FOREST MANAGEMENT - HEDON Household Energy Network

FOREST MANAGEMENTIN REFUGEE AND RETURNEE

SITUATIONS

A HANDBOOK OF SOUND PRACTICES

2 Refugee Operations and Environmental Management

Acknowledgements

Our genuine appreciation to The World Conservation Union (IUCN) in Gland, Geneva for theirtechnical expertise and invaluable revision of the Handbook on Forest Management in Refugee andReturnee Situations.

We extend our thanks to the UNHCR Field Environmental Coordinators and Focal Points and othercolleagues for their very useful comments and additional inputs.

Illustrations prepared by Dorothy Migadee, Nairobi, Kenya

Cover image: ©Jim Thorsell

Design and layout by L’IV Com Sàrl, Morges, Switzerland

Printed by: SroKundig, Geneva, Switzerland

Produced by the Environment, Technical Support Section, UNHCR Geneva and IUCN, August 2005

3Forest Management in Refugee and Returnee Situations

Table of Contents

Glossary and Acronyms 5

Executive Summary 8

1. Introduction 101.1 Forest Management during Refugee and Returnee Operations 101.2 Why UNHCR Cares for the Environment 11

2. Purpose and Use of this Handbook 132.1 Introduction 132.2 Using this Handbook 14

3. Forests and Ecosystem Management 163.1 Functions of Forests and Trees 163.2 Types of Forest 18

4. Forest Management during Refugee and Related Operations 224.1 Introduction 224.2 Emergency Phase 234.3 Care and Maintenance Phase 244.4 Durable Solutions Phase 28

5. Responding to Needs – Practical Actions and Options to Consider and Apply 315.1 Introduction 315.2 Initial Damage Prevention and Control 315.3 Assess the Demand for Forestry Products 325.4 Assess the Possible Supply of Forestry Products 345.5 Development of Wood Supply and Harvesting Plans 355.6 Tree Planting – Some Practical Considerations 375.7 Forestry and Income-Generating Activities 40

6. Elements of a Forest Management Plan 426.1 Introduction 426.2 Awareness Raising 426.3 Broader Constituency Building 446.4 Identifying Needs and Opportunities 456.5 Which Forestry System Best Addresses Identified Needs? 486.6 Forest Rehabilitation at a Landscape Level 526.7 Monitoring and Evaluation 54

7. Bibliography 56

Annex I Estimating the Supply Capacity of a Forest 59

Annex II Key Aspects of a Wood Supply Programme 62

Annex III Plant Production and Nursery Design 65

Annex IV Tree Planting and Maintenance Techniques 70

Annex V Common Agroforestry Practices in the Tropics 73

Annex VI Selected Tree Species 76

Annex VII Checklist of Common Forest Activities 79


Glossary

Afforestation – The establishment of a more-or-less continuous tree cover, normally byplanting, in areas which have previously beenwithout trees.

Agroforestry – Land-use system in whichwoody perennials are maintained or planted, insome form of spatial arrangement or temporalsequence, on the same land as agricultural cropsand/or livestock.

Biodiversity – The variety of life on Earth. Inpractical terms, biodiversity comprises genes,species and ecosystems. Genetic diversity refersto variations within or between populations ofthe same species; species diversity refers to thenumber of different species (plants, animals ormicro-organisms) in a site habitat; ecosystemdiversity refers to the variety of ecosystems,habitats, forest types or communities, each ofwhich is composed of a distinctive set of genesand species, and of distinctive elements of soiland climate.

Carbon fixation – The conversion by plants,through photosynthesis, of atmospheric carbondioxide into organic compounds.

Carrying capacity – Capacity of an ecosystemto support healthy organisms whilemaintaining its productivity, adaptability andcapability of renewal.

Community forestry – A generic term forforestry where people as user groups,communities and individuals are the mainactors. It includes village woodlotestablishment, farm forestry, tree planting inprivate fields and joint management of publicforests by communities and governments.

Coppicing – Traditional method of forestmanagement in which shoots are allowed togrow up form the base of a felled tree.

Deforestation – The depletion of tree crowncover to less than 10 per cent.

Desertification – Land degradation in arid,semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resultingfrom various factors, including climaticvariations and human activities – total removalof vegetation cover by agriculture orovergrazing, for example.

Ecosystem – Complex of plants, animals andmicro-organisms which interact with eachother. Ecosystem services include recyclingnutrients, regulating climate, maintaininghydrological cycles, creating soil and balancingatmospheric gases.

Exotic species – Species introduced fromanother ecological zone; usually the opposite of‘indigenous’.

Forest – An ecosystem with a minimum of 10per cent crown cover of trees.

Forest degradation – The change of forestclass (from closed to open forest) which negatively affects the stand or site and lowersproduction capacity.

Forest fallow – All types of woody vegetationderived from the clearing of natural forest forshifting agriculture. It consists of a mosaic ofvarious succession phases and includes patchesof uncleared forest and agriculture fields whichcannot realistically be segregated and accountedfor, especially when using satellite imagery.

Forest management – Development andimplementation of plans to protect, enrich,manipulate and exploit wood and non-woodproducts from natural or plantation forestresources.

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Forest products – Also known as non-wood/non-timber forest products. Examples:fruits, nuts, edible greens, bushmeat, fuel,fodder, green manure, fibre, medicinalproducts, seeds, mushrooms, ornamentalspecies and resins. Previously, often referred toas ‘minor forest products’.

Harvesting – Involves all activities required inthe removal of both timber and non-timberforest products from the forest, including on-site treatments to prepare the products fortransport to primary processing sites.

Multiple use forestry – Management offorests to obtain multiple products and benefits(e.g. production forest, protection forest andconservation forest). Multiple use forestry takesan integrated approach towards the differentcategories of forests and encompasses thescientific, cultural, recreational, historical andamenity values of forest resources.

Multipurpose tree species – Speciesproviding several different products andbenefits, such as timber, fuelwood, fodder,shelter and soil improvement.

Plantation forests – Forests establishedartificially, either by afforestation on land whichhas not carried forest within living memory orby reforestation of land which carried forestbefore but where the indigenous species arereplaced with a new species or genetic variety.

Poles – Small-diameter wood used in anunprocessed form for construction, fence postsand other purposes.

Protected area – An area of land and/or seaespecially dedicated to the protection andmaintenance of biological diversity, and ofnatural and associated cultural resources, andmanaged through legal or other effective means.

Reforestation – The restoration of tree cover,to areas from which trees have recently beenremoved, by planting, encouragement ofnatural regeneration, or a combination of thesemethods.

Rehabilitation – The return of a degradedecosystem to an undegraded condition, butwhich may also be different from its originalcondition. See also forest landscape restoration

Shifting cultivation – A farming system inwhich land is periodically cleared, farmed andthen returned to fallow. Synonymous withslash-and-burn and swidden agriculture.

Social forestry – Farm, community and ruraldevelopment forestry.

Stere – A stere is a universal measuring unit forwood. It is the quantity of cut and stackedwood contained in 1m3. Because of the gaps inbetween the logs, the amount of wood is lessthan 1m3. Depending on the size and the shapeof the logs (stacking co-efficient), one stere isequivalent to 0.4–0.7m3 of solid wood.Regarding its weight, one stere contains400–700kg of green wood and between 250 and 450kg if the wood is dry.

Sustainable forest management – Themanagement and use of forests and woodedlands in a way, and at a rate, that maintainstheir biodiversity, productivity, regenerationcapacity, vitality and their potential to fulfil,now and in the future, relevant ecological,economic and social functions, at local,national, and global levels, without causing anydamage to other ecosystems.

Sustainable use – Use of an organism,ecosystem or other renewable resource at a ratecommensurate with its capacity for renewal.


Sustained yield – The production of forestproducts in a way that an approximate annualbalance between the net growth and theharvesting of the forest resource is achieved.

Watershed – A watershed or catchment is anarea of land with common drainage. It isconsidered both as a physical-biological unitand as a socio-economic-political unit forplanning and management of natural resources.

Watershed management – Planning andimplementation of natural resource utilisationin a catchment area, without adversely affectingthe soil and water resources.

Woodland – Open stand of trees up toapproximately 18 metres in height in which treecrowns cover at least 30 per cent of the landarea but are, generally, not overlapping.


Acronyms

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United NationsGPS Global positioning systemha Hectarekm KilometreIUCN World Conservation Unionm metrem3 cubic metreNGO Non-governmental organisationNTFP Non-Timber Forest ProductQIPS Quick Impact ProjectsRRA Rapid Rural AppraisalUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesWFP World Food Programme

Executive Summary

People all over the world depend on forests andwoodlands for a broad range of tangible goods,as well as the often less perceived services suchas soil stabilisation and ground water regulationthey provide. Refugees and returnees are noexception to this. Many past and currentrefugee communities are known for their closerespect for nature and understanding of naturalresource management. Others are less aware,possibly because their lifestyle may havedepended on seasonal movements so they neverfelt much direct association with nurturing aparticular tree or forest. Yet, when populationsare forced to live in crowded and possibleunfamiliar situations – not of their own makingor choice – they are often left with no optionbut to depend on natural resources as a meansof survival. At such times, the environment isoften placed under some degree of threat.

Few occasions rival the circumstancesexperienced in a refugee situation – when itcomes to an urgent need for building materialsto support a shelter against the elements, whenpeople need dry wood or other materials toserve as a source of cooking or heating fuel,when some require food or natural remedies forsickness, or when livestock keepers need foodfor precious flocks. All of these, and more,activities have direct consequences for theenvironment in general, but on forests andwoodlands in particular. If such activities arenot restricted or alternative solutions notfound, what might start out as a low levelresource gathering exercise can quickly turninto widescale and, often, irrevocabledegradation. The “no action” scenario is not anoption in such situations.

Some degree of forest degradation anddeforestation is inevitable in a refugee and oftenreturnee context. This not only results in areduced availability of forest products, but may

also cause additional environmental damagesuch as accelerated soil erosion (with associatedfeatures such as landslides and siltation ofsurface water resources), unfavourable changesin the local climate, disturbance of the localwater balance, loss of wildlife, desertificationand loss of well-being and livelihood securityamong communities living near the affectedarea.

Working with a wide range of partnersaround the world, over the past few decades inparticular, UNHCR has amassed considerableinformation on the interactions betweenrefugees and returnees with forests and forest-based resources. This information has in turnpermitted UNHCR to extract a large numberof lessons learned from these experiences,information which are now presented in thisrevised booklet, Forest Management inRefugee and Returnee Situations – AHandbook of Sound Practices. ThisHandbook takes a deliberate stance inadvocating greater involvement of refugees andlocal communities in decision making andmanagement roles in relation to forestmanagement. That is not to say that localgovernment and other agencies have no role toplay at such times – quite the opposite.

What has been noted time and time again,however, is that while each refugee/returneesituation is different, there are some commonthreads in humanitarian operations which, ifrecognised and addressed in time, could helpsave scarce resources and help improve theplight of refugees, in particular. Timely action,for example, during an emergency can helpprevent or at least contain the level of habitatdestruction or degradation. This will later meanthat costly, and sometimes impractical,rehabilitation will not be needed. Equallyimportant, timely actions as described in thisHandbook can prevent conflicts from arisingwith host communities who may easily beaffected by the actions of refugees, amongwhich might be the cutting of trees, entry into



sacred forests, or killing of wildlife. Involvingcommunities in decision-making at such timescan – from experience – help improve thesituation.

While drawing attention to theoverarching need to protect broad forestecosystems, and not just clusters of oftenisolated forests and woodlands, this Handbookoffers a range of practical actions for users toconsider and apply in different situations and atdifferent phases of operations. Key, basicelements to successful forest management are:

ä knowing the needs and demands fromrefugees as well as local communities, ifcommon resources are to be exploited;

ä assessing what can be supplied, and fromwhere;

ä carefully controlling the level of resourcesextracted, while at the same time renewingor replanting others; and, in particular

ä ensuring that forest-related activities are notcarried out in isolation from activities whichare planned or already underway in otherrelated sectors.

