Foundation of Educ

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank

for

Philosophical Foundations of EducationNinth edition

Howard A. OzmonVirginia Commonwealth University

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Instructors of classes using Ozmon’s, Philosophical Foundations of Education, Ninth Edition, may reproduce material from the instructor’s resource manual for classroom use.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ORGANIZATION OF THE MANUAL

INTRODUCTION SUMMARY

1. IDEALISM AND EDUCATION 1

Chapter OutlineChapter OverviewProjectsIdentificationsDiscussion and Essay QuestionsMultiple Choice Questions

2. REALISM AND EDUCATION 6


3. EASTERN PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION 11

Chapter Outline

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Chapter OverviewProjectsIdentificationsDiscussion and Essay QuestionsMultiple Choice Questions

4. PRAGMATISM AND EDUCATION 16


5. RECONSTRUCTIONISM AND EDUCATION 21


6. BEHAVIORISM AND EDUCATION 26


7. EXISTENTIALISM AND EDUCATION 32


8. MARXISM AND EDUCATION 37


9. ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION 42

Chapter OutlineChapter OverviewProjects

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IdentificationsDiscussion and Essay QuestionsMultiple Choice Questions

10. POSTMODERNISM AND EDUCATION 48


ANSWER KEY 53

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ORGANIZATION OF THE MANUAL

This instructor's manual is designed to accompany Philosophical Foundations of Education, Ninth Edition, by Howard A. Ozmon. The intent of the manual is to provide a concise overview of chapter content and to provide activities and questions with which to stimulate student reflection and assess progress. The textbook which this manual accompanies examines important and complex ideas about education, thus it is difficult to compress the value and range of such ideas into a few selected exercises and questions. However, if judiciously used, these items can help the instructor to increase the usefulness of the textbook in developing the philosophical awareness of students.

The manual is organized according to the chapters of the parent textbook. Manual chapters are organized around the following structure:


Each manual chapter provides the instructor with an outline and overview of the textbook chapter for a quick glance of the organizational structure and content. Suggestions for student projects are provided to help organize outside study exercises or in-class activities for students. Sample test questions and projects are provided to help instructors assess student progress, including a list of identifications, discussion and essay questions, as well as multiple-choice questions. The author realizes that instructors will vary in their individual teaching techniques and approaches, and these activities are meant to serve as possibilities for further activities, discussions, outside assignments, and to provide some assessment of student progress. Instructors are encouraged to adapt or enlarge upon these activities to fit their individual teaching styles and the needs of their students.

The parent textbook also includes useful websites, an index, as well as an extensive bibliography of reference material. Instructors are encouraged to use these resources to help provide students with further learning activities.

INTRODUCTION

Philosophy of education began when people started to think about education in organized and coherent ways. Instead of just a routine activity for survival, education acquired purpose and meaning, and this gave rise to theories of education. Although there has always been a strong connection between theory and practice, one is sometimes emphasized at the expense of the other. We need to frame better theories of education and to test these theories reflectively in the practical world of education. In this way theory and practice complement each other. A study of philosophy of education helps to refine our thinking about education, and it provides alternative avenues of action. It also assists in developing critical assessments of both old and new theories and practices.

There seems to be a great deal of uncertainty in education today because we live in rapidly changing times. Many observers believe that these calls for changes in the content and methodology of education, and that such change should affect not only the educational establishment, but also the world in which we live. This indicates that education can go far beyond the school and impact social, political and economic conditions. Therefore, educators need to develop philosophical perspectives on education in order to bring depth and breath to both their thoughts and activities. They need to: (1) become aware of education as more than school or classroom activities, (2) become aware that philosophy provides a comprehensive view of education, (3) study the historical development of philosophical ideas and their relation to education, (4) study the philosophical treatment and analysis of specific issues in education, (5) engage in continuing personal research, reading, and study in philosophy of education, and (6) learn to develop a philosophical perspective and internalize it.

Philosophical Foundations of Education deals with systematic philosophies arranged chronologically, with attention to individual philosophers who developed important philosophical and educational ideas, and the book provides a critique of each philosophy to present its strengths and weaknesses. The author recognizes that there are other ways of presenting such material, but there is strong support for a systems approach to these ideas, particularly at an introductory level. Such an approach to the study of philosophy of education can be an exciting and challenging venture that greatly assists students in understanding the deeper meanings of education.

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CHAPTER 1: IDEALISM AND EDUCATION

DEVELOPMENT OF IDEALISM

DEVLOPMENT OF MODERN IDEALISM

IDEALISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF IDEALISM IN EDUCATION

Plato: The Republic

Kant: Education

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Idealists believe that ideas are the only true reality. They do not reject material reality, but hold that the material world is characterized by change, instability, and uncertainty, while ideas are enduring.

DEVELOPMENT OF IDEALISM

The ideas of Socrates were transmitted orally through a dialectical question and answer approach. Plato wrote about and expanded many of them, and he encouraged a Socratic approach to thinking. He held that we should concern ourselves primarily with the search for truth. Since truth is perfect and eternal, it cannot be found in the material world of matter that is imperfect and constantly changing. Mathematics demonstrated that eternal truths were possible, and Plato believed that we must search for other universal truths in areas such as politics, religion, and education; hence, the search for timeless truth should be the quest of the true philosopher.

Plato did not think that people create knowledge; rather, they discover it through the dialectic. He proposed an education he thought would help develop a world where individuals and society are moved as far as they are capable toward the Good, and he suggested that the state must take a very active role in educational matters. He maintained that the curriculum should lead students from a concern with concrete data to higher abstract thought. Plato also believed that until philosophers were rulers, states would never pursue the highest ideals of truth and justice.

Idealism exerted a great influence on Christianity. The idea of God as pure Spirit and the Universal Good is compatible with idealism. Augustine was greatly concerned with the concept of evil and believed that man was continuously engaged in a struggle to regain purity. He accepted Plato's notion of the world of ideas and the world of matter, but he referred to the two worlds as the World of God and the World of Man. To religious idealists, ultimate reality is God, and our bridge to it is the mind or soul.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN IDEALISM

Descartes explored "methodical doubt" and developed the idea of the Cogito, or "I think, therefore I am." He encountered the necessity of one idea referring to another, and he found it impossible to arrive at any idea that did not refer to something other than itself, except the idea of Perfect Being. Finite mind contemplates objects of thought founded in God, or in Platonic terms, the human mind contemplates the ultimate reality of ideas.

Berkeley held that all existence is dependent on some mind to know it, and nothing exists unless it is perceived by some mind. To say that a thing exists means that it is perceived, or esse est percipi (to be is to be perceived).

Hume concluded that all we can know are our own impressions and ideas; therefore, we have no adequate basis for asserting the reality of either material or spiritual things. Hume was a skeptic who held that we cannot discover anything that justifies necessary connection or causation. To connect one occurrence with another is merely the habit of expecting one event to follow another based on previous experience.

Kant accepted modern science, and he believed he had devised a new system with valid knowledge of human experience based on scientific laws. In his ethics and moral philosophy, he developed what he called moral

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"imperatives," such as to treat each person as an end and never as a mere means. To Kant, the important thing was to teach a child to think according to principles.

Hegel developed a system of logic he thought would correct the inadequacies of Aristotelian logic. He conceived of logical thought as a dialectical continuum that moves toward richer, more complete syntheses. To Hegel, history showed this movement just as logical thought processes did. He thought that in order to be truly educated, an individual must pass through the various stages of the cultural evolution of mankind.

Royce believed that ideas are essentially purposes or plans of action. Human purposes are incomplete without an external world in which they may be realized, and the external world is meaningless unless it is the fulfillment of such purposes.

IDEALISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Idealists generally agree that education should stress the development of the mind, and it should encourage students to focus on ideas of lasting value. Major emphases include the search for truth and the importance of mind over matter.

The concern for the individual is one of the main characteristics of idealism. Education should be concerned with self-realization, a central aim of idealist education, but the individual self is only a part of the whole and has meaning only in the larger context.

Idealists are also concerned with character development, and they believe that good education should make this a central goal. They believe that moral values need to be nurtured by schools and that educators have an obligation to present students with appropriate role models for emulation.

Idealists do not favor specialized learning as much as holistic learning and their curriculum is composed of a liberal arts approach with broad concepts rather than specific skills. Idealists stress that education at all levels should teach students to think, assist in the development of good character, and that teachers should maintain a constant concern for the ultimate purposes of learning.

CRITIQUE OF IDEALISM IN EDUCATION

Points of strength in idealism include (1) the high cognitive level of education idealists promote, (2) the concern for safeguarding and promoting cultural learning, (3) concern for morality and character development, (4) a view of the teacher as a person of respect central to the educational process, (5) the importance of self-realization, (6) a stress on the human and personal side of life, and (7) a comprehensive, systematic, and holistic approach toward education and a study of the world.

Some critics argue that the idealist notion of a finished and absolute universe waiting to be discovered has hindered science and the creation of new ideas. If one accepts the concept of absolute ideas, it is not possible to go beyond them. While idealists have emphasized the cognitive side of life, they have sometimes emphasized intellectualism to the detriment of students' affective and physical development, and some critics maintain that the idealist approach tends to promote intellectual elitism.

One thing championed by idealists is that they give more attention to character development than do advocates of other philosophies. Their critics note, however, that the idealist view of character development sometimes promotes conformity and subservience on the part of learners.

PROJECTS

1. Form a group and consider how an ideal society might be achieved through education. Keep in mind that in Plato's ideal society all things were interwoven: education, government, and social life. Decide what role education should play in an ideal society.

2. Examine various school curricula and educational aims in your community for their commitment to idealist principles, such as character development and higher social purposes. Determine the central ideas that give

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focus to these materials. Are the curriculum plans helpful? What are the strengths and weaknesses you detect, and what suggestions can you make for improvement?

IDENTIFICATIONS

the AcademyDoctrine of ReminiscenceConfessionsCritique of Practical ReasondeductionAllegory of the CavedialecticTranscendentalismDe MagistroAbsolute SpiritTemple School

DISCUSSION AND ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Discuss Plato's definition of truth. Why does he maintain that truth is eternal and perfect? How do most people feel about truth today? Is truth relative or is it absolute?

2. How did Plato view democracy? How did these views influence his ideas on education? Can democracy be justified from an idealist perspective? Why or why not?

3. Discuss ideas for order and control in the schools as recommended by William T. Harris. How do these recommendations accurately reflect idealist philosophy? Do these ideas have merit in today's schools? Explain your position.

4. Why do idealists cast doubt on the merits of studying the material world? How do idealists react to the emphasis on technical and specialized education in schools today? Consider this idealist view for its appropriateness to contemporary life.

5. What does Socrates mean by calling himself a gadfly? Should education seek to develop more such gadflies today?

6. Augustine maintains that we must believe in order to know, and that faith must transcend reason in order for us to enter the realm of true ideas. What are the implications of having to believe something in order to know it? How does this conflict with our current ways of teaching?

7. What does Kant believe is the proper punishment for a child who has lied? From your point of view is such punishment appropriate?

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Idealism promotes a curriculum that emphasizes

a. contemporary ideas.b. lasting ideas.c. changeable ideas.d. profitable ideas.

2. Plato believed that mathematical concepts, such as 2 + 2 = 4, show the kind of knowledge that is

a. relative truth.b. fleeting and changeable.c. true but trivial.d. perfect and eternal.

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3. The idealist emphasis on a liberal arts type of education is based on a belief that

a. true ideas are based only in fact.b. truth is holistic rather than specialized.c. ideas are created rather than discovered.d. changeable ideas must fit the present.

