturingBruceSpringsteenforhisbirthday
[thisyear]asMaxisahugefan. Thisphenomenonisalsoanexample
ofwhatOwendescribedasan importantpartof theirparental role in
theirchildrensliteracydevelopment:discussingwhattheyarereading
andwhat they are interested in to link interests towrittenmaterials.
TheseformsofapprenticeshipandguidedparticipationledMaxtotake
his interest inSpringsteen as a songwriter andhis interest inmaking
music to the level ofparticipatory appropriation ashe engaged in the
personalliteracyactivityofwritingasong.
onceIleftmyhousesayinIm
goinawayeverybodycriedsoIsaid
ImgoinawaybutIdontcare
youar
Chorus
youaremyoldtownIamyour
uptownbutImgoinaway
goinaway.SotriedIdidagainthats
whyImgoinawaygoinaway
soonceIwasaround
Theblockandyoucameuptome
andIsaid
Chorus (Max)
ThisunediteddraftofanuntitledsongwrittenbyMaxdemonstrateshis
participatory appropriation of song writing. Its lyrics, reminiscent of
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126 KIMBERLYLENTERS
Springsteens style in LuckyTown (Springsteen, 1992), again provide a
glimpseintotheintertextuallinksMaxutilizesinhiswriting.
Together,theseexamplesofMaxs literacypracticesclearlysupport
one of the premises of Rogoffs Planes of Sociocultural Activity: the
contention that it isnotjust adultswho exercise agency in the childs
cognitivedevelopment.Maxs literacydevelopment,ashe interactsand
engageswith thewidercommunity,veryclearlydemonstrateshisown
active efforts to participate [in] and observe the skilled activities
(Rogoff,1995,p.149)ofhiscommunity.
DISCUSSION
This case study demonstrates how one boys literate practices move
betweenbeing
developed
within
his
family
constellation
and
within
the
context of hiswider community. Comparing these practiceswith the
extant literature on boys and literacy may help inform scholars
understandingof thekindsof socioculturalpractices in thehomeand
community that support primary schoolaged boys in their literacy
development.
BeyondtheBedtimeStory
The bedtime story, often viewed as a middleclass construction that
prepares young children for classroom discourse (Gee, 1990; Heath,
1994),hasbeenseenasimportantinfamilyliteratepractice(Heath,1983;
Sulzby & Teale, 1991). This understanding, which has led to the
privilegingofthebedtimestoryastheprimaryliteracypracticeinwhich
familiesshouldengage theirpreschoolchildren,drawscriticism in that
itsperceivedpreeminencehas the tendency todeny thesignificanceof
othervaluableliteratepracticesinwhichmanyfamiliesengage,suchas
theoraltradition(Auerbach,1997;Taylor&DorseyGaines,1988).Inthis
casestudy,thepracticeofstorybookreadingundoubtedlyhasprovided
ameans foryounger familymembers toexpand family literatepractice
into wider community literate practices with peers, in a variety of
locations, reachingbeyond classroomhours.But theremaybemoreat
work here: as Rogoff states, such arrangements and engagements
subsequently construct and transform cultural practices with each
successive generation (Rogoff, 1995, p. 148). The dialogic nature
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 127
(Bahktin,1981)ofstorybookreadingintheHollowayRichardsfamilyis
noteworthyinthisregard.AsKayandOwensownchildhoodfavourite
textsinformtheiruseofthestorybookritual,thepassingonoffavourite
stories isblendedwith new family favourites informedby their sons
interests.This intergenerationaldialogue from theparentsgeneration
toMaxs generation is reminiscent of the oral tradition. The dialogic
natureofthesestoriesinMaxslifeisevident,notonlyinhisenjoyment
ofthesefamilytexts,butalsointhewayheincorporateselementsofhis
parents favouritetextsintothestoriesandsonglyricshewrites.
Good Literature
The enduring discussion of what constitutes acceptable literature for
childrenis
familiar
to
most
educators.
