Professional Practice

•aI

Formative AssessmentMade Easy

Templates for Collecting DailyData in Inclusive Classrooms

Kyena E. Cornelius

.on.

14 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Katie sat at her desk behind a stack ofunit tests and reports. "What hap-pened?" she asked herself "Why did somany of our students with disabilitiesdo so poorly?" Katie had just gradedthe written report and end-of-unit testsfor her co-taught, eighth grade socialstudies class. She thought back to theplanning of the unit. She and Todd,her general education partner, hadmade sure their planning intentionallylooked at every student's needs andindividualized education program(IEP) accommodations. They includedall of the students in activities differen-tiated by readiness level, and all of thestudents seemed to be engaged. Shethought back to each day's lesson. Theunit appeared to go smoothly, andTodd and she had kept to their time-line. Katie thought again about the stu-dents with disabilities. She knew theywere capable, so what did she miss?

Since the reauthorization of the Indi-viduals With Disabilities EducationImprovement Act (IDEA, 2006), 57% ofstudents with disabilities have receivedover 80% of their instruction in thegeneral education classroom (U.S.Department of Education, Office ofSpecial Education and RehabilitativeServices, 2010). As a result, many spe-cial educators, such as Katie, teamwith general educators to provide stu-dents with disabilities education in aninclusive setting (Scruggs, Mastropieri,& McDuffie, 2007). In addition, the NoChild Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB,2006) calls for higher student academicoutcomes. Together, IDEA and NCLBalign to provide students with disabili-ties access to the general educationcurriculum and accountability of theirachievements.

Assessment is usually categorizedas either formative or summative.Districts use summative, high-stakesstate assessments to report studentachievement. Classroom teachers useend-of-unit summative assessments torecord student mastery of content.Special educators use both summativeand formative assessment tools todetermine student eligibility for specialeducation services and to monitor stu-

dent progress toward IEP goals. Forma-tive assessment is also used as a class-room practice to monitor students'understanding and to adjust instructionto increase learning. In short, formativeassessment occurs during instruction toinform teachers of student understand-ing and to guide additional instruction-al strategy decisions, whereas summa-tive assessment occurs after instructionwith the purpose of evaluating studentmastery or demonstrating the sum ofknowledge.

In addition, formative assessmenthas been credited with increasing stu-dent achievement (Madison-Harris &Muoneke, 2012). The literature onformative assessment suggests that out-comes for students who struggle withlearning, students with disabilities, andEnglish language learners increasewhen formative assessment is imple-mented as a systematic and continualprocess (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik,&. Morgan, 1991; Learning Point Asso-ciates, 2009; Madison-Harris & Muon-eke, 2012). Formative assessment hasthe potential to enrich learning andpromote deeper understanding of corecontent (Clark, 2011). Dorn (2010)reported a gap between research andpractice of formative assessment,describing the literature base to imple-ment formative assessment as formida-ble but the evidence of practice asspotty. Formative assessment can beused to organize instruction (Dorn,2010). Traditionally, pacing guides andcontent coverage drive instruction.However, formative assessment allowsteachers to make instructional deci-sions based on student needs, thusenabling more personalized instructionfor all students.

Wormeli (2007) describes formativeassessment as monitoring studentprogress and adjusting your instruc-tional practice based on informationgathered. Just as a good map or globalpositioning system can effectivelyguide a journey from start to finish,formative assessment can guide yourplan for effective instruction. Tomlin-son (1999) also promotes using studentwork as a planning guide and notesthat "assessment is today's means of

understanding how to modify tomor-row's instruction" (p. 10). Teachersshould use daily assessment to gaugestudent understanding of lesson objec-tives. As teachers plan each followinglesson, they should reflect on studentunderstanding and focus on aligningthe lesson objectives. This knowledgeenables them to make data-driven deci-sions in instructional planning.

Formative assessment informs ateacher's next steps of instruction.Research suggests that monitoring stu-dents, adjusting instruction, and offer-ing feedback can be powerful tools inteaching (Bangert-Drowns et a l , 1991;Marzano, 2007). With this objective inmind, teachers should use daily forma-tive assessment to lead students tocontent mastery and thereby ensurethem greater gains (Keeley, 2011 ; Lingo,Barton-Arwood, & Johvette, 2011 ;Wormeli, 2007).