4. Descartes' attempt to doubt all existence led him to the idea of the Cogito, or

a. "Everything that exists can be measured."b. "To be is to perceive an existence."c. "I think, therefore I am."d. "Existence is essence."

5. According to Plato, the best way to reach truth is through

a. meditation.b. the dialectic.c. problem solving.d. social interaction.

6. According to Kant, the essence of education is "enlightenment," or teaching a child to think according to

a. the subjective world uncovered by scientific law.b. objective creativity within a subjective world.c. the rigorous art of contemplating true ideas.d. principles as opposed to mere random behavior.

7. The steep ascent of the escaping prisoner in the "Allegory of the Cave" best represents which of the following?

a. failure to contemplate ultimate truth.b. the effects of dialectical reasoning.c. conjecture on the Ascendance of God.d. shadows on the mind.

8. The "Socratic method" in education refers to the notion of

a. deducing truth from revealed knowledge.b. employing physical specimens in teaching.c. developing concepts through questioning.d. teaching through the five senses.

9. The idealist emphasis on subjective self-realization in education has its most likely origins in

a. Descartes' declaration that "I think, therefore, I am."b. Smith's view of economic self-interest.c. Mead's belief in the social self.d. Hume's skepticism about subjective perception.

10. The Hegelian influence on idealist education can be seen in the emphasis on the individual's destiny being tied to that of

a. the gadfly.b. one's peer group.c. economic self-interest.d. Spirit.

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11. For Plato, art was an important concern in education, and he believed that art should

a. be used to promote the free expression of students.b. help students acquire a variety of political ideologies.c. be regulated and controlled for the good of the state.d. cultivate religious ideas of personal salvation.

CHAPTER 2: REALISM AND EDUCATION

CLASSICAL TRADITIONS

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN REALISM

CONTEMPORARY REALISM

REALISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF REALISM IN EDUCATION

Aristotle: The Politics and Ethics of Aristotle

Locke: Some Thoughts Concerning Education

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

CLASSICAL TRADITIONS

Like idealism, realism is one of the oldest philosophies in Western culture and dates back to ancient Greece. It has had a variety of interpretations ranging from classical and religious realism to scientific, natural, and rational realism.

A central feature of realism is the thesis of independence, or the view that reality, knowledge, and value exist independently of the human mind. It rejects the idealist view that only ideas are real, and it asserts that material facts of the universe exist whether or not human minds actually perceive them. Realism holds that matter is an obvious example of an independent reality.

Aristotle maintained that a proper study of matter could lead us to better and more distinct ideas. He believed that ideas (or forms), such as the idea of God or the idea of a tree, can exist without matter, but there can be no matter without form. Each material object has both a universal and particular property, and forms (universals, ideas, or essences) are the nonmaterial aspects of particular material objects. We arrive at forms or ideas by examining specific material objects.

For Aristotle, there is order and purpose in the universe, and we can understand the universe by studying its purposes. With regard to humans, our purpose is to think, and when we refuse to think, we go against our purpose and suffer the consequences. Aristotle believed that a person should follow the Golden Mean, a life of moderation between extremes. An appropriate education would promote this kind of life.

Christian philosophers, such as Aquinas, correlated the realist thought of Aristotle with Christian beliefs and created the scholastic philosophy called "Thomism." By using our reason as Aristotle suggested, Aquinas held that we could know the truth about God and nature. He recognized that truth could be attained by revelation, but he also believed truth could be gained through sensory observation as well.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN REALISM

Modern realism, which is associated with Francis Bacon and John Locke, took a decidedly empirical approach and served as a building block for modern science. This approach created conflicts between religious beliefs based on deduction and on scientific beliefs based on inductive thinking and observation. John Locke developed the view that most knowledge is acquired from experience by way of sensation and reflection.

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CONTEMPORARY REALISM

Contemporary realism, which is associated with Whitehead and Russell, attempted to correlate science and philosophy. Whitehead argued that philosophy is simply a search for pattern in the universe, and Russell maintained that such patterns should be described with precision and analyzed mathematically.

REALISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

There are several varieties of realism that have affected education in diverse ways. The two major divisions are religious realism and scientific or secular realism. Thomists, for example, believe that education should help us understand both the spiritual and materials aspects of life, while secular realists emphasize material and scientific studies.

The scientific movement ushered in an era of thought that stressed an understanding of the material world and its control. There is order and regularity of the material world, and scientific investigation uncovers the "laws of nature" that govern this regularity. Secular realism maintains that reliable knowledge is gained through a study of essential ideas and facts about the material world.

Although secular realists argue that education should develop technical skills and turn out specialists and scientists, they are not necessarily opposed to education in the humanities. Realists also put great emphasis on the "practical" side of education, which may include education for moral and character development.

CRITIQUE OF REALISM IN EDUCATION

Secular realist educational theory displays a bias in favor of a fact based approach to knowledge. Yet, what was once thought to be indisputable fact in so many cases is now considered to be interesting myth and outright ignorance, such as the Ptolemaic conception of the universe that was once supported by religious realism. Even the "laws" of modern physics, which have tremendous research and experimentation behind them, may fall to new laws and ideas in the future. There is also confusion over what is meant by "fact," for there are "facts of reason" and "facts of empirical research." Aristotle thought it was self evident that objects of different weights fall at different speeds. It was not until Galileo that this "fact of reason" was overturned by empirical research. The "factual" approach in both religious and secular realism may lead to closed mindedness and narrowness: if we already have the truth in hand, we are hardly motivated to search further. Such an outlook is anti-philosophical if it discourages an open mind and the unshackled search for wisdom.

PROJECTS

1. Consider your experience in a laboratory class at your college or university. How is the scientific method used in achieving solutions? How do scientists prove the results of their theories, and does this provide sufficient knowledge for individual and social life?

2. Examine some of the covenants, creeds, or evangelical tracts of selected religious institutions, and critically compare them on their views of a scientific approach to truth. Compare them on such topics as the creation or origins of the universe, or the issue of abortion. How do religious thinkers justify their beliefs as compared with scientists? Do religious and scientific thinkers share any common features?

3. Examine selected textbooks used in schools in terms of viewpoints related to realism. What kinds of realism, if any, are represented? If realist views are present, what impact could this have on how pupils who use the texts view truth and knowledge?

IDENTIFICATIONS

tabula rasainductionPtolemaic conception of the universeGolden Mean

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syllogismThomismLyceumPrincipia Mathematicaélan vital"Angelic Doctor"Casa dei Bambini


1. Write an essay explaining the following:

a. A leading belief of realist thought and how it continues to influence educational practices.b. A leading difference between religious and secular realism, and what role this difference

plays in contemporary education.c. A position on whether these influences are desirable or undesirable, and explain why.

2. Some observers argue that the realist position makes a strong plea for facts and basic subject matter. Discuss whether realism does promote this view. How sufficient is the realist approach on this issue for education today?

3. What is a key difference between deductive and inductive thinking? Write an essay evaluating how these ways of thinking developed in realism and how they influence the way we think about education.

4. Discuss Aristotle's view for leading a good life. What implications does this have for educational aims and curriculum, and how appropriate is it for present-day schools?

5. Discuss a leading difference between classical and modern realism. How does this difference manifest itself in education, particularly in the curriculum of today's schools? Is this manifestation a positive or negative feature?

6. According to John Searle, there is a difference between "brute facts" and "social facts." How does this view impact educational theory and practice?

7. What are some of the basic ideas and practices of a Montessori approach to education? What, in your view, are the positive and negative features of the “Montessori Method”.


1. The syllogism used by Aristotle is composed of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Which of the following is a major weakness in this deductive process of logic:

a. It has an illogical order of descending scales of merit.b. The logic only fits questions about science.c. If the premise is wrong, then the conclusion is faulty.d. Its religious bias yields absolute answers.

2. Francis Bacon argued for an inductive approach in logic or thinking, which means that better knowledge is gained when we

a. begin with specific observations and reason to general conclusions.b. induce truth from both religion and science before we believe it.c. induct students into a single way of thinking for uniformity.d. only use deduction in religion and induction in science.

3. A central theme of realism is the "thesis of independence," which means that reality, knowledge, and value exist

a. only in the mind of the perceiver.

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b. in a separate realm of ideas.c. in the natural laws of physics.d. independent of the human mind.

4. Thomas Aquinas believed that only God could touch the soul directly, but a teacher may also lead a student to knowledge and truth through

a. firm and forceful dictation of knowledge.b. the use of observation and reason.c. the indoctrination of students to become obedient believers.d. in making student memorize and recite received truths.

5. Aristotle believed that the universe has design to it and that everything has a true purpose. The purpose of human beings is to

a. think and follow a path of moderation.b. make a living by skill and intellect.c. engage in technological activity.d. solve scientific problems.

6. Locke believed that our mind at birth is a tabula rasa, or a

a. rational table full of ideas.b. machine-like system for calculation.c. rational soul full of remembered truths.d. blank slate to be imprinted by experience.

7. Alfred North Whitehead argued that education should be concerned with "living ideas" that connect the

experiences of learners with

a. the traditions and tested truths of history.b. the processes and patterns of reality.c. products and processes of physical science.d. dialectical reasoning of mind and thought.

8. The classical realist outlook championed by Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler strongly promotes the educational use of

a. great books that have withstood the test of time.b. mathematics and science for precision in thought.c. timeless religious truths about religious salvation.d. contemporary writings that reveal current reality.

9. Herbert Spencer, in his essay "What Knowledge Is Of Most Worth," argued that education should promote

a. the cultural heritage of the past.b. religious truth revealed by great thinkers.c. creativity through artistic expression.d. the supremacy of scientific knowledge.

10. Because realists see the universe governed by its own internal order, there is a tendency in their educational philosophy to require students to

a. adapt and adjust to this reality.b. pursue individual dreams and desires.c. adjust to the needs of totalitarian regimes.d. reject all other enduring world views.

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11. Unlike classical realists, contemporary realists such as Hilary Putnam hold that

a the universe is clearly capable of being understood in absolute terms.b. the doctrine of "simplicity" is the surest way to understanding the universe.c. we need more use of logic and rationalism and less reliance on hypothetical reasoning.d. the universe is too complex for the human to comprehend in a total or "God's Eye" view.

12. Maria Montessori, like Pestalozzi, stressed the importance of:

a. sensation and the use of objects in the learning process. b. group and community activities. c. dealing with emotional conflict d. relating education to the social and political environment.

CHAPTER 3: EASTERN PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EASTERN THOUGHT

FAR EASTERN AND INDIAN THOUGHT

MIDDLE EASTERN THOUGHT

EASTERN THOUGHT AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF EASTERN PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION

(Anonymous): Bhagavad-Gita

Suzuki: Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EASTERN THOUGHT

Eastern philosophy is comprised of four major areas of thought: Indian, Chinese, Japanese, and Middle Eastern. Generally, Eastern philosophy stresses intuition, inner peace, and mysticism. Some Eastern beliefs have had a major impact on the West, such as Judaism and Christianity, both of which have Middle-Eastern roots.

FAR EASTERN AND INDIAN THOUGHT

In Indian thought, the Vedic tradition of Hinduism holds that while humans can be spiritual, they are often motivated by evil (lust, greed, etc.), and they need to seek purity of heart and mind. The Bhagavad-Gita maintains that nature and the universe of name and form are illusory: reality is spiritual, and a stern devotion to duty is emphasized. Recent Hindu thinkers such as Gandhi advocated love and service toward others as the best way to mold our social, economic, educational, and political life.

