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Freda WalkerFreda WalkerAssistant Project Assistant Project
DirectorDirectorNational Alliance for National Alliance for
Partnerships in Equity Partnerships in Equity Education FoundationEducation Foundation
Interactive Effects in the Theory of Planned Behavior: Examining Attitudes, Norms,
Control, and Stereotype Threat to Predict Girls’ Math Performance and Intentions
December 17, 2008
STEM Equity Pipeline GoalsSTEM Equity Pipeline Goals
Build the capacity of the formal education Build the capacity of the formal education communitycommunity
Institutionalize the implemented strategies Institutionalize the implemented strategies by connecting the outcomes to existing by connecting the outcomes to existing accountability systemsaccountability systems
Broaden the commitment to gender equity Broaden the commitment to gender equity in STEM educationin STEM education
ModelModel
Interactive Effects in the Theory of Interactive Effects in the Theory of Planned Behavior: Examining Planned Behavior: Examining Attitudes, Norms, Control, and Attitudes, Norms, Control, and
Stereotype Threat to Predict Girls’ Stereotype Threat to Predict Girls’ Math Performance and IntentionsMath Performance and Intentions
Bettina J. CasadBettina J. Casad
California State Polytechnic University, California State Polytechnic University, PomonaPomona
Research supported by grant #0734124 from the National Science Foundation,Research on Gender in Science and Engineering.
The Role of Stereotype Threat in The Role of Stereotype Threat in Women’s STEM RepresentationWomen’s STEM Representation
Bettina J. CasadBettina J. Casad
California State Polytechnic University, California State Polytechnic University, PomonaPomona
Research supported by grant #0734124 from the National Science Foundation,Research on Gender in Science and Engineering.
ObjectivesObjectives
After participating in this webinar, you will After participating in this webinar, you will be able to:be able to: Describe the phenomenon of stereotype Describe the phenomenon of stereotype
threatthreat Describe how stereotype threat may impact Describe how stereotype threat may impact
your students your students Describe ways to make your classrooms have Describe ways to make your classrooms have
an identity safe environmentan identity safe environment
Stereotype ThreatStereotype Threat
Stereotype threat refers to being at risk of Stereotype threat refers to being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group stereotype about one's group (Steele & Aronson, 1995)(Steele & Aronson, 1995)
Awareness that one's behavior might be viewed Awareness that one's behavior might be viewed through the lens of stereotypes creates a “threat through the lens of stereotypes creates a “threat in the air”in the air”
Stigmatized groups fear being reduced to the Stigmatized groups fear being reduced to the stereotypestereotype
This threat can lead to underperformanceThis threat can lead to underperformance
Stereotype ThreatStereotype Threat
African American and European American African American and European American Stanford Students Stanford Students (Steele & Aronson, 1995)(Steele & Aronson, 1995)
Make racial stereotype of intelligence Make racial stereotype of intelligence salient by describing test as:salient by describing test as: Diagnostic of abilityDiagnostic of ability Nondiagnostic (control)Nondiagnostic (control)
Examine test performance on a Examine test performance on a challenging verbal testchallenging verbal test
Steele & Aronson (1995, Study 2) Steele & Aronson (1995, Study 2)
Stereotype ThreatStereotype Threat
Male and female participants Male and female participants (Spencer et al., 1999) (Spencer et al., 1999)
Eliminate stereotype threat about women and Eliminate stereotype threat about women and math (already in the air…)math (already in the air…) No mention of genderNo mention of gender Say there are no gender differences on the test Say there are no gender differences on the test
(reduces the possibility that performance will be (reduces the possibility that performance will be attributed to gender)attributed to gender)
Examine test performance on a challenging Examine test performance on a challenging math testmath test
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
No-Gender-Differences Control
Sco
re c
orre
cted
for
gues
sing
Men
Women
Spencer et al. (1999, Study 3)
Who is Most Affected by Who is Most Affected by Stereotype Threat?Stereotype Threat?