To assist with this co-ordination, it isstrongly recommended that a ForestManagement Plan is drawn up for eachsituation, addressing these and other needs.Such a plan, which would include a broad rangeof stakeholders, would also include a strongelement of monitoring to ensure that theactivities being undertaken respond in anappropriate manner to the perceived needs ofthe affected people.

By reviewing the examples and guidanceoutlined in the following pages, and adaptingthese to suit a particular situation and needs, itis hoped that users of this Handbook willbenefit from the experiences of colleagues fromother operations and will further engage inpromoting and ensuring more sustainablemanagement of forests in refugee-relatedsituations.

Introduction

1.1 Forest Management DuringRefugee and Returnee Operations

The physical impacts of refugees or returneeson the environment can be immediate, visibleand long lasting. Nowhere is this more criticalthan in relation to forested or heavily vegetatedlands. During a humanitarian operation, land isoften cleared of vegetation to make way for thephysical infrastructure of a new camp orsettlement. Urgently required buildingmaterials may be sourced from local forests orplantations, while wood is commonly cut orgathered for cooking, heating and – usuallylater in the operation – conversion to charcoal.Livestock herders may have no option but tograze their animals in open forests or gathernecessary forage from these regions. All of theseactivities, and more, have the potential ofcausing significant and lasting environmental,social and economic impacts on a communityand/or region.

While it is important to recognise thebroad range of actions that commonly take

place during a refugee or returnee operation, itis perhaps even more important that these concerns are addressed collectively through awell considered, planned and co-ordinatedresponse mechanism, rather than beinganswered on an individual or ad hoc basis.Planting fast-growing Eucalyptus trees may atfirst seem like a good response to woodshortages, but the longer term impact of thesetrees is damaging for the soil and, quite often,the water table. Other, native tree species mightin many instances be more appropriate, beingequally useful for people and better overall forthe environment. Understanding theconditions as well as people’s needs is thereforeas important as determining the mostappropriate species of trees to plant in anysituation.

The environment is not alone in bearingthe added pressure of sustaining refugees orreturnee populations in an often confined area.Experience shows that accompanying suchimpacts are often far more subtle – yet equallydamaging – social and economic consequences.There can, however, also be many positiveaspects associated with hosting refugees or withaccommodating returnees, an aspect which isoften overlooked at these times.

Engaging people in sound forestmanagement practices is seen by UNHCR andIUCN-The World Conservation Union asbeing an opportunity to protect the localenvironment for the goods and services itprovides. At the same time, experience showsthat embarking upon sound forestry practicesoffers greater prospects for at least part of thepopulation to improve their well-being andlivelihood security.


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Degraded camp site

Well managed green camp

Sustainable forest management aims toensure that the goods and services derived froma forest meet present-day needs, while at thesame time secures their continued availabilityand contribution to long-term development. Inits broadest sense, forest managementencompasses the administrative, legal,technical, economic, social and environmentalaspects of the conservation and use of forests. Itimplies various degrees of deliberate humanintervention, ranging from actions aimed atsafeguarding and maintaining the forestecosystem and its functions, to favouringspecific socially or economically valuablespecies or groups of species for the improvedproduction of goods and services.

1.2 Why UNHCR Cares for theEnvironment

Over the past decade, in particular, public andinstitutional awareness has grown for the needto protect the environment – and the manyservices it provides – from refugee influxes andassociated humanitarian operations. The needto establish and maintain environmentalquality is also becoming more evident in newlyplanned returnee operations. Despitethis, some people might still questionwhether given the high demands of anemergency, for example, considerationshould even be given to looking afterthe environment, let alone ‘a fewtrees’. Many developing countriesalready have inadequate funding andhuman resources for the preparation,implementation and monitoring ofestablished forest managementplans. They also often lackmechanisms to ensure theparticipation and involvement of allstakeholders in forest planning anddevelopment. Given this, and theoften competing pressures under whichUNHCR and its partner agencies operate, is itfair to even consider taking action to protect the

environment at a time of competing needs andpressures and, if action is taken, what is thelikelihood of anything actually being achieved?

Experience shows that even with limitedresources, much can in fact be achieved duringthe emergency, care and maintenance andreturn operations, for the benefit of all thoseconcerned through sound environmentalplanning and management. The use of fuel-efficient stoves, for example, can reduce thetime people spend gathering firewood, reducethe risk of attack by being outside the camp,and reduce the amount of expenditure that maybe required if people are obliged to buy wood.Drying and splitting wood – activities routinelyencouraged in refugee situations – cuts downon cooking times and can reduce the amount ofdamaging smoke in confined housing. Growingtrees can also ensure multiple benefits, fromproviding shade and shelter, to allowing peopleto harvest an assemblage of fruits, cut fodder forlivestock, or pick medicinal leaves fortraditional healing purposes.


A green refugee camp – Household tree plantingprovides shade and protects the institution of asylum

Sound planning and management aretherefore of key importance and should be anintegral component during all phases of refugeeand returnee operations. In the global contextof increasing awareness for environmentalissues, UNHCR has prepared this Handbook,providing a framework within which its staffand other organisations are able to address specific forestry-related issues and concerns asan integrated part of refugee assistance pro-grammes.

One of the purposes of this newHandbook is to try and ensure that selectedbest practices from the field are made knownand become more widely used. Another is to

help ensure greater co-ordination in planningand when taking action. A simple – yet com-monly overlooked – example of this is the activeengagement of local forestry services as well asaffected communities in any forest-relatedactivity being considered or implemented in oraround refugee camps/settlements. Their adviceon a wide range of issues, from tree speciesselection to locally adapted planting techniques,will often be relevant and useful.



Purpose and Useof this Handbook

2.1 Introduction

This Handbook is concerned with forestryissues in refugee and returnee operations.Although refugee situations and large-scalemovements of displaced people occur through-out the world, this Handbook has been elabo-rated with a clear focus on humid and dry trop-ical regions. There are two main reasons forthis: first, because the highest concentrations ofrefugees are currently found in the tropics and,second, tropical forests are far more threatenedthan forests in temperate zones because of theireasily disturbed ecological balance and hencethe difficulty in replacing such complex habi-tats. In the tropics, degraded forest lands aregenerally more susceptible to erosion and subse-quent desertification. In addition, a significantproportion of rural populations in the tropicsdepend on forest resources for their livelihoods,while these ecosystems also harbour some of thehighest concentrations of biological diversity onEarth. Much is therefore at risk if these regionsare impacted by humanitarian relief operations.

With a growing appreciation of the impor-tance of sound forest management in refugee-related operations – but also realisation of theconsiderable and often lasting impacts whichno action or inappropriate actions can have –this Handbook proposes that a new focus isplaced on forest management. This approachadvocates for the strong involvement ofrefugees, returnees and members of local com-munities in being able to make conscious deci-sions about what actions are taken in managing

local forest ecosystems, and being made moreresponsible for these. A simple example con-cerns the choice of tree a family might plantaround their shelter – whether for shade, ani-mal fodder, fruit or a multipurpose tree speciesthat might provide all of these and more.Formerly, the choice of which tree to plant, andwhere, was often taken by UNHCR, one of itsimplementing partners or perhaps a stateforestry service – without questioning what sortof trees were being planted. Experience, howev-er, has shown that not only are refugee morelikely to care for trees if they can see some ben-efit from this practice, but also that they arelikely to do so if they have clear and unequivo-cal access to such resources, both now and aslong as they remain at that location.

This Handbook has been prepared to helpdevelop a better understanding of what needs tobe considered when dealing with forestry issues– from growing and planting trees to fuelwoodprovision – in a refugee or returnee operation.Based on an existing guideline (UNHCR,1998), it takes a fresh look at some of the mainrecurring issues experienced with planning forand managing forest-related activities, describessome recent experiences in this arena and out-lines a number of possible actions which mightbe considered in a particular situation – all witha view towards enhancing management systemsand reducing the negative environmental and

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Tree species for reforestation must be selectedaccording to the needs of the end users.

For reforestation programmes to be sustainable andmeet the needs of intended beneficiaries, the mostappropriate species for planting must be identifiedwith input from the local community. Multi-purposetree species, suitable for the local environment,should be given priority. In cases of land shortage,tree species that can be integrated withinagricultural systems should be favoured.

UNHCR. 2002a.


social impacts often associated with refuge andreturnee operations.

In presenting this information, theHandbook examines a range of specific issuesrelated to forest management, explores oppor-tunities to minimise environmental impactsand provides guidelines for developing locallyappropriate initiatives. It is written with a focuson:

ä improving current forest management prac-tices in refugee and related operationsthrough, inter alia, better planning and cre-ating linkages with other sectors and envi-ronmental activities that might be plannedor already underway;

ä minimising environmental problems fre-quently associated with forest exploitation inrefugee-related settings;

ä the needs and rights of refugees, returneesand the communities among whom they areliving, to use forest resources as a possiblemeans of improving their livelihoods;

ä identifying opportunities which might ariseallowing these affected communities toengage more openly and effectively in theforestry sector; and

ä providing practical guidance, hintsand experiences for agencies and communi-ties engaged in forest management (a sub-stantially revised bibliography is given inSection 7).

2.2 Using this Handbook

As with other titles in this series, thisHandbook is designed for programme andtechnical staff of UNHCR, both in the fieldand Headquarters, and its implementing part-ners. The Handbook is intended to be relevantto different situations, ranging from pre-emer-gency/ preparedness planning to an emergency,

but will most commonly be of use during thecare and maintenance phase, longer-term reset-tlement arrangements and in returnee situa-tions. In particular it is intended for projectmanagers, planners and trainers (who may notbe specialists in forestry or natural resourcemanagement). The Handbook will also be rele-vant to individual refugees and local peoplewho practise some form and scale of forestry,but it cannot be expected to reach this level inevery case. The manual can be used in its entire-ty or specific sections be referenced dependingon the needs of the end user.

Background information on forests andtheir role in ecosystem functioning and man-agement is provided in Section 3, Forests andEcosystem Management. This is intended tohelp heighten the awareness of users not alreadyfamiliar with the importance of protecting andmanaging forests for the wide range of goodsand services they provide.

Section 4 (Forest Management duringRefugee and Related Operations) focuses onrefugee-assistance programmes in general.Drawing on recent experiences, some key issuesand concerns are highlighted which may needto be addressed during the different phases of“classic” UNHCR interventions, bearing inmind, however, that no two operations are like-ly to be identical.

In Section 5 (Responding to Needs –Practical Actions to Consider and Apply), aseries of practical actions are described to helpusers put initial damage control measures inplace, identify demand and supply needs of var-ious timber products, develop a wood supplyplan, and begin to consider what form of treeplanting might be best suited to that operationand region. A deliberate attempt has been madeto keep the explanations as practical as possible,while at the same time providing users with sufficient guidance for them to be able toknowledgably undertake actions which wouldappear to suit their needs.

The final section (Elements of a ForestManagement Plan) prescribes a number ofsteps to take in drawing up a local managementplan, based in part on the information provid-ed in Section 5, as well as other non-traditionalforestry activities. Here, in particular, users areencouraged to try and approach the issue of for-est management from a broad perspective – notjust planting trees of the same species – appre-ciating the multiple uses of forests, and lookingto see how local forest resources might be usedto help improve the welfare and livelihoods ofrefugees/returnees and local populations, whilealso improving the integrity and security of theforest and ecosystem resources. Monitoring andevaluation activities are also addressed in thisconcluding section.

A glossary of some of the most commonlyused terms in the Handbook is available afterSection 6. This, in turn, is followed by a select-ed bibliography. Seven annexes are also includ-ed, providing specific technical information onissues such as:

ä estimating the supply capacity of a forest;

ä wood supply programmes;

ä plant production and nursery design;

ä tree planting and maintenance techniques;

ä common agroforestry practices in the tropics;

ä suggested tree species for different climaticzones;

ä a checklist of common forest managementactivities to assist with monitoring.