Furthermore,
comic
books
themselves have been the subject of heated debate for decades (see
Norton,2003). Thenovelseries,AdventuresofCaptainUnderpants, from
which Max and his friends made many intertextual links, has been
challenged for its attention tobodily functions, and purported lack of
respectforauthorityfigures. Sometitlesintheserieshavebeenremoved
from the shelves of school libraries in someAmerican schooldistricts
(e.g., American Library Association, 2002), though it has survived
challenges elsewhere in the United States (e.g., American Library
Association,1999). Maxsparents take theposition thatsupportinghis
interestinsuchtextsisoneimportantcomponentinengaginghimwith
literacy.
Indeed,
this
series
played
an
important
role
in
sparking
interest
inreadingandwritingforMaxandhisfriendsinhisearlyschoolyears,
andwasonecatalyst for thecartoonwriting/drawingMaxcontinuesto
refineasathirdgradestudent.
Maxsparentscorrelate theirconsciouschoicesaround thekindsof
textstheyencourageMaxtoreadwithhissuccesswithinschoolliteracy.
Could itbe that a form of scaffoldingmaybehelpful forMax in this
regard? In addition to the positive associationsMax is formingwith
literature considered acceptablewithin the literary canon, such asThe
Hobbit(Tolkien1937/1996),Maxsparentsalsoencouragedhimtoengage
withreadingandwritingtextsthatappealedtohissenseofhumourand
personal interest,throughavarietyofliteratepractices,suchasreading
AdventuresofCaptainUnderpants(e.g.,Pilkey,1997)andwritinghisown
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128 KIMBERLYLENTERS
version, Tushyman. Here again, Maxs parents conception of what
counts as literature enabled Max to connect personal interestwith a
varietyof typesofnarrative text.Canadianresearchershavenoted that
this harnessing of personal interest is highly important for engaging
boyswith literacy (Blair& Sanford, 2004; Sokal,Katz,Adkins,Gladu,
JacksonDavis, & Kussin, 2005), and lends credence to Blair and
Sandfords(2004)suggestionthatfindingwaystobringtheoutofschool
literacy practices of boys into the school curriculum, or morphing
literacy (p.452) through the tappingofpersonal interest, incorporation
ofaction, insuranceof success,andbeingmindfulof funandpurpose
may go a long way toward keeping boys reading for a variety of
purposes.
ReadingwithPeers
Onthecuspofhisintermediateschoolyears,theimportanceofpeersin
Maxsliteratepracticesisevident. Maxreportedthathedidnotactually
readwithhisfriends,inschooloroutofschool.However,thereisample
evidenceofMaxsfrequentparticipationinliteracyeventswithhispeers:
a peertopeer system of apprenticeship. Not only is this practice
frequent, itwasasourceofgreatprideandenjoyment forMax.All the
examples of coconstructed texts discussedbyMax were, to varying
degrees,undertakenwithpeers. Thefact thatMaxspent timeengaged
inliterateactivitywithhispeers,outsideofschoolhours,lendssupport
to
the
contention
that
peers
play
an
integral
role
in
young
children
s
literacy learning at home (Kendrick, Anderson, Smythe, & MacKay,
2003,p.252),aconclusiondrawnfromastudyoffirst andsecondgrade
children,butnonethelessapplicable toMaxandhis friends inthe third
grade as they continued to take an active role in each others literate
practice. Theway inwhichMax and one friend planned to turn the
actionofplay intoa coconstructed text isone suchexample. Though
Max did, in the end,write Souls of Swordsby himself, the discussion
around turning thegame intoawrittenstory isapowerfulexampleof
peertopeer apprenticeship. The cartoon writing, whichbegan with
theirTushyman series ingradeoneand carriedon into the thirdgrade
with the refiningof their cartooning skills, is another exampleofpeer
apprenticeship. Although participants shifted in this peer
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 129
apprenticeship system, there is nonetheless strong evidence of its
existence.