A. Underperforming studentsA. Underperforming students
B. Average performing studentsB. Average performing students
C. Students who highly identify with the C. Students who highly identify with the domain (e.g., math)domain (e.g., math)
D. Students who disengage from academicsD. Students who disengage from academics
Moderators of Stereotype ThreatModerators of Stereotype Threat
Identification with domain Identification with domain (Steele, 1997)(Steele, 1997)
Strong gender identity Strong gender identity (Schmader, 2002)(Schmader, 2002)
High performer in domainHigh performer in domain Believe that intelligence is fixed rather than Believe that intelligence is fixed rather than
malleable malleable (Inzlicht & Good, 2006)(Inzlicht & Good, 2006)
Endorse gender stereotypes Endorse gender stereotypes (Schmader, Johns, & (Schmader, Johns, & Barquissau, 2004)Barquissau, 2004)
Have low expectations for performance Have low expectations for performance (Cadinu, (Cadinu, Maass, Frigerio, Impagliazzo, & Latinotti, 2002)Maass, Frigerio, Impagliazzo, & Latinotti, 2002)
Situational Causes of Situational Causes of Stereotype ThreatStereotype Threat
A) Diagnostic versus nondiagnostic testsA) Diagnostic versus nondiagnostic tests
B) Indicate race or gender on form before testB) Indicate race or gender on form before test
C) Numeric minority in group testing situationC) Numeric minority in group testing situation
D) Primed with race or gender identityD) Primed with race or gender identity
E) None: A threat is in the airE) None: A threat is in the air
Which of these are present in your Which of these are present in your classroom, learning, or work environment?classroom, learning, or work environment?
What are Other Effects of What are Other Effects of Stereotype Threat?Stereotype Threat?
In addition to lower performance, In addition to lower performance, stereotype threat leads to all of the stereotype threat leads to all of the following following exceptexcept::
A. Devaluing the domainA. Devaluing the domain
B. Avoidance of domainB. Avoidance of domain
C. Less representation in domain (e.g., C. Less representation in domain (e.g., STEM)STEM)
D. Increased sense of belonging to domainD. Increased sense of belonging to domain
Effects of Stereotype ThreatEffects of Stereotype Threat Lower test performanceLower test performance Avoidance of mathAvoidance of math Lower behavioral intentions for math related Lower behavioral intentions for math related
activities activities (Davies, Spencer, Quinn, & Gerhardstein, 2002)(Davies, Spencer, Quinn, & Gerhardstein, 2002)
Lower representation of women and ethnic Lower representation of women and ethnic minorities in STEM fieldsminorities in STEM fields (Good et al., 2008) (Good et al., 2008)
Disengagement, devaluing, and disidentification Disengagement, devaluing, and disidentification with domain with domain (Aronson et al., 2002)(Aronson et al., 2002)
Self-handicapping strategies Self-handicapping strategies (Stone, 2002)(Stone, 2002)
Reduced sense of belonging to the stereotyped Reduced sense of belonging to the stereotyped domain domain (Good, Dweck, & Rattan, 2008)(Good, Dweck, & Rattan, 2008)
How Does Stereotype Threat How Does Stereotype Threat Work?Work?
A. It affects cognitive resourcesA. It affects cognitive resources
B. It affects emotional processesB. It affects emotional processes
C. It affects physical processesC. It affects physical processes
D. All of the aboveD. All of the above
E. Both A and BE. Both A and B
How Does Stereotype Threat Work?How Does Stereotype Threat Work?