Buddhism holds that the universe is an endless stream ruled by the law of Karma. The way to overcome this is to obtain freedom from the birth and death cycle by realizing nirvana. The Buddha rejected rituals, ceremonies, and official religious authority. He also objected to mystery, speculation, prayer, and the concept of a personal God.

Jainist thought is an offshoot of Hinduism. Jains are followers of the Jina, or one who has attained enlightenment. It is very similar to Buddhism in that both oppose orthodox views, reject the caste system and a personal God, and give great importance to the concept of non-injury. For both, Nirvana is a release from the birth/death cycle.

In Chinese philosophy, the emphasis is on thought that leads to harmony in life. The Confucian ideal is the individual who lives a life of rightness, virtue, and propriety. Confucius argued that individual worth was a question of conduct and character. He stressed the importance of education, but believed that moral character was more important than skills or information. Moral education must emphasize practicality, such as one's relations with others.

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The central concept of Taoism is the Way or Path, the way the universe moves and the path of perfection and harmony. Tao emphasizes conformity with nature and non-action, or letting things alone and not forcing one's personal desires into the natural course of events. It is a noncompetitive approach to life. The best leader is one who rules by letting things alone and using moderation.

The historical base for Japanese philosophy is Shintoism, which highlights respect for life and kinship with nature. Traditional Confucian and Taoist beliefs influenced Japanese perspectives, and Buddhism, which in Japan is Zen Buddhism, has been prominent. Zen seeks to discipline and free the mind, and although it does not preach or proselytize, it encourages one to explore new paths without giving up other religious or philosophical outlooks.

MIDDLE EASTERN THOUGHT

The Middle East has spawned a variety of philosophies and religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Muhammad, the founder of Islam, sought to unify the Arabs into a nation of believers governed by the will of Allah (or God). Muhammad's ideas were collected in the Koran, in which Allah's timeless moral truths are revealed. Islam embraces all people regardless of race, color, nationality, or condition.

Both Judaism and Christianity had their origins in the Middle East, and Judaism still exerts an important influence in Israel. The collected writings of both Judaism and Christianity are reflected in the Bible. Judaism includes the belief that there is only one God, the benefactor of all creation, as revealed in the scriptures, the Torah and the Talmud. Christianity began as a sect of Judaism that followed Jesus of Nazareth, whose teachings form the basis for the New Testament. Belief in Jesus's divinity marks the crucial difference between Judaism and Christianity.

Two philosopher-theologians stand out for connecting Judaism and Christianity with Western culture. Augustine connected Platonic philosophy with Christian beliefs, and Aquinas reconciled Aristotelian philosophy with Christian concepts. Both Augustine and Aquinas helped fuse Middle Eastern Judaism and Christianity with Western philosophical traditions derived from Plato and Aristotle. EASTERN THOUGHT AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

While many Western educational practices emphasize order, regularity, and facts, Eastern thought often emphasizes non-attachment and the development of one's inner being. It also extols the role of the teacher, for many of the great Eastern thinkers were teachers as well as theorists.

Eastern philosophy has provided a variety of approaches to education for the purpose of living well, alleviating suffering, achieving enlightenment, or reaching nirvana. In some forms of Eastern thought, the teaching of rules of order and rules of right conduct for the individual, the family, and society are emphasized. Middle Eastern philosophies tend to emphasize sacred literature, and unlike modern Western thought, which seems to change with social upheaval, Eastern systems of thought encourage doctrinal purity rather than the exploration of alternatives in a changing world.

CRITIQUE OF EASTERN PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION

Eastern thought and education have promoted order, regularity, patience, and harmony, but critics charge that this only maintains tradition and the status quo. Fault has also been found with the Eastern fascination with supernaturalism, dogmatic rules, vagueness, doctrinal factions, and individualistic attitudes toward salvation. Eastern thought is also criticized for promoting a callous disregard for human life through such devices as the caste system or encouraging individuals to sacrifice their lives for a religious cause. To Western critics who see themselves as promoting freedom and democracy, Eastern philosophies seem to promulgate a slavish worship of rules and authority, and a belief in one's fixed and ordered place in the universe. Yet, education enjoys great respect throughout Eastern cultures. Teachers have occupied high status, for many of the great religious and philosophical leaders were considered, above all else, great teachers. However, some critics believe that an excessive emphasis on the role of the teacher in the learning process may stifle the initiative of individual learners.

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PROJECTS

1. Visit a church, synagogue, or mosque and interview a leader (minister, rabbi, imam , etc.) on the connections of their religious beliefs with Eastern philosophy and religion. How do their specific religious traditions view the importance of education?

2. Discuss whether religious ideas really help or impede progress? How do modern inventions, such as the Internet, impact upon religious thinking? How do other things in the culture, music, dance, and art, relate to religious practices?

3. Obtain information from an international religious organization (such as the World Council of Churches) about the major problems faced by religious bodies internationally. How do their religious beliefs influenced by Eastern thought relate to education in the world today?

4. Invite a speaker from an Eastern culture to discuss the relation of Eastern religion and education to Western culture.

IDENTIFICATIONS

Brahman liberationbo tree guruZen koanFive Pillars of IslamTorah (or "the Teachings")Summa TheologicaFive Constant Virtues of ConfucianismJina

ying and yangthe third eyeSociety of Jesussatyagraha


1. How important is education in Eastern philosophy and religion, and how does this compare with Western educational views? Does Eastern religious and philosophical thought continue to impact educational views today? Explain.

2. Consider how Eastern philosophical and religious views treat relations with other human beings. How is this educationally significant? Take a position on whether this should play a role in education today and defend that position.

3. Discuss some major differences between Western and Eastern thought on education.

4. Describe a positive and a negative feature of Eastern thought for education today. Explain your position and defend it with specific examples.

5. How do you compare religion and philosophy? Can a religion be a philosophy? Discuss similarities and differences.

6. Discuss Christianity in terms of its similarities and difference with other religions and philosophies?

7. What effect has globalization had on Eastern beliefs?

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1. One of the great writings of Hindu philosophy that has shaped how Indians think and view the world is the

a. Upanishads.b. Koran.c. Summa Theologica.d. Analects.

2. The purpose of instruction of Brahman in Hindu thought is to

a. make one powerful and admired by all.b. elevate one's economic standing.c. achieve spiritual liberation.d. provide a basis of rulership.

3. All of the following are associated with Hinduism except

a. yoga.b. passive resistance.c. the untouchables.d. the reality of matter.

4. Gotama believed that the root cause of suffering was

a. interpersonal relationships.b. personal gratification.c. lack of food.d. poverty.

5. Which of the following most closely identifies Jainism?

a. to go with the flow of existence.b. establishment of civil service examinations.c. avoid injury to any form of life.d. using blows in the teaching process.

6. Confucius argued that one should become chun-tzu, or a true gentleman, through

a. choosing the right parents.b. achieving great wealth and fame.c. projecting a superior attitude over others.d. developing proper conduct and character.

7. The famous injunction of the Taoists is wu wei, which means

a. do nothing unnatural.b. follow the master.c. listen to nature.d. act impetuously.

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8. Zen Buddhism is a religious outlook with no

a. meditation.b. supreme deity.c. enlightenment.d. instructional methods.

9. One of the reasons for the popularity of Islamic religion is that it

a. requires highly educated priests.b. is based on a pantheon of powerful gods.c. promotes a view that heaven is present in the world.d. is open to all regardless of race, color, or origin.

10. In Judaism, the primary role of the rabbi is to

a. preach the gospel to sinners.b. be a missionary to non-believers.c. teach the laws of God.d. help believers achieve nirvana.

11. In Hinduism, the "law of karma" states that every action affects the soul and

a. how the soul will be born in the next reincarnation.b. creates a countervailing reaction of equal force.c. is forgiven by Lord Krishna and does not count.d. is to be overcome by prayer and sacrifice.

12. In the 1700s the Jesuits were disbanded by Pope Clement IV for their:

a. excessive zeal in baptizing infants.b. political activities.c. lax form of organizationd. lack of belief in religious doctrines

CHAPTER 4: PRAGMATISM AND EDUCATION

ROOTS OF THE PRAGMATIST WORLDVIEW

AMERICAN PRAGMATISTS

PRAGMATISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION

James: Talks to Teachers

Dewey: Democracy and Education

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

ROOTS OF THE PRAGMASTIC WORLDVIEW

Pragmatism's roots lie in Greek and European philosophical traditions, but its main exponents have been American philosophers. Attitudes fostered by the Enlightenment, naturalistic humanism, and the scientific-technological revolution have been important elements of this movement, as well as the contributions of Peirce, James, and Dewey.

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Bacon's method of inductive thinking, Locke's connection of experience with the formation of ideas, and Rousseau's views on natural learning processes all influenced pragmatism and its views on education, but the pragmatists gave these ideas new directions. Bacon's views on induction and science were extended by pragmatists to include how we think about economics, politics, psychology, education, and even ethics. From Locke the pragmatists developed their view of experience as the source of the ideas we create, and from Rousseau the pragmatists emphasized the natural development of children, not as romanticized "Noble Savages" but as biological and social organisms going through various stages of development.

The philosophy of pragmatism declined after Dewey's death, but in recent years it has experienced a resurgence. The chief exponents of this neo-pragmatism are Bernstein, Rorty, and West. For Bernstein, pragmatism's vitality resides in its views on the amelioration of human suffering, egalitarian democratic social reform, and rejection of despair and impotence. Rorty maintains that pragmatism's value continues in its advocacy of democratic reform, recognition of human fallibility, and the development of creative approaches to thought. West sees continuing value in the pragmatist commitments to social and political activism, social change through education, public dialogue, and an experimental approach to social and political problems.

PRAGMATISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Pragmatism's influence on American education has been considerable but controversial. To some observers, pragmatism's advocacy of education for social reform has been detrimental, but to others it is a necessity for democratic social life to prosper. Pragmatists stress education as growth in the capacity to learn from experience and to direct future experience; and democratic ideals provide direction for such growth. Education should promote a more democratic society, a humane spirit in people, and a better understanding of the pressing problems in contemporary society.

Pragmatist educators prefer methods that are flexible and provide a variety of ways to learn because there is no one best way to educate. They reject traditional views of knowledge as separate from actual human experience, and they view curriculum as a process as much as a body of subject matter. Academic disciplines and knowledge should be studied for the insight they offer into social problems and as aids to student growth.

CRITIQUE OF PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION

Pragmatism has been influential not only in education, but in other areas such as law, art, economics, and psychology. The impact of pragmatism on education today is not easy to assess: some critics charge that pragmatism promotes radical views on education and social reform, while others complain that pragmatism is not radical enough in its ideological and political criticisms. These varying criticisms indicate that pragmatism continues to engage educational theorists and influence educational theory and practice.

PROJECTS

1. Arrange a visit to a local public school and observe activities in a classroom or other school function. Through observations and interviews, attempt to identify features that may reflect a pragmatist approach to education. Assess your observations and conclusions.

2. Discuss a contemporary issue affecting education (vouchers, religious observances, alienation, substance abuse, class/race/gender bias, etc.). Consider how a pragmatist might approach such an issue, and evaluate how pragmatic assumptions would influence one’s thinking on this subject.

3. Develop a dramatic skit in which you role-play how a particular subject-area topic would be presented by a traditional approach and how a pragmatist might present it. Assess the similarities and differences and determine what role philosophical ideas play in the outcome.

IDENTIFICATIONS

inductionLaboratory School"My Pedagogic Creed"

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romanticism“Eight-Year Study”Quest for Certaintyeducation as growthopen-ended universeproject methodlearning by doingNoble SavageThe Souls of Black FolkThe “stream” of experienceThe Origin of Species


1. Compare what Dewey borrowed from Bacon and Locke, (or from Rousseau and Darwin), in developing his philosophy of education. How did he use their insights in developing his own views on education, and how did he differ?