To underscore the importance ofthis practice, formative assessment andreflective practice are key skills of qual-ity teaching promoted by the Councilfor Exceptional Children (CEC) and theNational Board of Professional Teach-ing Standards (NBPTS). Several CECstandards address monitoring andplanning for classroom practice. Spe-cifically, Professional Standards 6 and 7advocate grading, promotion, and pro-gramming decisions based on well-maintained and objective data (CEC,2009), and Ethical Principle F statesthat special educators are committed to"using evidence, instructional data,research, and professional knowledgeto inform practice" (CEC, 2010, para.1). Similarly, the NBPTS third andfourth core propositions call on teach-ers to monitor student learning and toreflect upon and learn from experi-ences in their own practice (Hopkins,2004). Taken together, both CEC andthe NBPTS encourage teacher planningto focus on student learning and pro-fessional reflection.

Collecting data and monitoring stu-dent progress is an essential part ofdecision making in education (Hoj-noski, Gischlar, & Missall, 2009). Class-room data will demonstrate students'progress and help teachers plan

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN \ MAY/JUNE 2013 15

instruction. Admittedly, it can be chal-lenging to gather data and assess stu-dents quickly enough to guide dailyinstruction, especially when teachersdo not have easily accessible tools tocomplete the job. The purpose of thisarticle is to illustrate how formativeassessment can enable you to makedata-driven decisions that impact stu-dent learning in inclusive settings.Accordingly, three easy-to-use tem-plates are offered to gather formativeassessment data for quick and confi-dent implementation. The first tem-plate, an anecdotal seating chart, is aconvenient tool to make quick notes toreference student progress and con-cerns. The second template, a dailyscorecard, is a one-sheet snapshot ofall students' progress using curriculumassignments and classroom activities.The third template, an objectives grid,is a running record of students' objec-tives and the opportunities to docu-ment occurrences. Create the tools andput them on a clipboard to use duringinstruction. When planning with theco-teaching partner, determine thecomponents of the lesson, the studentgroups, and the teaching roles for theday; also discuss how both teacherscan gather information about studentlearning. When circulating around theclass, observe evidence of studentprogress all around you by utilizing atool to make a tally mark or quick notefor an artifact of evidence. Together,these easy-to-use templates can beused to gather formative assessmentdata.

Anecdotal Seating Chart

Recording personal observations of stu-dents allows for a more complete pic-ture of engagement and student experi-ences (Alberto &. Troutman, 2012).Aligned with evidence-based practicesof anecdotal records assessment, thefirst template (see Figure 1) offersanecdotal recording in the form of anoversized seating chart. This examplewas constructed using the shapes fea-ture in Microsoft Word. Using this fea-ture, construct and arrange the boxesto resemble the students' desk arrange-ment. Enlarge the boxes so that anec-dotal notes can be made throughout

the lesson. Jot a quick note about stu-dents' interactions with content objec-tives, use of materials, body language,engagement in discussion, or otherpertinent information you do not wantto chance forgetting later.

In order for Katie, the teacherdescribed in the opening scenario, touse this tool during classroom instruc-tion, she would place the anecdotalchart on a clipboard and walk aroundthe room monitoring students. Katiemight stop next to a student whoappears to be watching the discussionbut is not actively participating. Sheknows this student is shy, so Katieengages her with three simple ques-tions. Through the student's answers,Katie assesses her progress toward theobjective, places a quick note, and nowhas one piece of data for progress.Katie moves on and sees a student offtask, and her notes indicate this is thesecond time she has redirected him.She quickly assesses why the studenthas gone off task twice during oneactivity and deduces it is the work-sheet. Katie adjusts product expecta-tions by asking the student to list thehistorical events in chronological order.

ond objective, place "RC-2" in theupper left corner of the box. Then,when observing the student, put acheck next to the code. This will pro-vide one more piece of data to markstudent progress along with the datethe objective was addressed. For moreprecise data collection for IEP progressmonitoring, see the Objectives Gridtool on page 20.