To further benefit from this Handbook itwould be useful if users had some of the follow-ing skills or resources available, including:

ä a broad approach towards, and practicalexperience of, forest management, particu-larly in terms of identifying innovative and

more environmentally and culturally soundapproaches towards managing forests andselected forest resources;

ä links with actual and potential partner agen-cies experienced with forest management

ä an understanding of project design andmanagement – especially important to pre-vent forestry concerns and issues being dealtwith in isolation;

ä resources for accessing the Internet and/orobtaining other useful publications. To beeffective, this Handbook cannot be compre-hensive in its coverage of detail, so it identi-fies other literature and points of referencewhere more additional information might beobtained; and

ä funds, or the potential for funding, for spe-cific activities. Typical project/programmecosts might include materials (from seedsand soil bases to means of physically protect-ing trees), training and extension needs, forest guards and monitoring services.

Forest guards are an essential component of anatural resource protection strategy, alongsidetree marking and zoning.

The most viable strategy in protecting forestresources under pressure from refugees is not toprohibit cutting, but to manage, direct and controlcutting in order to spread its effects as thinly aspossible. This provides the greatest opportunity forregeneration. The first stage in this process is anevaluation of the status of existing resources, andthe identification of different zones for differentmanagement regimes. This is followed by treeselection and marking.

Well trained forest guards, ideally drawn fromrefugee and local communities, become the crucialintermediaries between the policy and the actualharvesting.

An alternative approach is to encourage and helpestablish recognised committees of representativesfrom the refugee and local communities and localgovernment authorities. Such committees assumedirect joint management responsibility of naturalresources.



Forests and EcosystemManagement

3.1. Functions of Forests and Trees

Forests and trees provide a variety of goods andservices, not all of which are immediately evi-dent. Although timber and wood productionmight be the most obvious and known functionassociated with forests others, such as the pro-duction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)like medicinal herbs, honey and mushrooms,and the provision of ecological services – suchas preventing soil erosion – are at least equallyimportant.

The type of goods and services provided, aswell as their relative importance, vary with thetype of forest and with the region in which theyare located. In general, however, one can distin-guish three major functions of forests – produc-tion, ecological and social.

3.1.1 The Production Function

Forest products are estimated to contributeabout 1 per cent of world gross domestic prod-uct and to account for 3 per cent of internation-al merchandise trade. The annual turnover ofroundwood, sawnwood, panels, pulp and paperalone exceeds US$200 billion.

In addition to a range of wood productssuch as timber, woodpulp, construction poles,fuelwood and charcoal, trees and forests alsoprovide a large variety of NTFPs, including:

ä fruits and seeds for food;

ä oils;

ä leaves for food, fodder and shelter;

ä pigments, tannins, resins, latex and gums;

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Why Forests Matter.

Forests, worldwide, provide a broad range of goodsand services each day, including: n Timbern Non-timber forest products n Clean air n Clean and regulated water supplies n Protection against landslides and erosion n Buffers against global warming n Habitats for animals and plants n Spiritual values n Esthetical values n Recreational facilities n Demarcation and assertion of ownership of land

Marketing of non-woodforest products tosustain livelihood


ä medicines, pesticides and toxic productsused for hunting;

ä fibres;

ä mushrooms;

ä wax and honey; and

ä a wide range of wild game which providesfood and skins.

While many of these non-wood productsare collected and consumed locally, some areoften commercially as important as wood prod-ucts, especially on local markets in developingcountries. The value of non-wood forest prod-ucts and the environmental services of forestsare difficult to estimate in economic terms, butthey are critical to the livelihoods of an estimat-ed 600 million people in the developing worldalone.

3.1.2 The Ecological Function

Tropical rainforests are the world’s richest areasof wildlife and biological diversity and, as such,they constitute an important genetic resource.Many scientists believe that the world’s forestsare home to between 50 and 90 per cent of theEarth’s plant and animal species, with much ofthis richness occurring in the tropics. To high-light their significance, one should considerthat people worldwide use about 3,000 differ-ent plants for food, of which only 150 are cultivated. To date, more than 1,650 tropicalforest plants have been registered as vegetables.These, together with the many wild relatives ofimportant domesticated crops, are part of theworld’s tropical forest ecosystems, which conse-quently represent a vitally important geneticresource in the context of global food security.

Tropical forests also play an important rolein nutrient cycling. In these ecosystems, thenutrient richness is situated in the biomass (theplants themselves) and not in the soil, as is the

case in temperate regions. Thus, if this biomassis removed, for example as a result of forestclearcutting, an unproductive (mineral andnutrient poor) soil remains. Exposed to the elements of wind, rain and sunshine, these soilsquickly become eroded and loose their struc-ture. Any future forest growth on such degrad-ed soils will never be as rich or varied as theoriginal ecosystem unless careful, and usuallycostly, restoration work is undertaken. Eventhen, however, it is rare that the “new” forestwill ever have or be able to support the samelevels of biological diversity as the originalforests of that region.

Nutrient cycling and the fragility of forestecosystems are important factors to considerwhen practising shifting cultivation – a com-mon agricultural production system in tropicalforests. As soon as the minimal fallow or forestregeneration period is no longer maintained,the ecological balance is easily disrupted andcultivation quickly leads to forest degradation.

Functioning as a kind of giant sponge, i.e.absorbing and slowly releasing rain water,forests have a regulatory effect on the Earth’shydrological system. Groundwater reserves areregularly replenished and slowly released overtime. This regulatory effect helps prevent flood-ing in periods of water abundance and droughtin periods of scarcity.

Finally, forests and trees play an importantrole in the protection of watersheds and riverbanks – the extensive rooting systems of certaintree species help bind the soil particles together,preventing soil erosion. If the vegetation coveris suddenly cleared the underlying soils arequickly removed to the level of hard bedrock:any subsequent rains flow off such hillsides,often with devastating effects to lowland areas.

3.1.3 The Social Function

The contribution which forests make towardspoverty reduction is often under-estimated.


Recent analyses, however, begin to note thebroader significance of forests for local liveli-hoods and estimate that hundreds of millions ofpeople depend on forests for subsistence production and environmental services likewatersheds, soil erosion control, micro-climate,biodiversity and cultural services. It is estimatedthat 60 million highly forest-dependent peoplelive in the rainforests of Latin America, South-east Asia and Africa. An additional 350 millionpeople are directly dependent on forestresources for subsistence or income, and 1.2 bil-lion people in developing countries use trees onfarms to generate food and cash. Loss of forestresources is believed directly to affect 90 percent of the 1.2 billion people who live inextreme poverty.

In many countries, especially poorer ones,rural populations depend on a range of forestresources for their livelihood. An understandingof the relationships between local, traditionalcultures and their interactions with surround-ing forests is therefore an important part ofglobal forest management. The significance androle of protected areas (see Box 1) – those for-mally gazetted as well as other of local spiritualor other importance – also needs to be consid-ered as refugee-related operations can have asignificant impact on such resources unless special measures are taken.

Although deforestation is a problem inmany countries, in the case of refugees itinvolves an additional socio-economic dimen-sion as they use – and to some extent maydepend upon – other people’s commodities.The degree of competition with local commu-nities for forest products and forest services willnaturally vary considerably from place to place;at its most extreme it may even result in openhostility.

Unlike established local communities,refugees do not have a strong emotional tie to,and interest in, the local natural environment inthe area in which they have settled. Local

people also live in a close social context whichleads to greater respect for existing environ-ment-related rules and regulations. Many suchrules play an important role in preventing non-sustainable exploitation of natural resources (seealso Box 2).

3.2 Types of Forest

A wide range of forests can be distinguishedworldwide but for the present purpose twobroad groupings will suffice – natural forestsand plantations. Natural forests are composedof tree species that are indigenous, i.e. native tothe area. Plantation forests, in contrast, are

Box 1i

What is a Protected Area?

IUCN-The World Conservation Union defines aprotected area as “an area of land and/or seaespecially dedicated to the protection andmaintenance of biological diversity, and ofnatural and associated cultural resources, andmanaged through legal or other effectivemeans”.

Six categories of protected areas arerecognized:

n Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area –managed mainly for science or wildernessprotection.

n National Parks – ecosystem protection andrecreation.

n National Monument – conservation of specificnatural features.

n Habitat/Species Management Area –conservation through managementintervention.

n Protected Landscape/Seascape –landscape/seascape conservation orrecreation.

n Managed Resource Protected Area –sustainable use of natural resources.

According to the above definition, the primarygoal of management in these areas is tomaintain or enhance biological diversity; humanactivities are only allowed with respect to theconservation goals.

established artificially, either by planting onland which has not carried forest within livingmemory – afforestation – or by planting onland which carried forest before, but where theindigenous species are replaced with a newspecies or genetic variety – reforestation.

The potential distribution of forests andforest types is mainly determined by climaticconditions and, to a lesser extent, by soil char-acteristics.1 The most common classification oftropical forests is based on their structure,appearance, and species form and composition– aspects which largely vary with latitude. Inthe tropics, different forest types occur at differ-ent latitudes parallel to the equator, which arecharacterised by a similar total amount of pre-cipitation and a similar annual rainfall distribu-tion. As a rule, the further a forest is from theequator and the more extreme the site condi-tions, the more homogeneous the forest will beand the poorer its composition of tree species.

The following broad categories of forestscan be distinguished: closed evergreen, or equa-torial, rainforest; moist semi-deciduous forest;dry deciduous forest; savanna; and montaneforests. A brief description of these ecosystemsfollows.

Closed evergreen rainforest is extremelyrich in species and has a complex structure.Although the trees shed their leaves at regularintervals, the forest as a whole remains greenthroughout the year because thetrees in a tropical rainforestfollow individual biologicalrhythms. In addition, an indi-vidual tree would rarely shedall of its leaves at the same

time. Closed evergreen forests are found aroundthe equator where the annual precipitation is atleast 2,000mm, regularly distributed over theyear. Humidity is very high throughout theyear.

In comparison with closed evergreen rain-forest, moist semi-deciduous forests are morehomogeneous in composition as well as struc-ture. The number of trees per hectare and thebasal area of trees is also significantly less. Moistsemi-deciduous forests loose most of theirleaves in the dry season, which may last from2–6 months. The average annual precipitationvaries from 1,250–2,000mm.

Dry deciduous forests are completely barefor a more prolonged period during the dry sea-son. Growth patterns are strongly seasonal:most trees flower at the end of the dry season.Such forests can differ considerably in speciescomposition and structure, although many arecharacterised by an abundant occurrence ofumbrella-shaped trees such as Acacia species,and very dense thorny shrubs. The height of thetree layer varies from 4–12m.

Dry deciduous forests are adapted to siteswith less than 1,250mm annual precipitationand a dry season of more than six months. In

1 The term ‘potential distribution’ is usedbecause certain limiting factors such ashuman presence, overgrazing andbushfires can prevent the naturaldevelopment of forest vegetation.Intensive agroforestry practices inareas of high population density can,however, also produce more woodmight normally be expected.

Community and forest bushfire controloperation to protect the forest



Box 2i

Understanding The Livelihood Environment: Responding To Local Rehabilitation Concerns In Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe’s Mozambican refugees repatriated in 1994. The five camps that had previously housed 150,000of these refugees were quickly vacated, and the task of environmental rehabilitation began. Since 1992,the Fuelwood Crisis Consortium (FCC) had undertaken environmental activities in the camps,concentrating on the provision of improved stoves, environmental awareness-raising and tree planting.FCC’s objective was to alleviate the effects of deforestation. Once the refugees had left, an opportunityexisted for full environmental rehabilitation of the affected areas.