2. Discuss pragmatist educational aims and methods. How do they differ from older philosophical outlooks, how are they similar, and what use should they have in education today?

3. What are some advantages and disadvantages to the pragmatist view on curriculum as a process rather than a mere body of subject matter? How does this relate to the pragmatist injunction against the quest for certainty?

4. Critique Dewey's view that creative intelligence grows out of seeking solutions to the problems in individual and social life. What elements make up Dewey's view of education as growth, and what impact, if any, should this have on educational theory and practice?

5. Discuss what you believe to be the major implications of neopragmatism for education today. Are Rorty's suggestions, for example, an improvement for contemporary philosophy, and what impact do they have for traditional views on education? What influence should neopragmatism have on educational theory?

6. Cornel West has suggested that pragmatism should have a "prophetic" role, that is, it should provide cultural criticism to help us address contemporary issues such as race. What other kinds of contemporary issues need this kind of critical analysis today? Suggest some directions for education this criticism might provide?

7. What pragmatic influences can you find in today’s schools? What are some things pragmatists might object to?


1. Pragmatism examines traditional ways of thinking and doing and attempts to reconstruct central ideas in order to

a. solve present problems and promote creative intelligence.b. preserve collective wisdom and enhance social stability.c. maintain present prosperity and build future wealth.d. achieve lasting consensus and avoid disagreements.

2. The classic pragmatists--Peirce, James, and Dewey--insisted that the test of truth of an idea or proposition lies in

a. its reliable history of longevity.b. how close it reflects an independent reality.c. the consequences of acting on it.d. a logical analysis of meaningful terms.

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3. Which of the following groups of terms most accurately describe central aspects of pragmatism?

a. Revelation, moderation, and natural development.b. Deduction, dialectic, and experience.c. Revelation, science, and deduction.d. Experience, natural development, and science.

4. Dewey thought that modern industrialization had submerged both the individual and society and, therefore, the school should be an institution where

a. children’s individual and social capacities are nurtured through democraticliving.

b. individualism should be the guiding interest above all other considerations.c. individual differences should take second place to the more important needs of society.d. society's needs must give way to the needs and interests of individual children.

5. Dewey held that a primary moral aim of schooling is to enable students to participate in democratic social life. By this he meant that democratic ideas must

a. be overhauled to meet the needs of powerful social interests.b. become motive forces in how an individual relates ethically with others.c. have a rigorous and forceful application to student behaviors.d. not influence basic curriculum so much as extra-curricular activities.

6. William James made which of the following ideas central to his philosophy?

a. dialectic.b. experience.c. deduction.d. introspection.

7. For pragmatists, particularly Dewey, the aim of education is

a. economic.b. mental.c. knowledge.d. growth.

8. Pragmatists generally emphasize the importance of moral education and maintain that appropriate moral traits are best acquired by individuals through

a. following the established customs of society.b. following the course of greatest economic profitability.c. reflective inquiry and social participation.d. obedience to absolute ethical values.

9. According to the neopragmatists, philosophical pragmatism continues to have an important role today because of its

a. opposition to idealist and realist views on metaphysics.b. advocacy of social reform and criticism of certainty.c. reluctance to press for social change.d. concern with promoting traditional education.

10. Although Dewey rejected supernaturalism, he held that human experience could have certain religious qualities to it because

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a. humans cannot escape the recognition of God.b. religious ideals are rooted in human needs.c. mankind's original sin leads it back to God.d. humans are naturally inclined toward the supernatural.

11. For Dewey, the proper role of the teacher is to be a

a. taskmaster to keep students properly on task.b. rule maker and enforcer of school regulations.c. manager who steers them through batteries of tests.d. knowledgeable guide and resource for students.

CHAPTER 5: RECONSTRUCTIONISM AND EDUCATION

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF RECONSTRUCTIONISM

PHILOSOPHY OF RECONSTRUCTIONISM

RECONSTRUCTIONISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF RECONSTRUCTIONISM IN EDUCATION

Counts: Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order?

Shane and Shane: Educating the Youngest for Tomorrow

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF RECONSTRUCTIONISM

Reconstructionist ideas have been present throughout history. Plato's Republic shows reconstructionist tendencies, as do the philosophies of Marcus Aurelius, Augustine, Saint-Simon, and Marx. What ties their views together is central to reconstructionism: education as an instrument for radical social change.

PHILOSOPHY OF RECONSTRUCTIONISM

Reconstructionists owe much to pragmatic philosophy, but they criticize pragmatism for its lack of radical activism to solve the pressing problems of the times. Dewey believed that school and society must act cooperatively, but reconstructionists argue that our immediate needs are so great that education must take a leadership role in correcting social ills.

Thus, reconstructionists want to implement immediate solutions to social problems. Early advocates such as Counts and Brameld argued that educators should seek a greater power base and an active social and political role for education. They argue that educators must be more aggressive in achieving and using power, that they must view education as more than schooling alone, and that educators should even seek political office to achieve these ends.

Reconstructionists are international in their outlook. They believe that we must take a global perspective with problems such as pollution, overpopulation, and hunger. Teachers must engage students in such issues and help them study ways to combat these problems. Brameld suggested that to be effective, much of the student's education should occur outside the classroom and in the wider society. Toffler, who coined the term "future shock," maintained that a study of the future should also be a vital part of the curriculum at every level of schooling, and that the home is increasingly becoming a school of its own as an "electronic cottage."

RECONSTRUCTIONISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

A major characteristic of reconstructionism as a philosophy of education is its view that modern society is facing a crisis of survival, and that the school occupies a strategic position as a foundation for action. Reconstructionists see the primary struggle between those who want to preserve society as it is, and those who want major changes to

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make society more responsive to individual and social needs.

Some critics argue that educators should not advocate social change and schools should be neutral because education loses objectivity when enlisted in partisan activity. Reconstructionists counter that to engage in educational reform effectively, one must become both educator and social activist, as exemplified by Freire and Illich. We must recognize that educational change may necessitate major changes in the structure of society itself. The reconstructionist perspective of impending social crisis requires educators who are willing to explore new possibilities through action and who are able to envision alternatives for a better world. It demands that schools be freed from stifling traditions in order to change society through individual and collective effort. Today's schools promote too much competition, and this tends to isolate and separate people. Reconstructionists think we should not separate schools from society, or individuals from each other. We should seek unity rather than fragmentation, and three ideals that reconstructionists want to implement in school and society are world community, brotherhood, and democracy. Schools should foster these ideals, and while schools cannot be expected to reconstruct society by themselves, they can serve as models for the rest of society. CRITIQUE OF RECONSTRUCTIONISM IN EDUCATION

Reconstructionists are optimistic about finding solutions to pressing problems, and they are utopian in their vision of the good society and the prospects for better human cooperation. They have a futuristic perspective that promotes a mentality of "Think globally, act locally."

Critics attack reconstructionism for lacking pragmatism's caution and charge that the call for immediate action on difficult social problems only reveals superficiality. In their strong desire for change, reconstructionists make precipitous recommendations for reform with little or no direct effect. One can point to the actual effects pragmatism had on schools, but it is difficult to discern any major impact from reconstructionism. Perhaps this occurs because pragmatism's recommendations are less radical, but it may also be due to the greater feasibility of pragmatism's proposals. Reconstructionism's lack of impact may result because their recommendations are not popular with the public or with most educators. Critics also charge that reconstructionist views are quite different from Dewey's conception of democratic cooperation and the symbiotic relation between school and society. Despite these drawbacks, the reconstructionist call for action still remains as an available antidote to the easy virtues of materialism, traditional culture, and adjustment to the status quo.

PROJECTS

1. Form a small group to visit (or invite a representative from) a local social service agency to gather information on the kinds of social problems addressed by that agency. Determine how they address social problems and how effective this is in meeting societal needs. Inquire about more effective ways of addressing such problems.

2. Visit or obtain material from the United Nations as to its role in world affairs (for example, UNESCO, the educational arm of the UN). Evaluate the effectiveness of their approaches and consider alternatives.

3. Join a volunteer activity in your community (such as environmental clean-up, raising money for a charity, tutoring the elderly, etc.). Evaluate your activities in relation to reconstructionist ideals, and assess the value of volunteer activity in dealing with pressing social problems.

4. Take part in a political campaign of a candidate of your choice (such as in distributing literature, obtaining signatures on petitions, telephone solicitations, etc.). Evaluate the educational effectiveness of such political activities..

IDENTIFICATIONS

Deschooling Societythe "Third Wave"

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Pedagogy of the Oppressedthe "Ivan Illich problem" the "wheel" curriculumSERutopian v. piecemeal engineeringThe Saber-Tooth Curriculum“electronic cottages”Center X“chaos theory”Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order?The Limits of Growth


1. Why did George Counts criticize progressivism? Critique Counts' views by identifying and analyzing a major strength and a major weakness of the reconstructionist point of view.

2. What role does utopianism play in reconstructionist philosophy? Write an essay in which you assess a major advantage and a major disadvantage of this approach for education at the present time.

3. According to reconstructionists, what kind of person would make the best teacher? How does this view reflect major ideas within reconstructionist philosophy? Assess the effectiveness of teachers as social activists.

4. What are at least two practical actions teachers can take to bring about the changes that reconstructionists deem so necessary? Do you agree with the need for such methods? Why or why not?

5. Write an essay in which you identify what you believe to be the most important curriculum recommendation of the reconstructionists. Take a position as to whether this is a desirable departure and defend it.

6. "Chaos" theorists see the world in terms of vitality, turbulence, and volatility. What do they mean by this and what philosophical basis does it rest upon? How does this impact education, particularly regarding standardized tests, the "bell curve," and predictability in education?

7. Do you believe that educators should take “neutral” positions in their classrooms, or do they havean obligation to speak out about what they perceive as social ills? Are there any “neutral” positions?


1. Reconstructionists prefer a teacher who is oriented toward

a. the status quo.b. religious perspectives.c. social change.d. economic interests.

2. Select a response that most accurately reflects the reconstructionist outlook: "Reconstructionists see the present as a time of

a. no opportunity.b. strong community.c. cultural crisis.d. social stability.

3. George Counts' Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order? was written as a criticism of

a. timid progressivism.

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b. New Deal reformers.c. economic expansion.d. international change.

4. The most accurate description of a political motif for the reconstructionist would be

a. reactionary.b. conservative.c. liberal.d. radical.

5. Ivan Illich urged that the best solution to our present educational circumstances should be which of the following?

a. progressive improvement.b. deschooling society.c. traditional curriculum.d. magnet schools.

6. In terms of curriculum, reconstructionists favor one that is oriented toward

a. local issues.b. state affairs.c. global concerns.d. the status quo.

7. Theodore Brameld, a leading reconstructionist, believed that the best educational goals were both

a. utopian and practical.b. radical and libertarian.c. reactionary and visionary.d. practical and utilitarian.

8. Reconstructionists challenge the view that schools are

a. neutral.b. traditional.c. religious.d. unsound.

9. One of things that reconstructionists did not like about progressivism was its

a. support of a middle-class agenda.b. challenge to the status quo.c. orientation to the poor.d. bold social reforms.

10. Counts believed that teachers need to throw off their

a. need to teach basics.b. political roles..c. slave psychology.d. use of technology.