Using the anecdotal seating chartcan be helpful for co-planning withgeneral education teachers or for use insmall group settings. Providing a visualrepresentation of class progress canassist in differentiated lesson planning.Planning instruction that targets stu-dents' readiness levels is more naturalwhen you have data on each studentin one central location.

Daily Scorecard

Using a classroom curriculum to createmeasurements of student growth hasbeen effective in making various deci-sions in education (Deno, 2003). Thesecond template (see Figure 2) isinspired by research of curriculum-based measurement. Wormeli (2007)poses questions to prompt teacher

Providing a visual representation of class

progress can assist in differentiated lesson planning.

and the student experiences immediatesuccess demonstrating his understand-ing of the content. After class, Katieand Todd plan instruction for the nextday and choose to design a cooperativegroup review activity for the classopener. Katie looks over the anecdotalseating chart and suggests groupingsand discussion questions based on hernotes. By implementing one tool, Katiehas used data to monitor progress,accommodate student assignments,and plan for the next day.

As a classroom teacher, you canalso use this strategy with IEP goalsand objectives. As lessons are planned,write students' specific objectives intheir boxes. To save space, develop acode from the IEP. For example, if astudent has reading comprehensiongoals and the lesson will target the sec-

refiection of this daily information. Theopen-ended questioning encouragesrefiection on student progress towardcurriculum objectives while designingfuture learning experiences. The dailyscorecard was created with thoserefiective questions in mind and cre-ates a one-page visual summary of stu-dents' formative data. This helps whenreflecting on the curriculum objectiveand on where students are on the con-tinuum of the objective.

The template consists of sixcolumns for data collection. The fol-lowing paragraphs will offer some sug-gestions on how to maximize the tem-plate. There are six headings: (1) drill,(2) homework, (3) class practice, (4)physical demeanor, (5) exit ticket, and(6) other. These suggestions are offeredas examples; however, the scorecard

16 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Figure 1 . Anecdotal Seating Chart

BobbyOff task //Concept taskAccom: listevents in chronorder

Jasmine

Watching, no

active participation

Ask?

Student Name Student Name

Student Name Student Name

Note. Use this template to make anecdotal notes during instruction.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN [ MAY/JUNE 2013 17

Figure 2 . Daily Scorecard

Student

.meworkcorrect)

(# attempt)

Class• HHHBIH^Plemeanor Exit TicnH|

Practice (Score)

Bobby

Jasmine

12 3 4 5 ConceptGraphic

Perfect

Needs moretime

Assist withresources

©ask?© auditory

©ask?

4/4

3/4

Check IEP

Relevance

Noie. Use this template for a one-page "snapshot" of student progress. ? = questions. Adapted from Differentiation: FromPlanning to Practice, Grades 6-12, by R. Wormeli, 2007, Portland, MI: Stenhouse Publishers. Copyright 2007 by StenhousePublishers. Adapted with permission.

can be personalized to fit the students'needs and specific classroom practices.

Some data can be collected duringinstruction, more will come from theanecdotal seating chart, and still morewill come after looking over studentwork products. Now picture Katieusing this template. When she beginsinstruction, the drill, she asks probingquestions to ascertain backgroundknowledge and retention from the lastclass. Imagine the cooperative groupactivity she and Todd designed after

the last class. As students engage inthe activity, Katie listens to their dis-cussions and has response cards readyfor student use. Based on the respons-es she hears and sees on responsecards, she will place a check mark oran X in the drill column. This columncan also be used if students writeanswers down; collect the artifact, andif there is a numerical value place it inthe drill column. If there is not an arti-fact (e.g., personal whiteboards for stu-dents are used to display answers).

keep the daily scorecard handy tomake tally marks.

The homework column can be usedin different ways. The teacher can useit to mark a score, to record the com-monly missed questions, or to mark asimple yes or no if the studentreturned homework. Likewise, use thisto inform your instructional practice.Information that the teacher deemsvaluable may change at any giventime. For instance, Katie needs moreprecise information from the home-

18 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

work, but is it the concept or the prod-uct that is causing difficulty? HereKatie can talk to students, ask a coupleof probing questions, and assess theircomprehension of the content. Noticeon the scorecard template that Katienotes the student understood the con-cept but had difficulty completing thegraphic organizer.