FCC conducted an environmental impact assessment to study the extent of degradation around theformer camps. The study concluded that the overall change in forest land was from 78 per cent of thetotal area during 1981–1982 to 33 per cent during 1994, with much of the 12,000ha of forested land lostbeing converted to bush scrub savannah and scrub savannah.

At the completion of its mandate in 1994, the FCC was transformed into a new organisation, the SouthernAlliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), the initial goal of which was environmental rehabilitation ofZimbabwe’s refugee-affected areas. Unlike FCC, SAFIRE was conceived as a long-term initiative, concernedwith ongoing community-based natural resource management. SAFIRE sought the input of localcommunities in determining priorities for environmental rehabilitation. It also developed natural resourcemanagement projects on the principle that a broad-based approach to environmental managementfocused on the economic role of indigenous resources would be more sustainable than a narrow focus ontrees: this was borne out by the issues and constraints articulated by refugee-affected communities.

One of the early project ideas, planting trees for firewood (to ‘replace lost firewood resources’), was seenas unsustainable as a project goal because the target communities had little interest in devoting arableland to planting something they would normally obtain from grazing lands. The same applied to treenursery planting, unless there was going to be a ready market for seedlings. Only by realising aneconomic benefit from woodland products would communities become interested in reforestation.

While locals were interested in tree planting for commercial gain (especially in woodlots and fruitorchards), SAFIRE’s initial concern had been for environmental rehabilitation: two quite different goals. Itbecame necessary to reconcile the differing requirements of environmental rehabilitation and income-generation, such that the needs of the local community would be met without compromising the long-term objectives of rehabilitation. SAFIRE progressively altered its aims to coincide with those of localpeople, eventually abandoning the notion of environmental rehabilitation for its own sake. SAFIRE’s statedgoal became ‘the economic development of rural communities based on sustainable management ofnatural resources.’ This implied that post-repatriation environmental rehabilitation activities would only bewarranted where environmental degradation had inhibited the capacity of local communities to derive asustainable livelihood from their natural resources. Thus, SAFIRE focused on tree planting and otherresource management activities with the specific objective of contributing to local income.

This experience shows that local people are often less concerned with replacing trees destroyed byrefugees than they are with ensuring the sustenance of a natural resource base that best meets their long-term economic needs. This demands an appreciation of the ‘livelihood environment’, rather than the soleconcern of lost trees.

Source: UNHCR, 2002a


addition, the amount of precipitation stronglyfluctuates from one year to another and is mostoften concentrated in scarce but heavy showers.Forest soils are relatively fertile and spared fromleaching.

People and fire have both had a strongimpact on this type of forest: large areas of thetropics have been degraded as a result. In suchregions, the original forest cover has beenreplaced by savanna-like vegetation.

With increasing distance from the equator,there is a gradual transition from dry closed for-est to more open forest formations combinedwith grassy vegetation, a feature known assavanna. In such ecosystems, the tree/grassratio decreases with increasing drought. Theannual precipitation decreases gradually to300–400mm, and the length of the dry seasonruns to 10 months.

Different categories of savanna arerecognised:

ä savanna woodland – open forest with acrown cover of between 10 and 40 per cent;

ä tree savanna – continuous grass vegetationwith scattered trees;

ä shrub savanna – continuous grass vegetationwith shrubs; and

ä grass savanna – continuous grass vegetationwithout woody plants.

Montane forests grow at or above 1,800mabove sea level. They tend to be more homoge-neous and less rich in tree species than low alti-tude close canopy tropical forests. Generallyhigh levels of atmospheric humidity encourageabundant growth of mosses, ferns and epi-phytes – non-parasitic plants which grow ontrees.

Besides the most common ‘zonal forest’categories described above, other classificationscould also be applied, for example, an ‘azonalclassification’ which can be based on specificvegetation types – such as teak forests, miombowoodland, bamboo forests or tropical coniferforests – or certain environmental, usually soil,conditions – swamp, mangrove, flooded, peator riparian forests.


Forest Managementduring Refugee andRelated Operations

4.1 Introduction

People have long made use of forest resources,clearing forested land for settlement, cultivationand livestock grazing, collecting wild foods, andbenefiting from a broad range of other services.As long as the population density remainsbelow the carrying capacity of the concernedhabitat, such activities can be undertaken anddeveloped in harmony with the natural envi-ronment, and people tend to use the availableforest resources in a sustainable way. This meansthat people make use of forest products andservices without causing undue reduction in theforest’s inherent values and future productivity,and do not cause undesirable effects on thephysical environment.

The question of resource sustainabilitymainly becomes a concern with increasedhuman concentration, or increased levels ofactivity, on a given piece of land – a typical sit-uation in many refugee and returnee opera-tions. The higher the concentration of peopleand the longer such a situation persists, themore evident the extent and scale of negativeenvironmental effects.

UNHCR has a crucial role to play with theplanning, co-ordination and control of allcamp/settlement management activities. Withregards to forestry, UNHCR should first try toensure that the settlement process is as least

destructive as possible, while at the same timeensuring that refugees are supplied with suffi-cient forest products to meet their basic needs.

The impact that refugees may induce ontheir hosting environment will vary consider-ably from one situation to another. Among themain factors which will influence the type andscale of impact are the:

ä number of refugees involved;

ä duration of stay;

ä housing arrangements – whether local settle-ment or camp establishment happens;

ä fragility of the local ecosystem;

ä carrying capacity of the allocated site;

ä area of land allocated to refugees;

ä general availability of forest resources;

ä kind of cooking stoves and practices used;

ä types of building materials;

ä kinds of food people consume; and

ä planning, co-ordination and control of for-est-related activities undertaken for and/orby the refugees.

Practical guidance is given below as to howsome of the most common and obvious envi-ronmental impacts might be lessened or avoid-ed during the broad phases of refugee assistanceprogrammes, although recognition must alwaysbe given to the different conditions experiencedin each situation. Further options are exploredin Section 5 while guidance is provided inSection 6 on how these and other possibilitiesmight be considered when establishing a ForestManagement Plan.

4


4.2 Emergency Phase

The Emergency Phase is the initial phase of arefugee operation, associated with the influxand settlement of frequently large concentra-tions of refugees. The principle of ‘preventionbefore cure’ should be applied at this stage.

An effective planning process of preventingand mitigating destructive measures should becarried out as early as practicable. Experienceshows that the quality of the first measurestaken on the ground, as well as through laterwell thought out and co-ordinated planning,will largely determine the overall cost of refugeeassistance over the entire duration of the reliefoperation. Such costs are not only economic,but also include social and environmental con-siderations.

Given the urgency of the situation, theplanning of proposed activities will, to a largeextent, be carried out by a small group of tech-nically skilled people, including UNHCR’semergency teams, representatives of the localforestry administration, local or internationalnon-governmental organisations (NGOs) and,eventually, other forestry specialists familiarwith the forest situation in the concerned areas.

Some of the first matters which need to beconsidered are the selection of camp sites andidentification of an acceptable level ofrefugee density in respective camps. Refugeecamps and settlements are often located in for-est areas which are usually less fertile zones andnot the most suitable for agriculture. Whateverefforts are made to find an ideal location,refugees may end up in an environment thatdoes not necessarily cater for their needs orallow them to develop sustainable practices ofagriculture, livestock keeping or indeed forestmanagement.

In relation to forestry, every effort shouldbe made to avoid siting camps close to protect-ed areas (see Box 1) or other sites which have an

important biological, social or economic role. Ifthis is not achieved, there is a great risk thatsuch sites will be degraded or destroyed.Remediation actions are expensive and time-consuming and may not achieve the intendedobjectives, as damage to such sites is often irre-versible. The proximity of camps to extremelyvulnerable and erosion-prone areas should alsobe avoided as such sites have a very low carryingcapacity and are not suitable for hosting largeconcentrations of people.

On the other hand, existing forestresources in the surroundings of a refugee campshould be sufficient to meet the basic demandsfor forest products. Decisions need to be takenearly on regarding matters such as the sort ofbuilding materials that might be required, orthe best possible source of fuel for cooking andheating, as these may have direct impacts on the

Awareness raising campaigns can contribute to minimisingunnecessary damage to forests and protected areas


local environment, or distant sites if materialshave to be gathered and transported from elsewhere (see also Box 3).

Decisions taken with relation to camp siteselection and the number of refugees in respec-tive camps should, among other factors, bebased upon assessment exercises of the quantityand quality of forest resources available in thesurrounding areas, together with the refugees’likely demand for forestry products and servic-es. Methods for conducting these assessmentsand guidance for the selection of factors whichshould be included in the exercises aredescribed in Section 5.

As soon as operations have started forcamp establishment and construction of accessroads, an efficient forest damage control systemshould be put in place. Obviously, a maximumamount of vegetation should be left and all cutwood products should be given an economic(or other) value. This initial control constitutesa first step in the development of forest harvest-ing and protection plans for surrounding forestresources. These plans should aim to promoteand establish a sustainable use programme offorest products that, by preference, should beharvested from forest plantations rather than innatural forests.

Early development and implementation ofawareness raising campaigns can contribute tominimising unnecessary damage to forests inthe hosting area. Issues to address during suchactivities include the functions of forests andtrees, the local forest situation, and establishedcontrol measures and rules concerning the useof local forest resources.

4.3 Care and Maintenance Phase

With the transition from an emergency to theCare and Maintenance phase, a certain stabilitywill have been reached within the refugee pop-ulation of a given camp and a degree of self-sus-tainability will be in the process of being pro-moted. UNHCR’s main concern at this stage isto ensure the safety of the refugees in camps andto provide them with material assistance.

Activities will now begin to address alonger term outlook and will be formulated in asystematic manner that takes into account thecosts and expected benefits of alternative tech-nical approaches. The planning and implemen-tation of forest-related activities should now beco-ordinated and monitored by anEnvironmental Task Force (see UNHCREnvironmental Guidelines, 2005a, and Section 6of this Handbook). Such a group shouldinclude representatives from UNHCR field

Box 3i

Forest Management Measures duringCamp Establishment

Since camp sites are more often established inforested areas than on agricultural land, theprocess of camp establishment and constructionof access roads usually results in large areas offorest vegetation being removed.

Forest products such as poles, posts and sawntimber are often essential components of basicshelter. If not otherwise provided, refugees willsearch for construction materials in the vicinityof the camps and will harvest what they needfrom surrounding forests. In situations whererefugees have also brought livestock, additionalwood and fodder will be required for fencingand feeding, respectively.

Although the demand for constructionmaterials is usually moderate in terms ofquantity, compared with the amount of woodrequired for fuel, the process of collectingbuilding materials is highly selective as onlystraight and well developed trees are cut fortimber. This might add pressure to locally rareor important tree species. Clear guidance isneeded from the outset regarding whattrees/species may or may not be cut orcollected – a message which needs to be clearlyand frequently made to refugees andrepresentative of local communities.


staff, implementing partners (international andlocal NGOs), local and central governmentdepartments, specialised UN agencies if pres-ent, and, most importantly, local communityand refugee leaders.

In certain circumstances, the co-ordinationrole for forest management may be entrusted toan environmentally active implementing partner. In large-scale and complex refugee situations, however, a UNHCR-assignedEnvironmental Co-ordinator should normallybe in charge of co-ordinating environmentalinterventions.

Sustainable forest harvesting plans shouldbe developed at this stage, stipulating how sur-rounding forest resources might be used by andfor the refugees, without being depleted.Agreements will have to be made with therespective owners of the concerned forests. Inmany tropical countries, natural forests belongto the state and user agreements will need to benegotiated with the government, often throughthe national forest service. It is recommendedthat personnel from such national agencies areinvolved with developing such harvesting plansand in the supervision of allowed harvestingactivities. Special arrangements may need to bedeliberated if local forests are under the admin-istration of communities who may or may notallow access to these resources.