Cognitive MechanismsCognitive Mechanisms Negative thought suppressionNegative thought suppression Depletes working memory resources Depletes working memory resources
Physiological MechanismsPhysiological Mechanisms Produces physiological stress and threat responsesProduces physiological stress and threat responses Impairs prefrontal processingImpairs prefrontal processing
Affective MechanismsAffective Mechanisms Suppression of negative emotions to self-regulateSuppression of negative emotions to self-regulate Consumes executive resources needed to perform well on Consumes executive resources needed to perform well on
cognitive and social taskscognitive and social tasks Disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasksDisrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks Lower behavioral controlLower behavioral control
(Schmader, Johns, & Forbes, 2008)
Stereotype Threat EffectsStereotype Threat Effects
The majority of work with women and The majority of work with women and math has been done with college students. math has been done with college students. What about K-12?What about K-12? Does stereotype threat decrease girls’ Does stereotype threat decrease girls’
attitudes and intentions in math?attitudes and intentions in math? Does stereotype threat decrease girls’ math Does stereotype threat decrease girls’ math
performance?performance? Does stereotype threat lead to Does stereotype threat lead to
disengagement, discounting, and devaluing?disengagement, discounting, and devaluing?
Steps to Math Success ProjectSteps to Math Success Project Three year study examining effects of Three year study examining effects of
stereotype threat in middle school (6-8th grade)stereotype threat in middle school (6-8th grade) 88thth Grade Algebra students in Pomona Unified Grade Algebra students in Pomona Unified
School District (School District (NN = 466) = 466) Pre-questionnaire assessed math identity, Pre-questionnaire assessed math identity,
attitudes, intentions, disengagement, devalue, attitudes, intentions, disengagement, devalue, discountingdiscounting
Stereotype threat manipulation (gender Stereotype threat manipulation (gender differences, no gender differences)differences, no gender differences)
Pre-algebra test and post-questionnairePre-algebra test and post-questionnaire Debriefing and fun math activityDebriefing and fun math activity
MeasuresMeasures
Identification with MathIdentification with Math I always feel good about myself when I do I always feel good about myself when I do
well on a math test.well on a math test. Being good in school is an important part of Being good in school is an important part of
who I am.who I am. Doing well on math tests is very important to Doing well on math tests is very important to
me.me. It is important to me to do well on tests that It is important to me to do well on tests that
can tell me how smart I am. can tell me how smart I am.
MeasuresMeasures
Attitudes Toward MathAttitudes Toward Math I enjoy studying math.I enjoy studying math. I think math is boring.I think math is boring. Taking math is a waste of time.Taking math is a waste of time.
Intentions to Pursue Math EducationIntentions to Pursue Math Education I plan to take more math classes than I have to I plan to take more math classes than I have to
in high school.in high school. I plan to participate in school related activities I plan to participate in school related activities
about math (like science fairs or projects).about math (like science fairs or projects).
MeasuresMeasures
DiscountingDiscounting Most tests that try to see how smart you are do Most tests that try to see how smart you are do
not really measure what they are supposed to.not really measure what they are supposed to. DevaluingDevaluing
I always feel good about myself when I do well I always feel good about myself when I do well on a math test. ®on a math test. ®
DisengagementDisengagement I really don’t care what tests say about how good I really don’t care what tests say about how good
I am in math.I am in math.