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CHAPTER 6: BEHAVIORISM AND EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF BEHAVIORISM

PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF BEHAVIORISM

BEHAVIORISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF BEHAVIORISM IN EDUCATION

Hobbes: The Leviathan

Skinner: Beyond Freedom and Dignity

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is not a systematic philosophy like idealism or realism, and it is usually classified as a psychological theory. However, behaviorism raises some serious philosophical questions in its views on freedom and human dignity, and it has its roots in several philosophical traditions. Behaviorism is related to realism, particularly the realist thesis of independent reality, because the behaviorist maintains that behavior is caused by external environmental conditions. Behaviorism also is indebted to the materialist philosophy of Hobbes, who held that reality is primarily matter and motion, and that all behavioral phenomena are capable of being explained in those terms.

PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism follows realism's advocacy of the study of particulars and believes that a better knowledge of behavior is discovered by the scientific study of particular behavioral patterns. This approach starts with particular, observable facts (particular behaviors) and proceeds to the "forms" or laws of behavior.

Like the positivists and linguistic analysts, behaviorists seek a language framework that they believe more accurately reflects the facts of behavior. Rather than using the word "self" to signify the characteristics of an individual, the behaviorists speak of "conditioned" and "reinforced behavior." As behaviorists see it, what they study are observable behaviors and environmental conditions, and they describe them in objective scientific terms.

Skinner often debunked philosophical approaches to psychology because they view human beings from the perspective of introspection and a priori generalizations about freedom and dignity. He claimed to base his conclusions about behavior on scientific observation and experiment; however, he found it necessary to consider philosophical ideas about human nature and the good society. Skinner maintained that less philosophical speculation and more "realistic" observation of behavior is necessary, but he still posed the question, "What is man?"

In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner attacked traditional views of humanity that imputed internal drives, forces, or otherwise mysterious actions to the "autonomous person." Forces such as aggression, industry, attention, knowing, and perceiving could be better understood in behavioral terms. According to Skinner, the contingencies of reinforcement better explain these things than some assumed internal or genetic force within us.

Critics such as Carl Rogers insist that there is an "inner realm" that the behaviorist ignores. Skinner's reply is that what is being abolished is the concept of the inner man defended by the literature of freedom and dignity. What is left is the real, observable human organism that is biological and animal. Skinner maintained that humans are not machines, but they are machine-like because they are complex organisms that behave in lawful, observable ways.

Skinner recognized the importance of the social environment and culture. Behavior carries the ideas and values of a culture, and it transforms, alters, and changes a culture. We need a controlled cultural environment to make us more sensitive to the consequences of our behavior. In Walden Two, Skinner outlined a fictional utopia where large-scale conditioning is used for social purposes. For Skinner, we are the controllers of behavior but, in turn, can be controlled by it.

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BEHAVIORISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION Many people disapprove of behavioral engineering, but it is frequently used in education and behaviorists point out that children are already conditioned before coming to school. Skinner wanted to replace the haphazard conditioning most people receive with something that is systematic and meaningful. One point of contention between Skinner and his critics is that the critics see education and conditioning as two different things. For the critics, education represents a free mind being exposed to ideas, while conditioning is the impression of ideas on the mind without critical consent. For Skinner, there is no meaningful distinction to be made between education and conditioning.

The primary aim of behaviorist education is to change behavior in more desirable directions. The question is, who decides what changes and what direction? For Skinner, we are already controlled by genetics, parental upbringing, schooling, peer influence, media, religion, and society. He argued that fear of control is not justified; we may feel free and uncontrolled, but we are always controlled by something even if we are not aware of it. Thus, Skinner rejected the notion of innate freedom.

Skinner charged that much of what passes for education is not good education because it does not properly motivate students or provide positive reinforcement. While some behaviorists use aversive reinforcement, Skinner preferred positive reinforcement and believed it had important implications for modern education and society.

CRITIQUE OF BEHAVIORISM IN EDUCATION Some educators are zealous supporters of behavioral techniques in schools and classrooms. In special education, many teachers find behavioral techniques to be particularly useful in controlling and directing children with motor and mental handicaps. Behaviorism is especially popular when its techniques work and so many other approaches fail. Furthermore, many behaviorists avoid aversive methods, and this appeals to many modern educators. Children seem to respond well when a method provides incentives and rewards for their achievements. Behaviorists promote programmed learning through teaching machines and computers, and this is popular with some teachers and students who see it as an effective way to develop skills and impart knowledge.

However, important questions may be raised about behaviorism's applicability to human society where so many variables and unknowns exist. Under laboratory conditions, it is possible to maintain rigorous control, but control is extremely difficult in the experiential world. Behaviorism may work, but its refusal to admit to innate human capacities does not mean these capacities are imaginary. To say that the individual has no inner freedom and dignity does not destroy such inner freedom and dignity if in fact they do exist.

A major weakness of behaviorism concerns their social policy recommendations. Skinner advocated a group of planners and controllers for the reshaping of the individual and society, but history is replete with the harm caused by people who thought they could lead society in the proper direction. The question is, "Who controls the controllers?" Skinner maintained that the controlled exert influence over the controllers, but this is a weak argument because the initiative is loaded in favor of the controllers who have social, political, and economic power concentrated in their hands.

PROJECTS

1. Visit a local school and identify the various methods of conditioning being used. Through classroom observation, interviews with staff, and examination of school aims and curriculum, assess the effectiveness of such behavioral techniques. Consider the long-term effects of behaviorism on the students.

2. Read Walden Two and develop a dramatic skit in which students role-play the characters found in the book. Evaluate what life must be like on a daily basis in such an ideal world.

3. Observe a conditioning experiment by watching an animal trainer (or a laboratory experiment, etc.). Consider the positive and negative features of this approach, and assess its implications as a general educational method.

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IDENTIFICATIONS

"Reality is primarily matter and motion"Father of conditioning theoryPositivismBeyond Freedom and Dignity"Autonomous man"Contingencies of reinforcementAversive reinforcementToken economyJohn B. WatsonWalden Two positive period (Comte)


1. Write an essay in which you describe and evaluate behaviorism in terms (a) its claims to scientific status, (b) its treatment of the philosophical issue of freedom, or (c) its view on social control. Show how the issue you select influences behaviorism's approach to education, and evaluate the suitability of this approach for education.

2. Describe two of the leading philosophical underpinnings of behaviorism. Evaluate how these underpinnings affect behavioristic education, and defend your position with evidence and argument.

3. Why does Skinner believe that the notion of human freedom can be a detrimental influence? How does he justify his opposition? Critique his argument and provide a justification for your response.

4. Do you think a society like Walden Two is capable of being realized? Is this a good or bad thing?

5. How do behaviorists provide a defense against the argument that the controllers of human behavior may become too powerful and condition people toward adverse aims? Take a position on whether this defense is adequate and justify your position.

6. Describe at least two ways that behavioristic values have been incorporated into today's teaching. Provide an interpretation as to whether these developments are educationally sound, and back your argument.

7. Constructivism has risen in opposition to behaviorism. Why? What are the underlying tenets of constructivism that make it different from behaviorism and how are these differences reflected in the educational process? Critique constructivism's idea of the learner constructing his or her own version of reality. How does this compare with the behaviorist view of the student's role in education?


1. Skinner believed that conditioning, to be truly effective in solving social problems, should be used on a _________ basis.

a. globalb. specialc. locald. subjective

2. Behaviorists , like Skinner, promote the use of technology in education, particularly where it is based on

a. individual selection.b. programmed learning and reinforcement.c. punishment and conditioning.d. inner freedom of choice.

3. Skinner criticized traditional education for its

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a. lack of immediate reinforcement in learning.b. poorly motivated policy makers.c. inadequate and underpaid teachers.d. swollen administrative bureaucracy.

4. The impact of logical positivism on behaviorism resides in its insistence that conditions should be described in

a. ways that reinforce democratic beliefs.b. terms that maintain social balance.c. scientific, logical, and objective terms.d. accord with absolute metaphysical views.

5. Critics such as Carl Rogers find fault with behaviorism for its lack of concern for

a. outside influences.b. the inner realm.c. emotional instability.d. scientific methodology.

6. A strong connection with Thomas Hobbes' theory of matter and motion can be found in behaviorism's view of

a. conditioning and reinforced aversive behavior.b. the mind as intellect and the body as form.c. mind over matter.d. the body as matter and behavior as motion.

7. Sigmund Freud claimed that conditioning was an unconscious inner thing, but Ivan Pavlov argued that it was

a. based on controllable external conditions.b. a mentalistic and subjective reality.c. not inner but external spirituality.d. the conscious results of childhood training.

8. In Skinner's view of utopia, the good life is to be developed through

a. cooperative engagement in libertarian communities.b. democratic procedures promoting individual choice.c. extensive behavioral control of human life.d. uninhibited freedom of choice.

9. Skinner believed that free will

a. is a moral necessity.b. influences behavior.c. overrides self-control. d. is an illusion

10. In Walden Two, Skinner describes a utopian society organized around

a. social and psychological control.b. political and economic radicalism.c. freedom of thought and action.d. removal of people from social control.

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CHAPTER 7: EXISTENTIALISM AND EDUCATION

EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR THOUGHT

PHENOMENOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR THOUGHT

EXISTENTIALISM IN MODERN LIFE

EXISTENTIALISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF EXISTENTIALISM IN EDUCATION

Sartre: Existentialism and Humanism

Greene: Landscapes of Learning

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Traditional philosophy considers the nature of knowledge, truth, and meaning, while existentialist phenomenology is more concerned with how these things are educationally significant within the lived experience of individuals.

EXISTENTIALIST PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR THOUGHT

Existentialism is concerned with the individual caught up in a meaningless and absurd world. Nietzsche explored the individual transcending conventional social values, and Kierkegaard sought individual truth in a subjective "leap of faith." Buber examined the need for mutual respect and dignity among all human individuals; Heidegger investigated individual existence; and Sartre studied how human consciousness constructs meaning and transcends objective existence.

Critics point out that existentialism lacks an adequate social base to treat institutions such as the school, and this factor has hampered the application of existentialist thought to the problems of education. However, even Sartre (perhaps the most individualistic of all) came to agree that individuals might find value in participating in the social and political process as long as the individual defines that participation.

EXISTENTIALISM IN MODERN LIFE

Individual choice, action, and commitment in the face of modern anxiety has been treated extensively by existentialists, and their work has influenced several disciplines. In psychology, Rogers believed that teachers should work for self-directed change by the learner, and Maslow thought education should help learners become "self actualized," autonomous, and creative. Both Nietzsche's belief that God is dead and Kierkegaard's conclusions about religious doubt have had an impact upon theological belief, and existentialism in general has influenced many modern philosophies and theories of education.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR THOUGHT

Husserl attempted to develop a science of human consciousness or preconceptual awareness, and Heidegger investigated individual existence and produced hermeneutical interpretations of individual history. Sartre studied the radical dichotomy between consciousness and the world, and Merleau-Ponty examined how human mind or consciousness perceived the objective world. They each helped in the development of phenomenology (which examines the objects of consciousness), and hermeneutics (which interprets the meaning of conscious experience over a period of time). Phenomenology may also be described as a description of the phenomena of consciousness as indirectly revealed through language, and hermeneutics as an interpretation of how the comprehension of language relates to the comprehension of self. For Gadamer, hermeneutics is concerned with the internal process of using language and developing a rational understanding of ourselves and the world. Ricoeur maintains that it is through language that people bring into the open whatever understanding they have of themselves.

EXISTENTIALISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

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Existentialists believe that a good education is one that emphasizes individuality. The first step, then, is to understand ourselves, and this includes the rational and irrational aspects of individual life. For example, education should help us understand anxiety and the tensions of existence. It should also help us face conflict and examine our beliefs and actions.