In order to protect the forest and ensurethat refugees can at the same time receivebenefits from local forests, harvesting plans willhave to include clear rules and regulationsregarding illegal activities (e.g. charcoal burn-ing, excessive harvesting, wood trading, hunt-ing and the collection of forest products). Awell organised control system needs to be devel-oped and integrated in the overall plan in orderto enforce established rules and regulations (seealso Box 4).

It is generally only during the Care andMaintenance phase that the possibility of tree

Box 4i

Subsistence Activities that might ImpactForest Management Decisions and Practices

Fuelwood collectionThe gathering and cutting of fuelwood, if nototherwise provided, is widely practised.Demand depends on the type of food beingprepared, the kinds of cooking stove in use, andclimatic conditions as additional energy may berequired for heating. Fuelwood consumptionmay vary considerably (see UNHCREnvironmental Guidelines on Refugee-RelatedDomestic Energy Needs for details) although italways represents an important factor when theuse of forests and forest products is beingconsidered.

FarmingSmall-scale agriculture and horticulture arewidespread activities during the care andmaintenance and local settlement phases,especially by refugees who have traditionallyearned their livelihood as farmers. Forest land isoften cleared for this purpose. When locallyimportant forests or protected areas areaffected by such clearing practices, the hostcountry’s efforts to preserve its naturalresources are often strained or jeopardised.

GrazingIf large numbers of livestock accompany arefugee flight, intensive grazing cannot beavoided around the refugee camps. Dependingon the carrying capacity of the area, grazingcan quickly turn into overgrazing, and henceland degradation. Uncontrolled grazing bysmall ruminants is often a contributing factorwith short- and long-term impacts .forrefugees, local communities and biodiversity.

Search for construction materials if not well-organized,places pressure on important local tree species


planting activities can first be considered. Arange of options exist, but one of the firstactions is to take a random survey among representatives from within the refugee com-munity as to their thoughts, prior experiencesand needs or preferences regarding tree species.Communications should also be extended torepresentatives from local communities, payingequal attention in both instances to ensuringthat both a gender and age balance is reachedamong those being questioned.

Tree planting within camp boundaries iscommonly seen at this stage. At a finer level,tree planting within and around refugee home-steads has often proved to be the most success-ful reforestation initiative, probably because ofthe clearly defined rights of ownership and levelof access to the benefits derived from the trees.In anticipation of such benefits, refugees takegreater care of seedlings, which results in high-er survival rates (see Box 5).

Apart from identifying the most appropri-ate planting scheme – woodlots, agroforestrypractices, or enrichment planting, for example– other activities to consider include:

ä the procurement of tree seeds or vegetativereproduction materials;

ä the establishment of nurseries and raising ofplants;

ä preparation of planting sites (with consider-ation to soil conservation measures);

ä transportation of seedlings to the plantingsite;

ä post-planting maintenance; and

ä establishment of ownership agreements anduser-rights of the planted trees and theirproducts.

Such tree planting programmes offer manyopportunities for refugees to provide labour andskills, in exchange for which they might receivewood, food, money or whatever incentiveappears to be feasible and appreciated in thegiven situation.

The organisation of minor extension programmes might also be beneficial. In thefirst instance, awareness raising activities shouldbe continued. In addition, basic technicalforestry skills such as raising seedlings, plantingtrees and taking care of young trees could be

Tree cutting within camp sites leads to environmentaldegradation and future costly rehabilitation

Guidance regarding which trees/speciesmay or may not be cut or collected,should be delivered from the outset inclear and frequent messages to refugeesand local communities


extended to the refugee population. While car-rying out such extension activities, one willsoon discover technically skilled people amongthe refugees who can be invited to play a majorrole in the planning and implementation of

further forest-related activities. Participative planning and the practical organisation ofactions to be undertaken should also be part ofthe extension programme.

Box 5i

The Use of Incentives to Achieve Double Environmental Goals

Activities such as household tree planting are commonly encouraged in refugee camps and settlements toreduce impacts on the local environment. In some cases it can be desirable to employ incentives topromote greater refugee involvement in such activities. This has been tried successfully in refugee campsin eastern Kenya.

High levels of population concentration are a new experience to refugees. In eastern Africa many mayhave traditionally experienced water shortages, but would have had little prior exposure to competitionfor wood products and the associated need to conserve energy and protect and plant trees. Somalirefugees arriving in Dadaab, for example, knew almost nothing about efficient energy management, treeplanting or the sustainable use of natural resources in situations of population pressure. The result wasrapid depletion of firewood, construction materials and live fencing around the camps, and over-exploitation of limited grazing areas.

In response, in 1994 the German Development Co-operation Agency (GTZ) began a project known asRESCUE – Rational Energy Supply, Conservation, Utilisation and Education. Its goal was to reduce negativeenvironmental impacts in and around Dadaab by working with refugees and local people in energyconservation, tree planting and educational initiatives.

GTZ acknowledged the refugees’ limited knowledge and experience in sustainable natural resourcemanagement: the RESCUE project set out to use incentives to encourage tree planting around refugeehouseholds rather than relying solely on refugee interest and expertise. Seedlings raised in camp nurserieswere distributed to refugees for compound planting, and incentives then offered to ensure their survival.These incentives, known as exchange commodities, comprised different types of wood-burning stoves. Themore surviving trees, the better the type of stove provided to the family. As the project developed, stoveswere also offered to refugees in return for contributions to other environmental tasks, such as erectinglive fencing around protected regeneration areas or digging micro-catchments for water around treesplanted within these areas. Further exchange commodities were also tried, including solar cookers,haybasket cookers and – at the request of refugee women – vacuum flasks to keep drinks warm.

The exchange commodity programme has resulted in the planting of 650,000 trees, with a 70 per centsurvival rate, mainly in private compounds where they can be harvested by the refugees who plantedthem for firewood, fodder, fruit and building materials. Over 30 hectares of land have been enclosed withlive fencing for natural regeneration. In return, some 29,000 improved ceramic stoves of various designshave been given to refugees, with an average energy saving achievable for each family of 20 per cent.

Exchange commodity projects such as that tried by RESCUE in Dadaab can achieve double environmentalgoals, both through the activities undertaken by the refugees and the types of commodities awarded tothem. They do, however, depend on external donor support throughout to supply the commodities thatrefugees will ‘earn’. The results can nevertheless be impressive, and the incentive-based system isespecially suitable for refugee communities whose prior experience with sound environmentalmanagement may be limited.



4.4 Durable Solutions Phase

The Durable Solutions phase includes the following activities:

ä local integration and (semi-) permanent set-tlement of the refugees in their host country;

ärepatriation to and re-integration in theirown country; and

ä rehabilitation of refugee-affected areas following (re-)integration in areas for perma-nent settlement.

4.4.1 Local Settlement and Re-integration

UNHCR assisted local settlement and (re-)inte-gration projects, including quick impact proj-ects (QIPs), should be environmentally soundand sustainable. These are small, rapidly imple-mented projects intended to:

ä help create conditions for durable solutionsfor refugees and returnees through rapidinterventions;

ä through community participation, providefor small-scale initial rehabilitation andenable communities to take advantage ofdevelopment opportunities; and

ä help strengthen the absorptive capacity oftarget areas, while meeting urgent communi-ty needs.

Environmental considerations shouldtherefore, for all of the above reasons, be includ-ed in the design of any projects. Forest-relatedconcerns associated with the local settlement ofrefugees or the re-integration of returnees areessentially related to supporting sustainabledevelopment in the areas involved. General sus-tainable development programmes whichinclude a forestry component are a commonissue for most development agencies, on whoseexperience UNHCR and its partners can andshould draw.

Box 6i

Income-generating Activities based on Forest Resources

Cutting wood for saleLack of wood/timber harvesting controls andthe proximity of good markets encourage thecutting of wood for sale. In some cases,refugees are used as a source of cheap labourby local middlemen to extract fuelwood, timberor other forest products destined for urbanareas.

Charcoal manufacturingThe production of charcoal is a questionableactivity from an environmental point of view.Apart from high conversion losses in thetransformation from raw wood to finishedcharcoal, and the low efficiency rates ofcommonly-used earth kilns, charcoalmanufacturers only select certain trees speciesthat produce good quality charcoal. Thisselective process may threaten the survival ofcertain species. From a social point of view,charcoal production generates income for somepeople while it reduces the fuelwood (andother) resources of a great many more.

Illegal huntingIllegal hunting, or poaching, is a commonactivity in forests where wildlife is abundant. Itis perceived by refugees as a means of addingto their food rations. Poaching can be of severeenvironmental and social concern, particularlysince rare and/or protected species are huntedalong with the more common ones. In somecases, where forest reserves shelter rareanimals, such as mountain gorillas or elephant,hunting may be carried out for commercialreasons (i.e. to sell skins or tusks) rather thanfor food.

It should be noted that the above-mentionedactivities are not, to a large extent, negative bydefinition. They do not differ from the activitiescarried out by local communities in normalsituations. They only become a problem whenthey lead to an excessive (or unsustainable) anduncontrolled use of resources.

Refugee/returnee participation in plan-ning, implementing and monitoring and forest-related activity is essential. As a first steptowards setting up a sustainable developmentprogramme, a number of assessments should becarried out in the concerned camp/settlementareas. Possible techniques for this include participatory rural assessments, livelihoodneeds assessments, and assessments of the legaland socio-economic context. Based on informa-tion gathered, programme plans might then beinitiated taking account of the priorities for thatspecific situation. Rural tree planting projects(using a mixture of tree species to provide multiple benefits), combined with watershedmanagement, for example, are often importantcomponents of forest-related programmes toassist with settlement and/or re-integrationprogrammes, but are not exclusive to suchsituations.

Attention should also be given to identify-ing and promoting appropriate forest-relatedincome generating activities such as small-scaleforest industries, harvesting and processing offorest products, the sale of non-timber forestryproducts, employment in tree nurseries, orengagement in tree planting activities. Such initiatives are often highly appreciated by thesettled refugee population.

Since UNHCR may not be the onlyagency active in a specific geographical area,planned activities should fit in with develop-ment projects being carried out by other groupsor agencies in the areas concerned.

4.4.2 Rehabilitation

It is normally not possible to eliminate all of thenegative impacts associated with refugees priorto their departure from the hosting areas.However, given that a host country has beengenerous enough to allow the refugees to usepart of its territory, basic courtesy demands thatthese areas be rehabilitated to the greatest extentpossible. The absence of appropriate action byUNHCR at this stage would devalue the reme-dial measures taken during earlier phases of thesupport operations and would send a negativemessage to potential host countries, thus poten-tially undermining refugee assistance operationsin the long-term.

Ideally, the question of rehabilitationshould be addressed from the earliest possiblemoment in an operation. That way, actionsmight be prevented, or could be altered to min-imise potentially negative environmentalimpacts and therefore eliminate the need forcostly and time consuming rehabilitation.


Rehabilitation of formercamp site after repatriationto resume the forest cover

Unfortunately, this is rarely possible givingcompeting needs and priorities and, often, thelack of manpower and experience.

At the time when rehabilitation needs arethen actually being considered, an assessment offorest damage (and any improvements) willneed to be made. For rehabilitation projects tobe effective, their planning must involve all themajor actors concerned, including the host gov-ernment, UNHCR, development agencies,implementing partners and the affected com-munities, the latter being key since the activitiesbeing undertaken will have to meet those pop-ulation’s long-term needs. For this reason, it isessential that discussions focus on what peopleactually need from the environment – there islittle purpose in developing and implementingactivities that do not correspond with local peo-ples’ own needs. Careful planning and consulta-tion is therefore critical to shaping, implement-ing and managing whatever structures andactivities might emerge from discussions.

A mechanism must also be set up to sustainrehabilitation activities until completion, atwhich stage local communities and authoritiesshould ideally be willing and capable to any

future management – whether for environmen-tal goods and services, or infrastructure. Inmany instances, specialist assistance may berequired to strengthen the capacity of thoseindividuals, groups or administrative structureswho will be ultimately responsible for futuremanagement.