There will be times when studentmastery is important, in which case itis more appropriate to note the score.At other times you may need more pre-cise information about questions thatwere difficult for students in order toconduct an error analysis. This columncan be used to meet reflection andplanning needs.

The class practice column is similarto the homework column because theteacher decides how best to utilize it.During guided practice activities, theteacher can note if students areengaged. Are they meeting the expecta-tions you have set? Are they strugglingwith a concept during independentpractice? Use this column to gatherthe information needed to further thedevelopment of class activities tostrengthen student learning. This infor-mation may come from an anecdotalseating chart. What notes did yourecord during instruction? Was the stu-dent on task and engaged for everysegment of the instruction? This col-umn may also be used when theteacher provides a review before theunit summative assessment. Theteacher could mark who is ready andwho needs more time. With this infor-mation, the teacher can prepare areview activity for those students andarrange a small group review or re-instruction. During guided practiceactivities, Katie observes one studentwriting quickly and staring at theclock. The student knows the informa-tion and wants to complete the activi-ty, but he needs more time to get histhoughts down. Katie also observesanother student struggling with onlineresources, so she makes these notesunder class practice.

The column for physical demeanoris for the teacher to take time to readbody language. The teacher shouldlook closely at a student's face and ask

questions. Are the students confused?Do they look uncomfortable? Or arethey happy, smiling, and raising theirhands at every opportunity? None ofthese answers alone will give informa-tive data to help the teacher move for-ward. However, the answers do providea starting point for probing. Engage thestudent who looks confused with aspecific question about the content orlearning activity. Without acknowledg-ing that the student looks confused,ask him or her to paraphrase or makea connection to a previous class. Donot discount physical demeanor; trustyourself to use it to gauge studentlearning. Katie looked around the roomand saw two students who wereengaged, but both had pensive andsullen expressions. She walked over toeach of the students and asked explicitquestions about the content and theday's objective. Once she was comfort-able that they understood the concepts,she asked about their expressions. Onestudent immediately looked up,changed his expression, and said he"got it." Katie determined he justneeded the auditory stimulus of hear-ing himself repeat the concept outloud. Katie made a note to check hisIEP for processing strengths. The otherstudent needed a bit more guidance tomake a relevant connection to thematerial. Katie led the student to newunderstanding by asking questions andtapping into background knowledge.She made a note of "relevance." Katieand Todd routinely presented the rele-vance of lessons in their opening dis-cussions. This note reminded Katie toexplicitly teach personal relevance tothis student before discussion began onthe next lesson.

The exit ticket column is similar tothe drill column. If the lesson resultedin an artifact, actual student work, useit. If students use a whiteboard, or ifthey get up and move to a corner ofthe room that relates to their under-standing level, use the scorecard tomark responses. Again, make this col-umn what is needed in relation toplanning needs. Similarly, the othercolumn will be information gatheredfrom the anecdotal seating chart. Isthere something to follow up with

later? Put a reminder to call home,speak to another teacher, look up aresource, or look up IEP progress.These tools are designed to help, souse each column to mark the informa-tion needed to make data-driven deci-sions to plan future instruction.

After using this template, Katiedetermined the next class needed moreopportunities for student dialogue. Byworking together, she and Todddesigned a series of discussion groups.They wrote guiding questions for thegroup leaders to use to facilitate dis-cussion as well as provided opportuni-ties for students to write and ask theirown questions. Katie also noted fromthe template that students were havingtrouble accessing resources to supporttheir answers. She used this informa-tion to design instruction that includedteacher modeling and guided practiceactivities for using resource materials.

Obiectives Grid

Capturing data on discrete behaviorsand their frequency is often the easiestform of data collection because it onlyrequires a tally mark while observingthe behavior's beginning and end(Alberto & Troutman, 2012). Eventrecording is not limited to social oremotional behaviors; it is effective foracademic behaviors as well, such ascorrect math facts or identifying themain idea in a text. The third template(see Figure 3) allows you to monitorstudents' IEP goals specific to the day'slesson. The example provided was cre-ated using an Excel spreadsheet.