Existentialism and phenomenology put the emphasis on human possibility in education, because each new experience sets the stage for future possibilities. A major task is to help each learner construct an appropriate life world through thoughtful action, or praxis. The aim is for learners to become attentive, perceptive, and “wide awake “to human possibilities.

Existentialists want schools and other institutions to be places where students develop individual freedom. Individual differences are significant, and educational institutions should not promote conformity and obedience. Existentialists and phenomenologists seek to help students internalize the world and make it their own. The teacher's role is to be an enabler, one who helps the student appropriate and make over life's meanings.

In terms of curriculum, the humanities are important to existentialists because these studies deal with relations between people, including relations that are tragic as well as happy, absurd as well as meaningful. The curriculum should be seen from the standpoint of the learner, and the various subjects should be presented as opportunities for individual "sense making."

CRITIQUE OF EXISTENTIALISM IN EDUCATION

Existentialism and phenomenology have been hailed as antidotes where education has become dominated by conformity and a bureaucratic mentality. They believe that we must reexamine our culture for rampant materialism and anti-intellectualism, and their devastating effects on individuals. Probably no other modern philosophy thought devotes so much concern for the individual in political, social, and economic life.

In education, exponents of existentialism and phenomenology condemn the kind of education that stifles personal initiative, but critics charge that their thought may promote a self-centered egoism and disregard for others. Critics also note a tendency toward difficult terminology and complex analysis, but advocates reply that their theory is complex because the human condition itself is complex. Existentialists and phenomenologists argue that individuals can learn in traditional ways, but must also seek greater human possibilities and new ways of learning.

PROJECTS

1. Invite a social worker to class to discuss the problems people face who are below the poverty line. Consider the possible causes of poverty and assess their impact on individuals and their views of self-worth. Discuss how poor social conditions contribute to alienation, how alienation contributes to individual hopelessness, and what impact education may have on these conditions.

2. Read Camus' The Stranger and identify the existential ideas portrayed in this novel. How does the plight of the central character reflect the lives of individuals at the present time? Consider how students today are caught in these existential dilemmas.

3. As a group, attend (or read) a play of the genre called the Theatre of the Absurd. How do these plays differ from popular theater, movies, or television drama? How does this genre reflect existentialist ideas or themes, and what does it say about the human condition?

IDENTIFICATIONS

Thus Spake ZarathustraSummerhillthe "leap of faith"Pedagogy of the Oppressedhermeneuticsphenomenology

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prereflective consciousnessan "I-Thou" relationshipdreadful freedomindividual responsibilityThe Second Sex


1. What is hermeneutics and what uses does it offer for educational theory and practice? How does it help us clarify individual perception? How does it aid teaching?

2. In small discussion groups, identify some of the leading practices in contemporary schools to which existentialists object. Discuss how existentialist ideas contribute to possible solutions to contemporary problems in education. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of suggested solutions based on existentialist ideas.

3. Discuss how educators may help to develop the "authentic person" that existentialists extol. What is an "authentic person" and can authenticity be developed through education? Some philosophers think that Socrates was a good example of authenticity. Do you agree or disagree?

4. Many people find it difficult to see how Sartre could consider himself a Marxist and be an existentialist. Is there any necessary conflict between the two? Can an individual live effectively apart from social relations? What role does education play in individual and social well being?

5. In existentialist education, the teacher plays a crucial role. What intellectual characteristics should a person have to be a teacher from the existentialist point of view? Conversely, what should an existentialist teacher avoid?

6. Why do you think there are Christian existentialists and how do their ideas differ from mainstream Christian thinking?

7. What do you think of the use of plays and novels to promote one’s philosophical views?


1. A central identifying feature of existentialist thought is the theme of the individual

a. caught up in a meaningless and absurd world.b. finding meaning in the adolescent years.c. seeking a place in the social order.d. maintaining objectivity in social relations.

2. Kierkegaard's philosophical studies were mainly concerned with individual alienation from

a. an overbearing peer group.b. a sinful and unrepentant world of non-believers.c. unfair competition in the economic order.d. an objective and science-oriented world.

3. Buber promoted an "I-Thou" view of interpersonal relationships; that is, one must recognize that each and every individual has

a. an inalienable right to self-expression.b. an intense need to clarify language concepts.c. a commitment to her own social well being.d. the freedom to reject others.

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4. According to Sartre, we are "condemned to be free," and this view of freedom also means that we are

a. justified in always acting in our own self interest.b. totally responsible for our choices and actions.c. unable to escape from our traditions and inhibitions.d. forever condemned to follow traditional freedom.

5. Educational theorists such as Carl Rogers reflect an existentialist outlook in their belief that teachers should

a. be facilitators of learning.b. show, guide, and direct.c. promote problem solving.d. be humanistic taskmasters.

6. Hermeneutics is the philosophical study of

a. individual behavior in environmental conditions.b. objective biographical data about other people.c. the interpretation and meaning of conscious experience.d. humanistic interpretations of literature.

7. Existentialists maintain that education should place greater emphasis upon individual human reality, by which they mean

a. helping subjective individuals become more objective.b. preparing students to face the demands of the job market.c. helping individuals understand scientific objectivity.d. exploring the rational and irrational aspects of existence.

8. Christian existentialists such as Gabriel Marcel believe that an important aspect of human experience should be

a. learning job skills in the economy.b. the presence of fellow human beings.c. the demands of the group.d. legitimate needs for adult approval.

9. Maxine Greene's view that educators should promote "wide-awakeness" among students reflects the existentialist belief that a proper education should make us aware of

a. future possibilities.b. irrational behavior.c. extensive determinism.d. powerful hierarchies.

10. From the phenomenological standpoint, education should help students develop a rational understanding of

a. an encompassing sense of objectivity that explains our lived experience.b. what the world will impose from the outside onto impressionable students.c. the demands imposed by others in a competitive social environment.d. the primary world of consciousness that each of us brings to learning situations.

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CHAPTER 8: MARXISM AND EDUCATION

ORIGINS OF MARXISM

THE PHILOSOPHY OF KARL MARX

WESTERN MARXISM AND THE ORIGINS OF “CRITICAL THEORY”

MARXISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF MARXISM IN EDUCATION

Marx: On Education

Makarenko: Lectures on Child Education: General Guidelines for Child Care in the Family

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

ORIGINS OF MARXISM

A distinguishing feature of Marxism is the importance of materialism, which Marx believed should guide human society. He held that science could transform human circumstances, that knowledge is based on sensory experience, and that social progress may be achieved by changes in the material world.

Socialism provided Marxism with the belief that human progress could occur through fundamental changes in social and environmental conditions. Marx adopted the need for social cooperation and believed that capitalism lacked social responsibility because it was selfishly absorbed in the accumulation of wealth.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF KARL MARX

As a philosopher, Marx borrowed two major ideas from Hegel: the concept of alienation and the process of the dialectic. A second major philosophical influence was Feuerbach's view that history is determined by human thought and action in a world of material conditions. Marx took this to mean that human thought and action together (praxis) could revolutionize the course of history.

In his early years, Marx wrote with humanistic tendencies, but after his collaboration with Friedrich Engels, he became a severe critic of "bourgeois" capitalism and advocated social revolution. Marx's "guiding thread" was how people produce necessities and create institutions that enmesh their conscious wills. He believed that when the forces of production and the superstructure of social institutions came into severe conflict, rapid social change would occur. Marx thought that workers had become alienated from their humanity, and that the capitalist system of private property was the cause.

Marx called his view "the materialist interpretation of history" in which history could be traced through the divisions of labor over time. The latest epoch was the class conflict between bourgeois capitalists (the "haves") and proletarian workers (the "have-nots"). He believed that workers could rise and overthrow capitalism if they developed a strong sense of class identity and solidarity.

Engels helped popularize Marx's thought and called it "dialectical materialism," the view that history is determined by a dialectical process based on material conditions. Lenin adopted dialectical materialism and held that the state would "wither away" after violent revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. This view of Marxism gained influence in the East, especially in the former Soviet Union and in China.

WESTERN MARXISM AND THE ORIGINS OF "CRITICAL THEORY"

Although Marx relegated philosophy to "the dustbin of history," Western or neo-Marxists believed philosophy had a continuing role to play. The term "critical theory" defines the work of the Frankfurt School, which studied change in the West from old-style entrepreneurial capitalism to corporate capitalism. They criticized "mass culture," the

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"technocratic consciousness," the "administered society," and the "one dimensional man." They held that historical evolution comes not only from material modes of production but from the cultural processes societies use to maintain themselves.

MARXISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Marx did not write extensively about education, but educational ideas within his general theory have greatly influenced education. Under Marxism-Leninism, education was supposed to mold a socialist consciousness, a socialist society, and a communist morality. If bourgeois indoctrination was banished, however, socialist indoctrination was not, and was decried by many critics.

Marx's ideal was to put individuals in control of their own labor and enable the working class to change its conditions. He opposed paternalistic education designed to produce docile workers. If people are the product of circumstances and education, then human action is necessary to change socio-economic circumstances; hence, educational processes must be understood as purposeful human activity, or praxis.

Western Marxists promote a view of education for liberation where the learner is an active rather than a passive participant. They are against the kind of mechanical determinism championed by Marxism-Leninism, but they still criticize Western schools for producing docile workers by reproducing the conditions of the workplace in the schools. They argue that such schooling changes people rather than the economic system; that the present system produces compliant workers and citizens.

Marx favored compulsory education, but not a curriculum based on class distinctions. He advocated local community control to avoid bourgeois state control and indoctrination. He also favored technical and industrial education, but not narrow vocationalism. Marx approved a three-part curricular organization of mental education, physical education, and technological training; however, the later Marxist-Leninist systems of education promoted the authority of the Party apparatus and resulted in an authoritarian view of knowledge and curriculum for the schools.

CRITIQUE OF MARXISM IN EDUCATION

One of the strengths of Marxism as a philosophy is that it provides a view of social transformation and promotes a view of purposeful human action to carry through on that transformation. Thus, it has a strong appeal for those who live under oppression, and it offers a utopian vision of collective destiny. Marxism also has the strength of its critical role, for it helps non-Marxist societies look at themselves in ways they would not ordinarily pursue. Western Marxism has issued warnings about alienation, technologism, bureaucracy, and mass culture that are timely for most contemporary industrialized countries. It has been a major advocate of making education available to everyone, and in its educational theory it blends theory and practice. A glaring weakness of Marxism, however, is that the model of education it practices seldom seems to demonstrate the ideals it espouses in theory.

Some critics maintain that Marxists and neo-Marxists alike show a lack of sensitivity to the changes that non-socialist industrial economies have undergone. They also note that the dialectic of history--or historical evolution--may not be only a socialist or a materialist theory, and that it lacks credible proof.There are many also who object to the “inevitability” of Marxist thought, and Neo-Marxists are strong advocates for significant changes to classical Marxist theory.

PROJECTS

1. Read and report about an existing national system of education that reflects a strong Marxist approach (such as the Chinese or Cuban educational system). How does it compare with your own experience with schools? What are some leading advantages or disadvantages of a Marxist approach to education?

2. Examine articles or books on people who have experienced life in both a capitalist and a communist regime. What is their view as to the respective social systems, particularly the educational advantages and disadvantages provided in each one?

3. Form a small group and investigate how Marxist views of education help us to critique the systems of education we have. Discuss what we gain or lose through Marxist theory, and what value such theory may

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have for educational reform in the present and the future.