Various forestry-related options might beadopted during rehabilitation phases, includingreforestation of affected woodlands or forests.Different techniques can be used for this pur-pose, such as encouraging and/or facilitatingnatural regrowth, forest enrichment throughdirect seeding or tree planting, and reforestationof larger bare areas (see Section 6 for furtherguidance).

Social forestry programmes should also beconsidered as a form of rehabilitation. Theseinclude agroforestry, the establishment of village-based woodlots, and road side planta-tions, all of which can benefit local populations(Section 6). To enhance the effectiveness ofsuch programmes they may also be undertakenin combination with soil and water conserva-tion measures, as well as livestock-keeping (seeUNHCR, 2005b).



Responding to Needs –Practical Actionsand Options to

Consider and Apply

5.1 Introduction

There are a number of tried and tested, practi-cal actions which can be applied from the onsetof an emergency to help manage forestresources in a sustainable manner. The follow-ing activities – and there are others – might findrelevance in most situations:

ä early damage control;

ä assess timber/woodfuel/other demands;

ä assess possible supply/supplies;

ä develop a wood harvesting and supply plan;

ä tree planting; and

ä development of income generating activities.

5.2 Initial Damage Prevention andControl

5.2.1 Objectives and Timing

In emergency situations, refugees will oftenimmediately need wood for shelter construc-tion – most commonly poles to support plasticsheeting, but also occasionally branches andgrasses as roofing materials – and fuel for cook-ing and heating. As they may immediately start

to collect the required wood from the closestresources, without waiting for systematicallyplanned wood harvesting and supply pro-grammes to commence, a number of immedi-ate damage control measures will have to betaken in order to reduce the potential damageto the extent possible.

5.2.2 Damage Control Measures can Pay Off

Preventing damage from taking place is the bestoption to strive for, during an emergency as wellas in other phases of operations. Some provenmeasures to try and adopt – even before theresults of comprehensive demand and supplyassessments are known – are listed below:

ä select camp site locations at a reasonable dis-tance from protected forest areas, nationalparks, game reserves or vulnerable and ero-sion-prone areas – a minimum distance of atleast 10–15km should be respected;

ä similar distances should, if possible, berespected for water courses and watersources;

ä avoid unnecessary tree and shrub cuttingduring the camp construction phase. Siteplanners in particular must ensure that clearcutting is avoided during camp site estab-lishment. The integration of ‘green belts’should be promoted in all camp and settle-ment sites;

ä proper use has to be ensured of all removedwoody vegetation;

ä clearly mark trees that should not be cut inand around the refugee site – the purposeand objective of this tree marking exercise(not to damage the marked trees) must beclearly explained to the refugee and localpopulations;

ä engage in early dialogue with representativesfrom local communities to establish environ-ment-related issues of particular importance;

5


ä launch refugee awareness raising pro-grammes to explain which types of vegeta-tion may be collected – dry wood, lowbranches, and old and badly shaped trees oflow economic value – and from which loca-tion(s); and

ä consider providing essential building materi-als for refugee shelter, e.g. wooden polesgathered from more remote and well-stockedareas, harvested under a well controlledscheme.

Restricting the movement of refugees fromentering protected areas or other sites of localcultural/spiritual importance may prove neces-sary at this stage, given that such zones are oftenknown reservoirs of medicinal herbs, wildgame, timber and other NTFPs of possible subsistence and/or commercial value.

While these measures are being applied,more rigorous demand and supply assessmentsof forestry products should be started (see sec-tions 5.3 and 5.4), in preparation for more sys-tematic wood harvesting and supply plans.Information from these surveys, which shouldbe carried out in conjunction with representa-tives from local communities and the refugeepopulation, would then form the basis for anearly environmental management plan for thecamp/settlement.

5.3 Assess the Demand forForestry Products


Although refugee and returnee populationsmake use of all kinds of forest products andservices (see sections 3 and 4), their need forconstruction materials, fencing poles and fuel-wood is by far the most immediate, importantand determining factor when it comes to envi-ronmental impacts. Early assessment of thelikely demand for timber, construction poles

and fuelwood will therefore provide basic infor-mation for further planning of appropriate forest-related activities. This, in turn, is a usefulplanning exercise as it helps prioritise whatresources might be needed from the immediateto a longer term perspective.

These planning and assessment exercisesshould be carried out as early as possible in theemergency phase of refugee operations and atthe initial planning phase for intendedreturnees. A preliminary demand assessmentshould, however, be completed as soon as theapproximate number of refugees or intendedreturnees is known for a given situation.

Initial planning and assessment exercisesshould be updated and fine-tuned throughoutthe care and maintenance phase. They shouldalso be incorporated in planning for (re-)inte-gration, with the objective being to provide up-to-date and appropriate planning parame-ters for forestry programmes.

5.3.2 Demand for Construction and FencingTimber

A significant quantity of construction and fenc-ing materials will be required when refugeesfirst arrive at a camp or settlement. The needsassessment for these particular forest productscan be based upon an exact measurement of thequantities used by a sample of representativehouseholds. Logically, these needs will varywith the construction habits of the population,with the presence of accompanying livestock(building secure pens might be an issue), andwith the availability of other construction mate-rials, e.g. mud bricks.

If no specific figures can be determined intime, the approximate needs may be calculatedfrom existing records of other refugee programmes (see Box 7).

While assessing likely demands, oneshould not forget that due to termite damage


and/or fungal attack, construction wood will inmost cases need replacement at regular inter-vals. The assessment should therefore alsoinclude wood requirements for the constructionof communal buildings such as health posts,agency staff housing and offices, latrine slabs,and other wooden structures.

5.3.3 Demand for Fuelwood

As soon as refugees have settled, the demand forfuelwood will increase and easily outweighdemands for construction timber.

In refugee camps, wood is most often theonly realistically available source of energy.Moreover, many populations traditionally usefuelwood for cooking since wood provides highquality fuel, is easy to use, is relatively economicand, if its consumption is properly managed, con-stitutes an environmentally sound source of fuel.

Fuelwood consumption varies with itsavailability, the kind of food that is to be pre-pared, the kinds of stove in use, and with cli-matic conditions. Most of the relevant litera-ture, however, agrees on estimates of an averageannual consumption of 1–2 kg/person/day. It isimportant to realise that this quantity canincrease considerably if no wood-savingcooking techniques are applied and if fuel-wood collection is not restricted. In camp situations, initial per capita firewood consump-tion of about 3kg/person/day is often observed:this can drop to 1–2kg/person/day with theconditions specified above2 but may also

Box 7i

How Much Wood and other Materials isNeeded for a Shelter?

For an emergency shelter built with localmaterials, the average quantity required is 80mof straight poles with an average diameter of5cm, which is equivalent to 0.2m3 of timber perfamily (average of 5 members).

As young trees of good quality are used forthis purpose, the harvesting of constructionwood tends to be more harmful than fuelwoodcollection. Apart from poles, other materialsrequired for construction include bark forbinding, smaller branches to fill up the wallspaces, and roofing materials, e.g. palm frondsor grasses.

2 For further details, please refer to Environmental Guidelines:Domestic Energy in Refugee Situations. UNHCR, 1998

Cutting down mother treesfor business purposes destroysthe forest


increase if, for example, economic incentives areidentified.

5.4 Assess the Possible Supply ofForestry Products


Having assessed the expected demand forforestry products, one should then concentrateon how to meet this demand in the best way –economically as well as environmentally. Thesupply assessment should be carried out hand-in-hand with the demand assessment and pre-cede the planning of forest-related interventionsin the emergency, care and maintenance anddurable solution phases.

The results of a supply assessment, whichshould reveal the existing quantity and qualityof forest resources in the concerned region aswell as their expected availability for use byrefugees/returnees, will provide a key parameterfor determining the location of a camp or settle-ment. Ideally, the selected site should be locatedat a place where sufficient forest resources, plan-tations and/or natural woodland are available tomeet demands for forestry products in a sustain-able manner. On the other hand, the proximityof national parks, ecologically fragile areas, pro-tected or any other biologically or culturallyvaluable forests should be avoided at all costs.

5.4.2 Key Elements of a Supply Assessment

Assessing the supply of forestry productswill in the first place involve a survey of theareas under forest cover – natural forests as wellas plantations – within and around the regionallocated hosting refugees or returnees. Practicalguidance on how to estimate the supply capac-ity is given in Annex I.

In addition to the precise area of forest inthe region, information should be gathered onthe following:

ä type and general quality of forest/plantation;

ä standing volume and maximum allowablecut;

ä kinds of harvestable products found;

ä ownership and usufruct rights;

ä managerial responsibility and any past formsof utilisation; and

ä protection status.

Some of this information can be obtainedfrom existing forest maps and, eventually, aerialphotographs or satellite images made availableby the local forestry administration or otherspecialised agencies. Existing managementplans for the surrounding forest areas will alsoprovide useful, and may contain data such asthe area of coverage, species composition, theannual production, or recommended harvest-ing volumes. In practice, however, few manage-ment plans with this level of detail have beenprepared for refugee/returnee operations.

Information gathered from the above-mentioned sources will still require verification(“ground-truthing”) in the field. During suchfield visits, one should not only check and com-plete the already acquired information, but alsoassess the access facilities to identified forestareas (existence and conditions of the accessroads, the possibility of obtaining feasiblearrangements with the owners regarding theiruse by/for the refugees, availability of transport,and so on) as well as the distance fromcamps/settlements. Information should also beobtained on the status of the land in terms ofownership, to avoid any conflict.

Close collaboration must be establishedwith the local forestry administration and rep-resentatives of the local population, not onlybecause of their knowledge of local naturalresources but also because of their authority and


jurisdiction. The support of a natural resourceexpert would be an extra advantage in suchsituations.

5.5 Development of Wood Supplyand Harvesting Plans


Based on the identified needs for wood prod-ucts (Section 5.3) and the survey of availableharvesting areas and their stocking volume(Section 5.4), a wood harvesting and/or supplyplan should then be established.

A wood harvesting and supply plan provides the basis for further preventive andmitigating measures. Wood supply plans shouldbe developed during the emergency phase assoon as the results of the above-described assess-ments are available. Such plans will assist deci-sion-makers in deciding on the main optionsfor wood supply, i.e.:

ä supervised/controlled harvesting by refugeesthemselves; or

ä an organised and centrally managed woodsupply.

A wood supply plan will also provide thetechnical and managerial details for actionswhich may need to be taken, such as structur-ing the wood supply, directing and organisingwood harvesting activities, and establishingmechanisms to check uncontrolled woodcutting.

As wood harvesting and supply is bound tocontinue during the care and maintenancephase, regular revisions and adjustments of theinitial plan will be required.

5.5.2 Key Elements of a Wood Harvesting/Supply Plan

Among the main considerations of a wood har-vesting and/or supply plan (see also Annex II)are:

ä the demand, in kind (e.g. building poles,roofing materials and fuelwood) andvolume;

ä the chronological sequence of the demand;

ä if applicable, demand-reducing factors, forexample, fuel-saving measures such asimproved stoves, or fuel-switching measuressuch as a change from fuelwood to keroseneor agricultural residues;

ä extractable volume of wood derived fromorganised forest operations, in particular thegeographical location of wood sources, thekind of wood (e.g. construction orfuelwood), and the methods and cost ofextraction;

Demonstration of tree planting tothe community


ä other sources of wood, even if only tem-porarily available, such as woody biomassfrom land clearing/camp construction;wood/charcoal from forest industries; andtraded wood (from outside areas);

ä logistics (transport facilities, cost of trans-port);

ä legal and fiscal aspects of forest utilisation,for example, right of access, concessionrights or royalties; and

ä organisational framework (job-sharing withthe forest administration, communal forestowner or private owners).