At the beginning of the year, createan Excel workbook for students' IEPgoals and objectives. Within the work-book, create a separate worksheet foreach student. Type each student's IEPgoals and objectives in a separate cell.This will provide you a working data-base of your students' objectives thatyou can refer to during lesson planningin order to align with content stan-dards. Organize the workbook to meetyour personal needs; the informationcan be arranged by your daily scheduleor content. The workbook can also beorganized by the IEP caseload assign-ment. Depending on the structure ofthe school, the teacher may teach

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN | MAY/JUNE 2013 19

Figure 3. Objectives Grid

Bobby

Jasmine

^^^H^K'^ Objective ^ H H i ^ ^ |

Determine the main idea of passage

Identify at least one supporting detail

Identify cause and effect relationships

^ B Date Opportuni^—

Today's date

Today's date

Today's date

nil

nil

III

II

III

n75%

50%

60%

Noie. Use this template to monitor progress of IEP objectives.

students who are not on his or her IEPcaseload. Thus, the objectives gridbecomes evidence of observed progressthat can be shared with IEP teammembers.

When the lesson planning is com-plete and you know which objectiveswill be targeted, create a new spread-sheet to use for assessing progress dur-ing the lesson. To create your lesson-specific spreadsheet (see Figure 4),begin in cell Cl. Leave the first twocells of the worksheet blank and typein the date. To the right, in Dl, typethe word "opportunity," and in cell Eltype the word "occurrence." Belowthese headings, in cell A2, type theflrst student's name. In B2 and B3,type the targeted IEP objectives in thislesson. Adjust this as necessary to stu-dents' needs. Complete the rest of theworksheet by fllling in the students'names and IEP objectives. Print off theworksheet and keep it available duringclass instruction.

When instruction begins, theteacher should know the lesson andthe IEP objectives he or she is monitor-ing. Each time an opportunity torespond to this objective is given, placea tally mark in the "opportunity" col-umn. If the student demonstrates the

objective, also place a tally mark in the"occurrence" column. At the end of theclass, divide the number of occur-rences achieved by the number ofopportunities given to compute thepercentage. Compare students' progressfrom previous lessons and to the crite-rion stated in the IEP.

Returning to Katie and her students,she notes on her objectives grid thecomprehension goal this lesson istargeting. During class she directlyprobes the students and uses theirwritten work to determine their

Conclusion and Implicationsfor Practice

The templates provided are intended tohelp the teacher gather daily formativeassessment data in his or her class-room. Using the anecdotal seatingchart, daily scorecard, and objectivesgrid can facilitate collaborative plan-ning between the teacher and his orher general education partner. When ateaching team collects and analyzesstudent data frequently, they can easilyadjust instructional pace and student

Using the anecdotal seating chart, daily scorecard, and

ohjectives grid can facilitate collaborative planning hetween

the teacher and his or her general edncation partner.

progress. With one student, she islooking for progress in determining themain idea and supporting details. Foranother student, she is monitoringability to identify cause and effect rela-tionships. Katie knows when theseopportunities will be presented in thelesson, so she positions herself closeto the students and monitors theirresponses.

demands to ensure students are mak-ing appropriate progress toward con-tent standards. Remember how dis-heartened Katie was after grading thesummative assessment? After Katieintroduced Todd to formative assess-ment, they began to monitor studentprogress and adjust instruction to meetthe needs of students. As Katie andTodd co-plan together, they review the

20 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Figure 4. Excel Screen Shot: Demonstration of Creating theObjectives Grid« O O

i-fv-i- ?3^«' Workbookl

125» • Ô

. |*j Fill ' Cjiibti (Bocyl j - 12 •. A ' i A -

II2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

A

Student A

Student B

Student C

Objective 1

Objective 2

Objective 1

Objective 1

Objective 2

jÊmÊÊÊmmm

Date Oppoituntty Occurrence

F .:...C .1

U12

Student data daily. Using formativeassessment as a road map, Katie andTodd are navigating their students tohigher achievement. You can use form-ative assessment in the same way tocollect evidence of student progress. Ifa different pace or extra support isneeded, use your knowledge of stu-dents and their responses to implementstrategies to support your decision. Thedata collected can also drive theresearch for new evidence-based strate-gies. Evidence collected in class willfacilitate the teacher's role as a profes-sional by enhancing his or her ethicalcharge to use data to drive instruction-al decisions.