IDENTIFICATIONS

"polytechnical education"EngelsRobert OwenThe Wealth of Nations"surplus value"critical theoryalienation of laborcollectivism“doctrine of sensationalism”“invisible hand”reification“the opium of the people”“dialectical materialism”


1. How did Hegel's philosophy influence Marx's views, and how did Marx change Hegel's position to fit his materialist conception of history?

2. What role did the idea of “socialist consciousness" have in the aims of Marxist-Leninist education? How does this concept relate to Marx's belief that fundamental changes were needed in society? How does the concept of the collective play a role in Marxist-Leninist education?

3. What do neo-Marxists believe is the best kind of education? Does the development of a critical consciousness reflect the basic ideas of Marx? Why or why not?

4. How would you assess the growth or demise of communist ideas in today’s world?

5. Why do Marxists see the ownership of private property as an issue of concern? How is education used to support existing economic interests, and how may education be used to change these conditions? What problems or benefits would be encountered in following a Marxist theoretical approach?

6. What is the important role the teacher and the educational environment play in Marxist educational theory? What characteristics does a Marxist teacher need to be successful, and what kind of learning environment should be nurtured?

7. Do you think that human nature can be changed as a result of education as Soviet educators like Makarenko and Krupskaya believed? What role does Makarenko suggest that parents play in this respect?


1. A distinguishing feature of Marxist thought is the central place of

a. materialism.b. idealism.c. spiritualism.d. individualism.

2. In their development of critical theory, members of the Frankfort School attacked the "mass culture" of capitalism because they thought it

a. was a misunderstanding of Marxist theory.b. promoted a false sense of personal freedom.

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c. threatened to eradicate individuality.d. encouraged people to produce more needless wealth.

3. Makarenko advocated a central role for the collective in education because it

a. encouraged individual initiative.b. subordinated self-interest to social interests.c. promoted artistic self-expression.d. discouraged peer group influence.

4. Marx attacked capitalism for in its selfish absorption in the accumulation of wealth and its

a. greater productivity of consumer goods.b. failure to use dialectical reasoning.c. desire to produce greater social reform.d. lack of social responsibility.

5. According to Marxists, the force behind the alienation of labor is

a. private property.b. public property.c. school property.d. collective ownership.

6. Marx believed that the last great stage of historical development was

a. tribal ownership.b. rise of the proletariat.c. bourgeois society.d. feudalism.

7. According to Marxist theory, social progress is not based on heredity, but results from

a. better technology in the workplace.b. individual initiative in economic life.c. changed environmental circumstances.d. a clear hierarchy of control.

8. In Marxist-Leninist educational theory as practiced in the former Soviet Union, political indoctrination was used because it promoted

a. individual expression.b. a search for truth.c. a strong sense of personal dignity.d. the desired social consciousness.

9. Marx believed that schools in bourgeois societies should not teach subjects about "economic laws" because he believed these subjects

a. were unworthy of serious study.b. should be left only to adults.c. would be used to indoctrinate students.d. failed to contain enduring truths of lasting value.

10. Neo-Marxist educational theorists have argued that in capitalist societies, schools socialize children to existing economic arrangements by

a. reproducing the conditions of the workplace.

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b. making education a profitable activity.c. emphasizing economic theory in all subjects.d. rigid suppression of freedom of thought.

11. Unlike Freire and King, Che Guevara believed that

a. all struggles for equality can be achieved through diplomacy.b. non-violence is the key to political success.c. all nations need to become democratic in principle.d. violence is necessary to overthrow the rule of the capitalist class.

CHAPTER 9: ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

THE ANALYTIC MOVEMENT IN PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION

Martin: On the Reduction of “Knowing That” to “Knowing How"

Barrow: Does the Question “What Is Education?” Make Sense?

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Clarification of meaning is the theme of analytic philosophy. Analytic philosophers maintain that most philosophical problems of the past were not issues of ultimate reality or truth, but of conceptual confusion and imprecise language. The discovery of knowledge is not the business of philosophy, but of science, and the proper role of philosophy is linguistic or conceptual clarification.

THE ANALYTIC MOVEMENT IN PHILOSOPHY

The analytic movement has often been called "the linguistic turn" because it turned away from traditional philosophy and its approaches. Its forerunners include Moore and Russell: Moore studied "ordinary language" and concluded that most problems of the modern world are due to conceptual misunderstandings in our ideologies and beliefs; Russell held that language has a basic logical structure similar to mathematics, and that by analyzing or reducing statements to their smallest parts (their "atoms"), precision of meaning could be gained. Russell rejected traditional "grand manner" philosophy in favor of piece-meal analysis, an approach that reflects the analytic movement as a whole.

Another source was "logical positivism," which originated with the "Vienna Circle" in 1929. A notable feature of this group was their fascination with modern science and "the principle of verification." They held that no philosophical proposition would be accepted unless it could be verified logically or mathematically, or on empirical or sense data grounds.

In his earlier work, Wittgenstein held that science was the primary source of knowledge; hence, philosophy should not be concerned with the discovery of knowledge, but with the statements made about it and the limits of language. Ayer held that the task of philosophy is the analysis of language and whether statements are meaningful and can be verified. Under this kind of influence, analytic philosophy turned away from constructing an ideal language or establishing rigid rules for ordinary language, and "linguistic analysis" became a common name for analytic philosophy.

Wittgenstein's later philosophy was a major factor in the development of linguistic analysis. He saw language as comprised of indefinite possibilities of usage. He thought that most philosophical "problems" were due to linguistic confusions, and that the proper role of philosophy was to clarify linguistic confusion and focus on the explanation of meaning. For Wittgenstein, philosophy should be purely descriptive because the explanation of meaning depends upon the context of usage and the language structure being used. Words have no true meaning given by some

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independent power; they only have the meanings people give them. In actual usage, we construct and play "language games," and the meanings are as varied as the games.

Ryle attacked the Cartesian view that the material body can be studied scientifically, but that mind is available only to subjective introspection. Ryle called this view "the dogma of the Ghost in the Machine" that promotes a category mistake by treating body and mind as exact opposites but as the same logical types. Similarly, we confuse "knowing that" and "knowing how," which results in cramming students with "knowledge" but ignoring performance.

PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Analytic philosophy of education is perhaps most useful in helping educators clarify what they think and do. The intent is not to develop new educational ideology, but to understand the meanings of our ideologies better. The benefits of analysis for students come as a result of a clarified and more meaningful education.

Analytic philosophy has an important role to play because so much of education deals with logic and language. The analyst emphasizes the importance of language in learning and the need to evaluate and clarify the statements we make about education. Analysts point out that language is a very important part of life, and it is doubtful that we could even think without it.

Analytic philosophy of education is interested in improving how educators think about education by being sensitive to the complexities of language and its variety of meanings and usages. Many concepts (such as justice, honor, and virtue) give a "halo" effect to statements about the aims of education. Since most people have had little training in logical thought, they are easy victims for the misuse of language to make them support particular viewpoints; therefore, educators should be sensitive to language problems and attempt to make their language precise and clear.

We must clarify the aims of education in a philosophically adequate manner, and philosophical analysis is a major tool in accomplishing this task of clarification. Analytic philosophers believe that educators should be attuned to the logical complexities of language and its variety of meanings and usages. In short, they do not attempt to prescribe a particular kind of education as much as to clarify the conceptual presuppositions and intended purposes of educators. They prefer to look at what advantages may accrue from a clarified concept of education.

Analytic philosophers are aware that methods and media of all kinds educate the child in many ways. Although educators should understand the value-laden character of language, they do not always seem to operate with an awareness of it. There are a number of meanings involved in the way words are used, and these must be viewed against the conditions and circumstances evolving in contemporary society. Some analysts use paradigms or models of logic to help clarify and order our concepts of education. This is similar to Wittgenstein's idea of "language games in some respects" because paradigms have specific uses for particular kinds of problems. Analytic philosophers advocate the need for empirical research on specific teaching methods because most are based on little more than hunches and personal prejudices.

Curriculum planning, they believe, is often superficial because of faulty language, confused meanings, and unclear purposes. We need to promote a critical attitude toward curriculum restructuring when meanings and purposes are not made clear.

CRITIQUE OF ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION

One of the functions of philosophy is to develop a critical attitude toward language and meaning, and this is certainly something that analytic philosophy has fostered. Rather than accept ready-made answers and slogans as solutions for educational dilemmas, analytic philosophers have supported an approach that insists that all ideas and issues be examined every step along the way.

Critics argue that while analytic philosophy has helped clarify some educational issues, it is too limited a view to meet the demands of a changing complex culture. It has also been accused of promoting a new scholasticism where arguing over words is more important than substantive ideas and practices. One of the things that frustrate critics is the difficulty of ascertaining what analysts really want in education. Analytic philosophers claim they want to clarify, not prescribe, but critics claim that the analytic approach has neither prescribed nor achieved any amount of significant clarification.

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Perhaps the frustration of critics lies with analytic philosophy's assertion that true philosophy can only be analytic. Where, then, do our visions come from? It would seem to most critics that philosophy has a larger role to play in shaping new and more useful ideas for education.

PROJECTS

1. Examine a political tract or the editorial page of your local newspaper in terms of its use and misuse of language.

2. Analyze examples from daily life on the abuse of language, such as the clichés people use, sloganeering, bumper stickers, etc. For example, what does the slogan "When guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns" mean and what conclusions is it intended to produce?

3. Examine how advertising is used to promote particular agendas, outlooks, and behaviors. Determine what the covert and overt messages are, and how language is used to manipulate how people behave.

IDENTIFICATIONS

the Vienna CirclePhilosophical Investigationsthe dogma of "the Ghost in the Machine""Idol of the Marketplace"category mistakeprinciple of verificationsynthetic philosophylanguage gamesanalytic paradigmLanguage, Truth and LogicTautologyatomic sentence


1. Consider the claim by analytic philosophy that most philosophical problems reside in confused linguistic and conceptual meanings. Are the problems addressed by philosophy of education primarily matters of language, or are they more than that? How can linguistic and conceptual clarification help education?

2. Develop a critical appraisal of how linguistic analysis differs from other philosophies in its approach to education. What kind of curriculum do they want and why? What are their aims for education, and why? How does analytic philosophy differ from traditional philosophies on these matters?

3. Advocates maintain that philosophical analysis has always been used in philosophy. Give examples of how analysis is used in other philosophies (such as idealism, realism, etc.). Show their similarities and differences with the analytic approach to knowledge. How do these similarities and differences impact on educational theory?

4. From the analytic perspective, what is the main role of the teacher? What should the teacher strive to impress on students about the relation between logic and language?

5. What do analytic philosophers mean by "value-laden language," and how does this influence education? Give examples and explain how value-laden language affects our daily lives.

6. What is the difference between “knowing that” and “knowing how,” and why is this an important aspect of educational thought?

7. What is your reaction to so-called “common sense philosophy”?

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1. The underlying assumption of philosophical analysis is that the proper role for philosophy is to provide

a. clarification to linguistic and conceptual confusion.b. mathematical precision to scientific findings.c. support for humanistic studies.d. scientific certainty to observational data.

2. Bertrand Russell influenced analytic philosophy to avoid a "grand manner" approach in favor of

a. making disparate parts fit into a block universe solution to problems.b. reducing each problem to its smallest parts for clarity and precision of meaning.c. taking constituent parts and connecting them to general science.d. putting the parts back into the whole for better synthesis.

3. A distinguishing feature of logical positivism was its insistence on

a. avoiding atomism in favor of synthesis.b. the principle of verification.c. the use of logic in philosophical argument.d. being tentative about philosophical conclusions.