Whenever possible, harvesting activitiesshould take place in forest plantations and notin natural forests, as regeneration in naturalforests is more difficult and, in some cases,impossible. Old plantations with relative largeamounts of dry wood should be a first priorityfor harvesting. Such plantations are often foundin regions where large areas were once plantedto supply wood for industries which in themeantime may have disappeared – around tea,tobacco or pyrethrum drying plants, or nearbrick-makers. Plantations of species which canbe successfully coppiced, as well as those inareas where wood is not in short demand – andwould therefore not pose a problem to the localpopulation – are also suitable harvesting sites.

If no wood is available from plantations,selective wood harvesting will have to be organ-ised from natural forests. In this case, some treemarking will be necessary. The first trees to becut should be old specimens, badly shaped treesand those of low economic value. The collec-tion of dry wood and low branches could alsobe authorised. If well-established harvesting pri-orities are followed, this will considerablyreduce the need for rehabilitating reforestationactivities during the later phases of a refugeeassistance programme.

Harvesting in national parks and gazettedforests, areas with endangered species (plantand animal), game reserves, as well as any otherecologically sensitive area should be strictly pro-hibited. Areas surrounding such sites, common-ly referred to as buffer zones, should also bespared from major extraction activities.

Tree cutting should also be avoided inzones identified as water catchment protectionand/or erosion control areas.

5.5.3 Controlled or Supervised WoodHarvesting

With controlled or supervised wood harvesting,refugees collect and harvest the wood theyneed. This option can be permitted in situa-tions where the stocking volume of the woodand forest areas within reach of refugee sites issufficiently high to meet the wood demands ina sustainable – or almost – manner, and wherewood collection by refugees will not lead tosecurity risks, problems with the local popula-tion or violation of forestry regulations. Evenwhen forest conditions are favourable enoughto allow refugees to freely collect their woodrequirements, extensive supervisory control,law enforcement and awareness raising meas-ures will still have to be taken.

In addition to the measures already mentioned under Section 5.2, attention shouldalso be given to the following:

ä clear demarcation of forest areas where woodharvesting is allowed and prohibited. Suchdemarcated areas can be identified on thebasis of results from forest inventories;

ä tree marking in harvesting areas. It should bemade very clear to everyone which trees aremarked – those which can be cut and thosewhich must remain untouched;

ä control of the amount and type of harvestedwood. Forest rangers from the local forestry


department or trained supervisors fromamong the refugee population will be givenresponsibility for leading the refugees to theharvesting areas, supervising collection activities, and advising them on appropriateharvesting methods and cutting techniques;

ä protection of forest areas restricted or pro-hibited from wood harvesting. Assistancewill again be required from local and/orrefugee forest guards or rangers. In mostcases, guards will have to be provided withcommunication and camping equipment,with transport facilities, uniforms, tools andother essential materials;

ä placing signs and fencing at selected loca-tions along the perimeter of out-of-boundsareas, as well, as along access roads; and

ä awareness-raising campaigns, which shouldhelp raise awareness of the multiple func-tions of forests, environmental risks arisingfrom inappropriate wood harvesting, theproposed supervisory and control measureswith regards to wood collection, the advan-tages, and appropriate harvesting methodsand cutting practices.

5.5.4 Organised Wood Supply

With organised wood supplies, the wood is notdirectly collected by the refugees themselves:harvesting, transportation and distribution isorganised under agency management, withvarying levels of refugee participation.

Although it presents a major advantage foreasier monitoring and control on the subse-quent operations of harvesting, transportationand distribution, a fully organised wood sup-ply is still more the exception than the rule.It is a costly and management-intensive under-taking which will only be justified in situationswhere the refugee population density farexceeds the supply capacity of surrounding for-est areas, where freedom of refugee movement is

restricted by the host government, or in cases ofsecurity risks related to wood collection.

Organised supply of construction wood(compared with fuelwood) may be desirablebecause specific requirements such as durabilityand termite resistance, together with certainmeasurement restrictions, may not be locallyavailable. Procurement of such materials frommore distant areas is, in such instances, the onlyalternative. Where this option is being consid-ered, every effort should be made to ensure that

Box 8i

Forest Certification

Forest certification is the process of evaluatingforests or woodlands to determine if they arebeing managed according to an agreed set ofstandards.

The Forest Stewardship Council’s (FSC) missionis to promote environmentally appropriate,socially beneficial, and economically viablemanagement of the world’s forests.

n Environmentally appropriate forestmanagement ensures that the harvest oftimber and non-timber products maintainsthe forest’s biodiversity, productivity andecological processes.

n Socially beneficial forest management helpsboth local people and society at large toenjoy long term benefits and also providesstrong incentives to local people to sustainthe forest resources and adhere to long-termmanagement plans.

n Economically viable forest managementmeans that forest operations are structuredand managed so as to be sufficientlyprofitable, without generating financial profitat the expense of the forest resources, theecosystem or affected communities. Thetension between the need to generateadequate financial returns and the principlesof responsible forest operations can bereduced through efforts to market forestproducts for their best value.

More details on the Forest Stewardship Council,including certified suppliers of FSC timber canbe found on www.fsc.org


materials emanate from plantations or forestscertified under the Forest Stewardship Council(Box 8).

Experience has shown that organised fuel-wood supplies only becomes effective in pre-cluding refugee-induced damage to forest areasif a full supply of the minimum wood require-ments is provided, and if complementary pro-tection measures are enforced to preventrefugees from additional harvesting.

An ample supply of firewood, as opposedto a free supply, may be another measure toreduce the consumption. Provision of freesupplies should be avoided at all costs. Insome instances, refugees, excluding the morevulnerable groups, may be asked to providelabour for a variety of environmental projects,public works or other tasks in return for sup-plied fuelwood.

5.6 Tree Planting – Some PracticalConsiderations


In climatic zones with a significant dry period,tree planting should be carried out in the wetseason, preferably at the beginning of the rains.

Tree planting might appear as an obvioussolution to meeting demands of fuel and con-struction materials, but the situation needs tobe carefully examined and considered beforeany actions are taken. Before planting trees, forexample, consideration must again be given tothe needs (real and expected) of intended bene-ficiaries. Basic preparation of the soils alsoneeds to be undertaken, while selective – usual-ly manual – weeding may be required to pre-vent competition with planted seedlings (seeAnnex III and Annex IV for detailed informa-tion on nursery design, and tree planting techniques and maintenance). It is not neces-sary to remove all of the vegetation from the

planting site; clearing a circular space (0.5–1mdiameter) around the future planting hole isnormally sufficient.

Anti-erosion measures are strongly recom-mended if the planting site is on a steep slope.Such measures include:

ä planting trees along level curves;

ä leaving natural vegetation along gullies andbanks;

ä leaving strips of natural vegetation alonglevel curves; and

ä planting trees or shrubs with a dense and soilfixating rooting system along level curves.

An alternating planting design will alsocontribute to maximum soil fixation and helpprevent gulley formation and contribute tohydrological functions. It will also help encour-age wildlife to the area.

5.6.2 Tree Species Selection

A number of criteria determine the choice oftree species to be planted. In particular, the fol-lowing factors should be considered:

ä the objective of (re)forestation and theexpected services. Examples include quickrestoration of the tree cover (protection),long-term rehabilitation of rather lowdegraded forests, need for specific products(firewood, building materials, forage, fruits),auto-consumption or commercial purposes,or multipurpose functions.

ä ecological conditions including climaticfactors (length of dry period, desiccatingwinds), water availability (scarcity or excess),soil parameters (depth of root penetrable soillayer, water stocking capacity, chemical char-acteristics), erosion hazards, etc.


ä social conditions – ownership and user-right issues including rent or gift traditions,pressure on land for agricultural or otherpurposes, specific preferences or a reluctanceto use certain species.

According to these criteria, the followingproperties of candidate tree species have to beexamined:

ä quality and type of products or serviceswith regards to the objective;

ä experience in the region;

ä people’s acceptance or reluctance;

ä market potentiality;

ä ecological requirements (climatic andedaphic);

ä speed of growth;

ä availability of seeds or cuttings;

ä susceptibility to fire, pests and insect attacks;and

ä regeneration capacity (by cuttings or fromseed).

Various needs and values should be consid-ered regarding the choice between indigenousor exotic species. Local tree species, appreciatedby local populations, most often grow in natu-ral forest ecosystems and cannot be used forreforestation of degraded sites. Growth of suchspecies (e.g. Parkia, Butyrospermum, Balanites)is often slow and their ecological requirementsfor shelter and shade make them unsuitable for planting at exposed sites. Particularly during the first phase of site rehabilitation, themore extreme conditions of degraded areasrequire the use of pioneer species (local or exot-ic) which are usually not very demanding (e.g.Acacia spp).

In addition, it is often more difficult tofind sufficient quantities of seeds of indigenousspecies compared with the more popularexotics. The propagation techniques (seed treat-ment, nursery requirements, etc.) of indigenousspecies are also often not fully known. Personalpreferences also need to be considered. Finally,people often believe that what is growing natu-rally, does not need to be taken care of and doesnot need to be planted.

Rural communities often prefer to useexotic species such as Eucalyptus in afforestationprogrammes – many people request Eucalyptusspecies on account of fast growth rates andquality for wood construction. Caution mustbe exercised, however, when promoting suchspecies which tend to deplete the soil of impor-tant nutrients and require extensive amounts ofwater, all of which can have negative environ-mental impacts and further degrade an alreadyfragile ecosystem.

Participation in tree species selection contributes tocommunity confidence and ownership

General recommendations on the choice oflocal and exotic species according to climateconditions are listed in Annex VI.

5.7. Forestry and Income-Generating Activities


The promotion and creation of opportunitiesfor refugee populations to generate some rev-enue is very important in the sense that it willcontribute to enabling them to provide, entire-ly or partly, to their own subsistence and, there-fore, in helping them escape from being totallydependent on external support. If the localenvironment can also benefit from such incomegenerating activities, this is a double benefit.

Appropriate income generating activitiesshould therefore be promoted and assistedwhenever possible. Most opportunities for thistype of activity will only become apparent during the care and maintenance and durablesolutions phases.

5.7.2 Income Generation and IllegalActivities

Forest-related income generation is quite oftenlinked to illegal activities such as charcoal burn-ing, timber cutting and pit sawing and, specifi-cally for refugee situations, the resale of supplied and/or illegally harvested timber or fuelwood outside the camps. UNHCR cannotsupport nor promote this type of activity.

5.7.3 Types of Supported Forest-RelatedIncome Generating Activities

There are many possibilities, agreeable to localauthorities, to provide refugees with an incomegenerated through activities associated withforestry and environment. For instance,refugees can be paid in cash, with fuelwood orwith other items (e.g. fuel-efficient stoves) forthe following tasks, many of which have directenvironmental benefits:

ä tree nursery work;

ä activities relating to tree planting;

ä establishment and maintenance of firebreaks and fences;

Though generating income, charcoal makingthreatens the forest resources

Income Generating Experiences from the Field.

In Tanzania, refugees paid royalty fees to the government and were in turn allowed to harvest non-timberforestry products such as rattan and cane grass. These were then used to make chairs and baskets. In so doing,refugees could earn up to Tsh40,000 (US$40) for a pair of chairs or Tsh3,000 (US$3) for a basket. This addedvalue to these forest resources and refugees gained more income

In Sudan, women and youth groups are provided with simple tools and support to raise tree seedlings. Theenvironmental programme later buys tree seedlings at Sdd25 (US$0.1) per seedling from these groups, theincome being used to establish a revolving fund for agricultural and family support.


ä plantation tending and maintenance;

ä controlled harvesting operations;

ä authorised and controlled charcoal produc-tion;

ä agroforestry practices (maintenance of firebreaks through the cultivation of land surrounding tree plantations, or cultivationbetween trees in a plantation) and/or waterharvesting measures (e.g. micro-catch-ments);

ä erosion control measures (e.g. contour plant-ing or terracing); and

ä construction and maintenance of forestroads.