GenderandFamilyLiteracy
The findings in thisstudyconcurwithNutbrownandHannons (2003)
familyliteracystudy,whichfoundthatfathersplayanimportantrolein
the literacydevelopmentof thechildren.Owensprominentrole in the
system of apprenticeship to literate practice experiencedbyMaxmay
lendsupporttoaparticularexplanatorytheoryregardingthegendergap
inliteracyachievementreportedbymanyWesternnations(seeGambell
&Hunter,2000). TheDivisionofFamilyLabor theory (Solsken,1993)
suggeststhatchildrenreproduce theirhomeexperiences intheirschool
literacylearning.
Some
studies
are
beginning
to
show
the
impact
of
the
attitude of significantmale rolemodels toward reading as one of the
most decisive factors in determining the attitudes of male children
towardreading(Cartwright&Marshall,2001,citedinSokal,2002). This
certainly appears to be the case with this family; however, Maxs
mothersroleinhisliteracydevelopmentisbynomeansnegligible. As
demonstrated in the data,Maxs literate practice, while undoubtedly
robustly shaped by his fathers participation in the apprenticeship
process, may be more accurately characterized as apprenticeship
throughguidedparticipationintoparticipatoryappropriationthrougha
rangeofculturalinfluences,thoseofhismotherandfather,aswellashis
peers,
his
extended
family,
and
institutions
such
as
preschool,
school,
daycare, and Cub Scouts: influences that encompass both male and
femalerolemodels.
Issuesofgenderemergewhenlookingattheboysonlybookclub
Max participates in one lunch hour perweek. Such groups are often
premisedonthelineofthinking,presentinsomeeducationalcircles,that
boyslearndifferentlyfromgirlsandthereforetheirdevelopmentisbest
facilitatedingendersegregatedsituations(Sax,2005). Reasoningsuchas
thismayhaveformedpartoftherationaleforthelibrariansofferingof
the segregated club, although Kay observes that itwas concern over
boys reading skills lagging behind girls in Maxs school that gave
impetus to starting the club. It may be that such a club made
participatinginliteratepracticeanacceptableororpossiblyahighstatus
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130 KIMBERLYLENTERS
activityfortheboyswhotookpartinit. However,thegenderednature
oftheclub,whichwasconcerningtoMaxsfather,isalsoproblematized
by others in the literacy research community (Foster, et al., 2001;
Martino,2003). Itremainstobeseenwhetherconductingboys literacy
clubsishelpfultotheirliteracydevelopmentasacollectiveorwhetherit
is a practice that merely fuels the gender regulatory functions in
educational practice that progressive education seeks to eradicate
(Young&Brozo,2001).
OutofSchoolLiteracy
Timespentengagedwithreadingoutsideschoolhoursisacharacteristic
ofmostgood readers (Anderson, etal.,1988).Maxs engagementwith
textsoutside
school
and
his
above
average
reading
ability
certainly
seem
tosupportthisresearch. However,muchoftheliteratepracticeinwhich
Max so enthusiastically engageddid not revolve around literacy as it
was typically practised in his classroom. This discrepancymaybe a
functionofthequestionsaskedintheinterviewswithMax,becausehis
motherreportedthattheliteracyinstructionpractisedbyhisteachershas
always encompassed awide range of literate activity. BecauseMax
made negligible reference to classroom literacy activities in our
discussions, it may be important to ask whether this phenomenon
signalsthegenesisofthekindofdisjunctureoftenseenbetweenoutof
school reading interestsand the typesof inschool readingadolescents
are
expected
to
participate
in.
Might
the
disjuncture
begin
much
earlier
than theadolescentyearswhen,asappearstobe thecasewithMax,as
earlyasthethirdgrade,outofschoolliterateactivityhadgreaterpower
to captivate, motivate, and function as the medium for active
participationinliteratepractice?