4. Ludwig Wittgenstein's revised philosophy embraced the view of language as comprised of

a. objective statements of verification.b. atomistic statements of fact.c. indefinite possibilities of usage.d. universal principles of agreement.

5. Many analytic philosophers say that since thinking is so dependent on language,

a. thinking problems are also language problems.b. philosophy must depend on an international language.c. new meanings must be gained through new languages.d. one cannot think without an objective language.

6. Analytic philosophers of education do not attempt to prescribe a particular kind of education as much as they seek to

a. construct a universal language for schools to use.b. simplify the aims and objectives of education.c. make the formal study of language a requirement.d. clarify the conceptual arguments used by educators.

7. The use of philosophical analysis in education has often been directed at educational slogans in order to

a. promote democracy by forceful slogans.b. clarify how meanings are used in slogans.c. abolish the use of slogans in schools.d. advocate particular slogans for adoption by schools.

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8. For Gilbert Ryle the "ghost in the machine" is really a philosophical confusion over the meaning of the

a. body.b. soul.c. emotion.d. mind.

9. Analytic philosophy has had the most impact on our use of

a. curriculum methods.b. language.c. philosophical speculation.d. scientific method.

10. The kind of question that motivates analytic philosophers is not "What is real?" but "What is

a. the truth?"b. the nature of goodness?"c. an analysis of meaning?"d. the epistemological assumption?"

CHAPTER 10: POSTMODERNISM AND EDUCATION

POSTMODERN VARIETY

POSTMODERNISM AND PHILOSOPHY

POSTMODERN AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

CRITIQUE OF POSTMODERNISM IN EDUCATION

Giroux: Border Pedagogy as Postmodern Resistance

Nuyen: Lyotard as Moral Educator

CHAPTER OUTLINE

POSTMODERN VARIETY

Postmodernist hallmarks are concern with irony, contingency, and popular culture; and a fascination with variety, difference, and deconstruction are prominent. Postmodernists see a crisis in contemporary culture and hold that no single cultural tradition will suffice to meet it. In education, many postmodernists are critical theorists who see the curricular canons of Western cultural traditions, "scientific laws" or first principles as forms of continuing domination. They promote knowledge about cultures on the margins and discourses around gender, race, ethnicity, and class identities.

POSTMODERNISM AND PHILOSOPHY

Postmodern philosophy is highly critical of modern philosophy, but is dependent on it for many of its themes. Two leading postmodern philosophers are Foucault and Derrida. Foucault explored how notions of truth have their origins in historical conflict and struggle, and how these notions exercise power over institutions, social systems, and personal identities. He examined how social policies and movements come together in historical events to send us in certain directions rather than others. Rather than seeking universal causal forces in history, philosophy should look for the "regimes of truth" that exercise power and control over people and institutions. Derrida critiques the logocentrism of Western philosophers since Aristotle who have assumed that what appears to the intellect is representative of the world. As Derrida sees it, intellectual representations belong not to logos, the organizing rational principle of the world, but to human discourses, writings, or texts. We need to "deconstruct" our texts and

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examine how the vagaries of language confuse meanings, because we are never fully in control of the language we use. Derrida believes that language cannot be exactingly precise, and the assumption that mind precedes language is mistaken: what we call mind comes from our cultural texts and how we interpret them.

POSTMODERN AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Postmodern philosophers of education reflect critical theory and elements of Marxism, but they also find fault with its totalizing language. Giroux wants to retain modernism's belief in human reason and ethics, but redefine relations between the margins and the center of society for change and justice. McLaren promotes a critical pedagogy that opposes positivistic, ahistorical, and depoliticized education, and is opposed to the politics of power found in contemporary schools and the larger society. Cherryholmes advances a “poststructuralist” approach to education to overcome the emphasis on a rigidly structured curriculum, testing and sorting, and bureaucratic control. Bowers wants a theory of education that conserves significant cultural achievements but builds a reflective community that looks to the future.

Postmodernist aims of education stress ethical relations among people, including people of different background, origin, and perspective. A basic aim is to engage students in critical discourses on human exploitation and to emancipate them from oppression. Education should result in self and social empowerment rather than serving the marketplace and economic competition.

The postmodernist curriculum includes issues of power, history, identities, cultural politics, and social criticism leading to collective action. It connects educational processes (means) to the imperatives of a democratic community (ends), and believes that a good curriculum should empower people and transform society. Postmodernists reject reliance on master narratives and include the study of people who are on the margins of culture. An important aspect of curriculum is the ordinary experiences and outlooks that students bring with them. Postmodernist curriculum recasts the meaning and use of canons of knowledge, and it seeks a new conception of knowledge that does not depend upon disciplinary boundaries. Therefore, teachers must be seen as "transformative intellectuals" occupying political and social roles. Interaction between students and teachers is a crucial consideration, and students must learn to express themselves, experiment, and be personally and socially responsible.

CRITIQUE OF POSTMODERNISM IN EDUCATION

Strengths in the postmodernist view include attention to moral and ethical education in order to develop personal and social identities. Postmodernists emphasize diversity and social discourse, and they promote a pluralistic democratic community. They want to shed light on how personal and social identities are formed, and they emphasize how discourse and narrative shape people's minds. They call attention to how the curriculum and the teaching-learning process may serve to liberate or oppress. However, postmodernist language is difficult to decipher, and attention is needed on a public language that communicates and persuades. Postmodernists seem to be more conscious of what they oppose than what they promote, and their emphasis on human differences may encourage fragmentation and separateness instead of a recognition of common human bonds.

Postmodern philosophy is not a unified philosophical perspective. It projects a critical mood or frame of mind without a definite sense of direction or outcome. In part, postmodernism echoes elements of neopragmatism, and Bernstein promotes an engaged community of inquirers who respond to the conflicts of the day. West claims that neopragmatism, while supporting some aspects of postmodernism , rejects its nihilistic tendencies, and promotes cultural criticism and political engagement in the service of a creative democracy. Rorty also supports neopragmatism as our best hope for solidarity to overcome cruelty in the world.

PROJECTS

1. Ask a small group of students to identify and report to class what selected postmodernist philosophers (such as Foucault) mean by the terms "power" and "empowerment." Compare how these terms are used by postmodernist educational philosophers and theorists. What are the similarities and differences?

2. Join with some classmates in investigating the links of postmodernist educational criticism with the radical education movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. What are the similarities and differences, and what

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is unique about present-day postmodern theory of education?

3. Interview a local teacher, principal, or superintendent about the impact of leading postmodernist policy recommendations for education. Try to determine how effective those recommendations have been (or would be) if they were implemented. What does the interviewee personally see as the major strengths and weaknesses of such policy recommendations?

IDENTIFICATIONS

logocentrismfoundationalismdifféranceteachers as transformative intellectualsMadness and Civilizationdeconstructionmarginalization“presenting the unpresentable”cultural capitalAntonio Gramsci“regimes of truth”


1. What role do the concepts of power and empowerment have in postmodernist educational aims, curriculum, and teaching strategies?

2. Describe the guiding thread(s) of thought that connect postmodernist educational philosophers and theorists. Compare this (these) with significant areas of difference among them. What are the educational ramifications of the similarities and the differences?

3. It has been said that postmodernism is "parasitic" on the modern. What does this mean? Is it an accurate way to describe the relation of postmodernism and modernism?

4. There is considerable commentary about the role of critical theory in postmodern education. Discuss important connections between postmodern critical theory and Marxist critical theory. Show how they are similar, how they differ, and what difference (if any) this makes for postmodern theory of education.

5. How does postmodernist thought reflect a "negative idealism?" How does this relate to the belief that we are limited to our texts, languages, or representations--our ideas? Is the charge of "negative idealism" a fair one? Why or why not?

6. Is there a way out of the nihilism that postmodernists project? What might be some avenues we could take to correct this problem?

7. What does Lyotard mean by “presenting the “unpresentable” and how does this position impact upon our views of justice and morality?

8. How can one “deconstruct” a text? Is this a useful approach to understanding the world.

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1. Postmodernism is sometimes referred to as "parasitical" on modernism, but one characteristic that sets it apart from modernism is its

a. reliance upon Marxist critical theory.b. rejection of philosophical master narratives.c. examination of underlying cultural ideas.d. use of education to promote its central ideas.

2. If modernism sought unity and standardization modeled along the lines of science, postmodernism promotes

a. marginal knowledge and discourses of difference.b. social class identity and conflict with bourgeois influences.c. maintaining the boundaries between race and gender.d. truths from the past that stand the test of time.

3. Michel Foucault maintained that historical events are influenced by "regimes of truth" that are the result of

a. historical processes outside the control of mortal humans.b. the march of objective science unleashed from sectarian religious control.c. human invention within specific historical contexts.d. nationalistic tendencies tied to racial and geographic origins.

4. Jacques Derrida holds that the logocentrism of Western philosophy has led not to accurate representations of logos, but to

a. uncovering the principles of the universe.b. religion and theology rather than to nature.c. greater disciplined inquiry.d. discourses, writings, or texts.

5. Neopragmatists criticize postmodernism for its nihilistic and negative tendencies when what is needed, they claim, is

a. a return to the certainty of scientific purity and the search for global unity.b. less confrontation and more dialogical encounter in a community of inquirers.c. a reassertion of the Kantian program of critiquing all knowledge claims.d. a revival of the Platonic search for social justice found in the search for Truth.

6. Henry Giroux believes the aim of education is to

a. engage students in social discourse that helps them reject human suffering and exploitation.

b. promote a hierarchical social organization with postmodernism's rejection of metanarrativesc. help students promote a better understanding of the language difficulties involved.d. provide students with the kinds of texts they need to solve problems.

7. Generally speaking, postmodernists hold that the curriculum should not be viewed as discrete subjects and disciplines, but as studies of

a. power, history, cultural politics, and social criticism.b. truth, goodness, and beauty around the world.c. historical importance that survive the ages.d. equal weight and merit if reflecting truth claims.

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8. Postmodern educational theory rejects master narratives and favors a curriculum that includes contributions by narratives

a. of a new ideology of cultural supremacy.b. that reject all Eurocentric origins.c. on the margins of culture.d. for the rising middle classes.

9. Critics charge that while postmodernism provides new insight into power relations in school and society, its fascination with difference and marginality may blind it to the

a. power vacuum left by the overthrow of liberalism.b. characteristics human beings hold in common.c. real differences between genders and races.d. fundamental fact of universal truth.

10. A major concern in postmodern education is a sensitivity to language and how it

a. shapes the way students think and conceptualize.b. can be used inaccurately by uncaring students.c. needs to be used according to universal rules.d. must always be spoken carefully and properly.

ANSWER KEY

Chapter 1 – Multiple Choice

1. b2. d3. b4. c5. b6. d7. b8. c9. a10. d11. c


1. c2. a 3. d 4. b5. a6. d7. b8. a9. d 10. a11. d12. a


1. a

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2. c3. d4. b5. c6. d7. a8. b9. d10. c11. a12. b


1. a2. c3. d4. a5. b6. b7. d8. c9. b10. b11. d


1. c2. c3. a4. d5. b6. c7. a8. a 9. a10. c


1. a2. b3. a4. c5. b6. d7. a8. c9. d10. a

Chapter 7 -- Multiple Choice

1. a2. d3. a4. b

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5. a6. c7. d8. b9. a10. dChapter 8 -- Multiple Choice

1. a2. c3. b4. d5. a6. b7. c8. d9. c10. a11. d


1. a2. b3. b4. c5. a6. d7. b8. d9. b10. c


1. b2. a3. c4. d 5. b6. a7. a8. c9. b10. a

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