This article provides easy-to-usetemplates to lighten a teacher's work-load. Using these templates enablesteachers to collect daily data on stu-dent progress while balancing addition-al responsibilities of an inclusive class-room. These templates are easy toimplement and provide valuable infor-mation. By using information to guideinstructional decisions and planning,teachers will be more knowledgeableabout their students, make better data-driven decisions, and have a writtenrecord of student progress.

ReferencesAlberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2012).

Applied behavior analysis for teachers(9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ;Prentice Hall.

Bangert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, C. C , Kulik,J. A., & Morgan, M. (1991). The instruc-tional effects of feedback in test-likeevents. Review of Educational Research,61, 213-238.

Clark, I. (2011). Formative assessment:Policy, perspectives and practice. FloridaJournal of Educational Administrationand Policy. 4, 158-180.

Council for Exceptional Children. (2009).What every special educator must know:Ethics, standards, and guidelines (6thed.). Arlington, VA: Author.

Council for Exceptional Children. (2010,January 22). CEC ethical principles forspecial education professionals. Retrievedfrom: http://www.cec.sped.org/Content/NavigationMenu/ProfessionalDevelopment/ProfessionalStandards/EthicsPracticeStandards/default.htm

Deno, S. L. (2003). Developments in cur-riculum-based measurement. The Journalof Special Education, 3, 184-192.

Dorn, S. (2010). The political dilemmas offormative assessment. ExceptionalChildren, 76, 325-337.

Hojnoski, R. L., Gischlar, K. L., & Missall,K. N. (2009). Improving child outcomeswith data-based decision making: Col-lecting data. Young Exceptional Children,J2(3), 32-44.

Hopkins, M. H. (2004). Navigating thenational board certification process: A

step-by-step workbook for teachers.Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Individuals With Disabilities EducationImprovement Act, 20 U. S. C. § 1400 etseq. (2006).

Keeley, P. (2011). Formative assessmentprobes: Assessment with a purpose.Science and Children, 48(9), 22-25.

Learning Point Associates. (2009). Connect-ing formative assessment research to prac-tice: An introductory guide for educators.Retrieved from http://www.learningpt.ort/pdfs/FormativeAssessment.pdf

Lingo, A. S., Barton-Arwood, S. M., &Jolivette, K. (2011). Teachers workingtogether: Improving learning outcomes inthe inclusive classroom—practical strate-gies and examples. TEACHING Excep-tional Children, 43(3), 6-13.

Madison-Harris, R., & Muoneke, A. (Janu-ary, 2012). Using formative assessmentto improve student achievement in thecore content areas. Briefing Paper, South-east Comprehensive Center at SEDL.Retrieved from http://secc.sedLorg/resources/briefs/formative_assessment_core_content

Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and scienceof teaching. Alexandria, VA: Associationfor Supervision and Curriculum Develop-ment.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C.§ 6301 et seq. (2006).

Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & McDuf-fie, K. A. (2007). Co-teaching in inclusiveclassrooms: A metasynthesis of qualita-tive research. Exceptional Children, 73,392-416.

Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiatedclassroom: Responding to the needs of alllearners. Alexandria, VA: Association forSupervision and Curriculum Develop-ment.

U.S. Department of Education, Office ofSpecial Education and RehabilitativeServices. (2010). Thirty-five years ofprogress in educating children with dis-abilities through IDEA. Washington, DC:U.S. Government Printing Office.

Wormeli, R. (2007). Differentiation: Fromplanning to practice. Grades 6-12.Portland, MI: Stenhouse.

Kyena E. Cornelius (Maryland CEC),Doctoral Student, Department of SpecialEducation, Johns Hopkins University,Baltimore, Maryland.

Address correspondence concerning thisarticle to Kyena E. Cornelius, Departmentof Special Education, Johns Hopkins Uni-versity, JHU School of Education, 2800 N.Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218 (e-mail:kcomel4@jhu.edu).

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 45,No. 5, pp. 14-21.

Copyright 2013 CEC.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN M AY/JUNE 2013 21

Copyright of Teaching Exceptional Children is the property of Council for Exceptional Children and its content

may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express

written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.