CONCLUSION
Thiscasestudyhasdemonstratedsomeof thewaysonechilds literacy
development is apprenticed through a range of communitymembers,
whose roles must be celebrated and supported. It adds to an
understanding of the role of storybook reading in one middleclass
familys literate practice by noting intertextual or dialogic links that
appear to emanate from thepracticeof engaging in thebedtime story
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FROMSTORYBOOKSTOGAMES,COMICS,BANDS,ANDCHAPTERBOOKS 131
ritual.Thisstudysuggests that thewayhis familyviews literatureand
whattheydidwiththesetextsplayedanimportantroleinMaxsliteracy
development:hisparents stanceprovidedaspringboardfortheirsonto
expandhis literatepractice intowider community constellations. The
kinds of literate activities that served to engageMaxwith literacy are
shown here to be those that spring from personal interest and that
incorporatetheactiveplayinwhichheandhispeersengaged.
Thisstudyoftheparticularliteracypracticesofonefamily,focusing
on the eldest son, is situated in nature and not generalizable to all
populations. Nonetheless, the study highlights the possibilities of
considering the strong positive role played by peers and the wider
communitybeyondthefamilyandschoolintheliteracydevelopmentof
youngboys.Italsoencouragesliteracyscholarstothinkbroadlyintermsofthetypesoftexttheyconsiderhelpfulforboys literacydevelopment.
Finally,itraisesquestionsaboutthegenesisoftheadolescentdisjuncture
betweeninschoolandoutofschoolliteracy. Asresearchersconcentrate
on the active nature of their participation in literacy practices,which
oftenstandoutsideofmainstreamclassroomliteracypractices,theymay
findthatotherboysandtheirfamiliesaresimilarlyengagedinrichand
meaningfulliteracypractices.
FurtherResearch
The roleofpeers in thedevelopmentofboys literatepractice requires
further
investigation.
Although
Gregory
(2001)
documents
the
synergy
betweensiblingsactingasliteracyteachersforeachotherandadvocates
thatfamilyliteracyinitiativestapthisrichresource,thenumerousways
thatMaxandhispeersmediatedeachothers literatepractice suggests
that family literacy research may find peer apprenticeship to be an
important arrangement to investigate. Teachers will also want to
capitalizeupontheseliteraterelationships.
Additionally, on a methodological note: when investigating
childrensliterateactivitywithpeers,literacyscholarsneedtobecareful
with their questioning. If they employ narrow conceptions of literacy,
e.g., framing literacyas reading,as Ididwhen firstaskingMaxabout
readingwith friends, theymayreceiveanswers thatbelie therealityof
whatistakingplaceinchildrensliteratepractice. Thisobservationmay
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132 KIMBERLYLENTERS
beparticularlyimportantforboyswhoseliteratepracticesmaynotalign
themselves with mainstream classroom practices. Researchers must
frame their research and their questioning of children so that at
minimum, writing and drawing are seen as literate practices. Only
throughbroadening their conception of literacywill literacy scholars
begintogeneratestrongconclusionsinthestudyofboys literacy.
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136 KIMBERLYLENTERS
AppendixA
SampleofDataAnalysisMatrixbasedonRogoff,1995
ExtendingGenresofChoiceintoPersonalWriting(LiteracyPractice)
Event/Activity Location Participant(s)
Apprentice
ship
1. Parentspersonalphilosophy
regardinggood
literature
2. ReadCaptainUnderpantsseries
(23yearsearlier)
withparents
3. ManyofMaxsfriendshaveread
CaptainUnderpants
serieswiththeir
parents
1. Home
2. Home
3. Friendshomes
1. Mum,Dad,theirownparents,
societal
expectations,
guidelines
regarding
childrensreading
materials
2. Max,Mum,Dad
3. Maxsfriends,theirparents
Guided
Participation
1. ReadCaptainUnderpantsseries
independently
2. DiscussCaptainUnderpantswith
friends
1. Home
2. Home,friends
homes,
school
1. Max
2. Max,friends
Participatory
Appropriation
1. DesignandwriteTushyman seriesof
stories
2. Incorporatesomeofthelanguageof
CaptainUnderpants
inThreePigs
Adventures
1. School(indoor
recess)
2. Home
1. Max,friends
2. Max