Results: Attitudes (Honors)Results: Attitudes (Honors)
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Low Math ID High Math ID
Ch
ange
in A
ttit
ud
es T
owar
d M
ath
Control, Male
Control, Female
Experimental, Male
Experimental, Female
F(6, 49) = 2.038, p = .078, η2 = .20
Results: Intentions (Honors)Results: Intentions (Honors)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
Low Math ID High Math ID
Pos
t In
ten
tion
s
Control, Male
Control, Female
Experimental, Male
Experimental, Female
F(1, 65) = 2.91, p = .093, ΔR2 = .016
Results: Math Score (Non-Honors)Results: Math Score (Non-Honors)
Low Math ID High Math ID
Mat
h T
est
Sco
re
Control, Male
Control, Female
Experimental, Male
Experimental, Female
F(1, 89) = 6.52, p = .012, ΔR2 = .057
Disengage/Devalue/DiscountDisengage/Devalue/Discount
F(1, 241) = 3.486, p = .063, η2 = .014
How to Reduce Stereotype ThreatHow to Reduce Stereotype Threat
Reframe the task Deemphasize threatened social identities Encourage self-affirmation Emphasize high standards with
assurances of capability Provide role models Provide external attributions for difficulty Emphasize an incremental view of ability
How to Reduce Stereotype ThreatHow to Reduce Stereotype Threat
Tell people about its effect and it loses Tell people about its effect and it loses powerpower Intervention with womenIntervention with women
Describe tests as nondiagnositcDescribe tests as nondiagnositc Lorbeer Middle School STAR testingLorbeer Middle School STAR testing
Ensure gender-fair testing Ensure gender-fair testing Indicate race or gender Indicate race or gender afterafter a test a test
Marking GenderMarking Gender
Marking one’s gender after (as compared Marking one’s gender after (as compared to before) on an AP Calculus test led to a to before) on an AP Calculus test led to a 33% reduction in the gender gap in 33% reduction in the gender gap in performance performance (Stricker & Ward, 2004)(Stricker & Ward, 2004)
SummarySummary
Stereotype threat is a real phenomenon Stereotype threat is a real phenomenon that negatively impacts women’s math that negatively impacts women’s math performance, attitudes, and intentionsperformance, attitudes, and intentions
Stereotype threat is largely situational and Stereotype threat is largely situational and therefore…therefore…
Educators can change students’ learning Educators can change students’ learning environment to be safe for all learners environment to be safe for all learners
ReferencesReferencesAronson, J., Fried, C., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by
shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113-125. Beilock, S. L., Jellison, W. A., Rydell, R. J.,McConnell, A. R., & Carr, T. H. (2006). On the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat:
Can skills that don’t rely heavily on working memory still be threatened? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1059-1071.
Cadinu, M., Maass, A., Frigerio, S., Impagliazzo, L., & Latinotti, S. (2002). Stereotype threat: The effect of expectancy of performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 267-285.
Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M., & Gerhardstein, R. (2002). Consuming images: How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 1615-1628.
Good, C., Aronson, J., & Inzlicht, M. (2003). Improving adolescents’ standardized test performance: An intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 645-662.
Inzlict, M., Aronson, J., & Mendoza-Denton, R. (in press). On being the target of prejudice: Educational implications. In F. Butera & J. Levine (Eds.)., Coping with minority status: Responses to exclusion and inclusion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Inzlicht, M., & Good, C. (2006). How environments can threaten academic performance, self-knowledge, and sense of belonging. In S. Levin and C. van Laar (Eds.), Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 129-150). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Inzlicht, M., McKay, L., & Aronson, J. (2006). Stigma as ego-depletion: How being the target of prejudice affects self-control. Psychological Science, 17, 262-269.
Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16, 175-179.
Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 194-201.
Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 440-452.
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Barquissau, M. (2004). The costs of accepting gender differences: The role of stereotype endorsement in women’s experience in the math domain. Sex Roles, 50, 835-850.
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (in press). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review.
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (2002). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. In A. E. Hunter & C. Forden (Eds.), Readings in the psychology of gender: Exploring our differences and commonalities (pp. 54-68). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
Stone, J., Perry, Z. W., & Darley, J. M. (1997). “White men can’t jump”: Evidence for the perceptual confirmation of racial stereotypes following a basketball game. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 19,291-306.
Next WebinarNext Webinar
Tuesday, January 13, 2009 2pm ETTuesday, January 13, 2009 2pm ET Step Three: Identifying Effective StrategiesStep Three: Identifying Effective Strategies
• Effective strategies to eliminate root causes for the Effective strategies to eliminate root causes for the low participation and completion of women and low participation and completion of women and girls in STEM related career and technical girls in STEM related career and technical education programseducation programs
Questions?Questions?
Mimi LufkinMimi Lufkin
Executive DirectorExecutive Director
P.O. Box 369P.O. Box 369
Cochranville, PA 19330Cochranville, PA 19330
610-593-8038 phone610-593-8038 phone
610-593-7283 fax610-593-7283 fax
National Alliance for Partnerships in Equity