Instead of providing labour to central nurs-eries, refugees could also be encouraged to starttheir own small tree nurseries and to sell theseedlings to the local population or to agenciesinvolved in reforestation activities. Such initia-tives have in the past been assisted by UNHCRand other agencies through, for example, theprocurement and provision of basic equipment(hoes, watering cans), seeds and plastic contain-ers, and by providing education/extension intree nursery techniques.

Food for work is another way of compen-sating refugees and the local population for forest-related activities.



Elements of a ForestManagement Plan

6.1 Introduction

Managing forest-based resources is one of themost demanding and challenging environment-related issues during refugee and returnee oper-ations. Equally important is the need to realisethat impacts are not confined to forests alone –the use of forest-based resources can impact onpeople’s security, their well-being, health andmany other aspects of their lives and liveli-hoods.

To help address these environmental con-cerns in a more holistic, yet practical manner, itis strongly recommended that a ForestManagement Plan be drawn up for each operation. Such a plan could be designed at dif-ferent levels – country, region, specific camp orsettlement – but it should not be seen as defin-itive or static: it will need constant review(through monitoring and evaluation) as the situation changes. Only with such an overarch-ing framework can UNHCR, its partners, government authorities and affected communi-ties begin to ensure that programmes beingimplemented respond to peoples’ needs andwill not be detrimental to the environment orto peoples’ livelihoods or security.

This Section contains specific guidance toassist users to elaborate some of the main com-ponents of a Forest Management Plan. Certainassociated issues, particularly those relating toharvesting and demand/supply assessments,have already been dealt with in Section 5, butalso need to be considered in this exercise.

Key activities addressed in this Section include:

ä awareness raising;

ä constituency building;

ä identifying needs and opportunities;

ä identifying a forest system to address needs –social or production forestry;

ä forest landscape rehabilitation; and

ä monitoring and evaluation.

6.2 Awareness Raising

6.2.1 Introduction

Raising public awareness of the importance offorestry resources is one of the fundamental andmost instructive steps towards developing amanagement plan. Awareness raising campaignsshould start as soon as possible after therefugees’ arrival in a camp, or as early on as possible while returnees are being repatriated.These need not be very detailed to begin with –

6

Use of posters as a means of raisingawareness on environmental issuesamong the communities


it is more important to transmit a few key messages at this stage, to make sure that theseare understood, and to have them repeated atregular intervals. Forestry extension – supportto active, practical interventions – will onlybecome possible and useful when refugees orreturnees are somehow organised, a feature thatnormally occurs during the care and mainte-nance phase for refugee operations.

An awareness raising campaigns amongrefugee and/or returnee populations shouldstrive to achieve the following:

ä clearly explain why forests are important andwhy environmental protection is required(see Sections 3 and 4);

ä draw attention to the potentially negativeimpacts of forest damage on the quality oflife of people living in the surroundingdegraded areas; and

ä encourage communities to work togetherthrough common structures and agreementsto promote sound forestry practices for theirown, and the environment’s, well-being.

Such campaigns should also focus on therefugees’ own responsibilities in safeguardingforest and other natural resources. Suggestedissues to address might include:

ä strict respect for prohibited or protectedareas – which can be linked to an organisedfuelwood supply or allowing refugees to collect limited amounts of wood from clear-ly designated areas;

ä avoiding conflict, for example, by respectingthe role and guidance of forest guards and/orby not competing with local populations forscarce resources

ä possible advantages which might be accruedthrough positive engagement in activitieslike tree planting, forest protection and the

like. Possible benefits to participants mightinclude fuel-efficient stoves or gardeningequipment.

6.2.2 Opportunities

There are many opportunities to tackle the subject of environment and forestry withrefugee populations: none should be neglected.Examples of possible interventions include:

ä weekly meetings between refugee leaders,UNHCR and agencies, where discussionsshould be related to forestry, energy and theenvironment;

ä special meetings, open to everyone, organ-ised to discuss and plan forest-related activi-ties, including forest management plans;

ä extension days and/or workshops on specificforest-related problems or activities wherecertain techniques can be learned, wherespecific actions are prepared or where theoretical issues are explained;

Newsletter/magazine distribution throughextension services as outreach materials


ä information and education centres;

ä on-the-job training, for example, in pilotnurseries, during afforestation activities, orduring routine maintenance;

ä integration of environmental and forestryissues in the school curricula; and

ä organised tree planting days and/or competi-tions in tree planting and maintenance.

Participation of local forest authorities,local community leaders, school teachers,women committees and other communitygroups in the opportunities mentioned abovewill be an advantage as they can share acquiredinformation and experience.

6.3 Broader Constituency Building

Raising awareness of the issues described aboveare also important outside of the refugee camps– ideally the two should go hand-in-hand.

In many cases, it may be opportune toorganise awareness raising sessions for UNHCR

staff members, local forest departments andother active agencies, members of the interna-tional community and potential donors. ForUNHCR’s own purposes, an efficient exchangeof information should be established duringmeetings with field officers, sectoral specialistsand implementing partners. Activity reports,photographs, satellite images and maps shouldbe used to illustrate information, but there is noreplacement for actual site visits to present thesituation in real life and to discuss problemsand possible solutions.

Consideration should also be given as tohow to communicate observations and resultswith other outside communities. Time should,for example, be given to explaining forest-relat-ed issues to journalists and members of themedia who show some interest in forestry andenvironmental conservation. Journalists can bea good vehicle for reaching a much broaderaudience, providing information not only onhumanitarian problems, but also about theenvironmental consequences of refugee situa-tions, the negative impact which these mayhave on local populations, and the positiveimpacts which mitigation measures may have.

For the same reason, specialists and con-sultants from international organisations suchas the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) and other developmentagencies, as well as national and internationalconservation organisations should be briefed onthe situation in refugee-hosting areas, shouldthere be a possibility of overlapping interests.Such an extended information network willhelp make donors aware of the potential envi-ronmental risks. In turn, they may be able toprovide technical and financial assistance toaddress the problems by including mitigatingmeasures in their programmes and budgets.

Awareness raising and constituency build-ing exercises are also opportune moments tostart to introduce the notion – if it has notalready happened – of formally establishing

Community meeting on forestry related issues


mixed working groups to be responsible foroverseeing day-to-day management of agreed orenforced guidelines for forest management.Such Forest Management Committees orEnvironmental Working Groups (see Box 9)thus become the entry point for debate (as theyare chosen to represent the respective commu-nities/agencies) and dissemination of informa-tion. The success of such a group will depend toa large degree on who is represented: it is essen-tial that this process is transparent and that allinterested parties, of any age, have the opportu-

nity to have their expressions presented. Genderconsiderations also need to be taken intoaccount at this stage (see Box 10).

6.4 Identifying Needs andOpportunities

Planning and undertaking tree planting pro-grammes will normally only start from the careand maintenance phase but can be expected tocontinue throughout the durable solutions

Box 9i

Replicable Emergency Measures To Protect The Environment: Start-Up Programmes In Western Tanzania

From 1992 to 1997, Tanzania received over 800,000 refugees from Burundi, the Democratic Republic ofCongo and Rwanda. The majority entered the country in two waves, the first to Kagera Region in mid-1994, the second to Kigoma Region in late 1996. Despite widespread local harvesting of fuelwood andbuilding materials, environmental concerns were not at the fore in either case due to the sheer number ofrefugees involved and the speed with which people fled to Tanzania, demanding a rapid relief responsesimply to meet basic needs. Nevertheless, UNHCR and its implementing partners, particularly GTZ andCARE, were still able to implement a range of successful measures during this period which limited thescope of environmental damage around new settlements.

Establishment of co-ordinating forums was considered a priority in both refugee-hosting regions. Thesewere chaired initially by UNHCR, but responsibility for the Environmental Task Forces (ETFs) was latertransferred to the District governments. The ETFs enabled international agencies, local NGOs andgovernment departments working on environmental issues to harmonise approaches, and for UNHCR andthe government to communicate environmental guidelines and policies that were to be applied.

In Kagera, marking trees that were not to be cut with white oil paint was found effective if used inconjunction with a network of forest guards. Selected trees were not necessarily the largest trees, butthose with the greatest potential for rapid growth and seed production, often the younger specimens. Forgreater effectiveness, forest guards persuaded refugees to spread their cutting as thinly as possible inboth regions, and to prevent cutting in some areas.

Careful sourcing of construction materials was also promoted in Kagera and Kigoma; UNHCR and the ETFsestablished guidelines for the types of trees to be used and recommended source areas. These tools weremore effective around smaller camps where harvesting could be better controlled. Meanwhile, agenciesbenefited from clear guidelines on where they could procure building poles for new structures.

Multilingual signs and posters as well as refugee meetings were used to communicate host governmentrules and local community traditions regarding access to natural resources. This helped establish anappropriate sense of environmental responsibility amongst the refugees, especially in Kigoma,immediately upon their arrival.

Implementing agencies, meanwhile, continued to monitor and actively influence decisions relating tocamp siting, size, density and layout, rations provided, cooking utensils and other factors that might haveenvironmental impacts.



phase. It is also likely to find relevance duringreturnee operations. These activities are strong-ly governed by rainfall patterns and seasons sogood planning and knowledge of the local cli-mate is essential.

Because of their long-term nature, treeplanting activities should be carefully planned.A sound plan will be based on informationgathered from a broad range of local stakehold-ers, consultation with specialists (if different),and taking into account other relevant experi-ences from similar situations. Baseline surveysare again the starting point – information beingrequired on the following subjects, althoughthis list is not exhaustive:

a) Overall policy regarding refugee assis-tance:

l Is local settlement allowed?l Do refugees have freedom of movement? l Do refugees have access to local resources? l Do refugees have access to land? What, if

any, are their rights to grow and own trees? l Are refugees allowed access to local labour

markets?

b) Institutional aspects:As a minimum, clarification needs to be soughton the following:

l Forest legislation.l Land tenure and ownership.l Forest ownership and user rights.l Forestry institutions and agencies, includ-

ing their technical and operationalcapacities.

c) The refugee population: l What are the demographic and socio-eco-

nomic characteristics of the refugee popu-lation? Is this stable or are additionalrefugees likely to be settled in the samearea at some point in the future?

l Is the camp/settlement conducive toforestry activities?

l Do some of the refugee population haveany forestry skills?

l Are refugees willing to engage in treeplanting and maintenance activities? If so,who among them? What form of activitywould they support?

l Are there income generating opportuni-ties?

d) The local population:l What are the demographic and socio-

economic characteristics of the local com-muities? (Note: consideration should alsobe given to seasonally migrating tribes.)

l What are the main (if any) forms of natural resource use? Who are the primaryusers within the community?

Box 10i

Gender Concerns in relation to Forest Management

Because of traditional gender divisions oflabour, women have specific needs andinterests in forestry. In most rural areas, womenand children collect the household’s fuelwoodfor cooking and heating, as well as a variety offood products, medicinal plants, raw materialsand marketable non-wood products from theforest. Women are therefore often the solerepositories of knowledge about forestproducts, plant attributes and traditionalmethods of tree and forest management. Itmust also be recognised that women haveoften proved more interested than men inraising trees for fuelwood, food or fodder.

If, however, tree planting projects are tosuccessfully involve and benefit women, there isa need for more refined gender-based planningduring the preparation phase. For example,women’s tenure rights to land and newlyplanted trees must be strengthened andwomen’s groups should be assisted toundertake their own plantation or rehabilitationactivities. Direct involvement of women inmanagement schemes can reduce thedestruction of forests caused by fuel and foddergathering. To increase incentives to women,their incomes could be substantially raised byhelping them gain access to wider markets forforest products and by enabling them toundertake value-added processing of primaryforest products.


l How are the communities organised?l What, if any, forms of forest management

are practised? l What forest goods and services are used?

And how?

e) Physical aspects:l What are some of the main physical

aspects of the site/region, in particular theclimate, soil(s), topography, hydrology andwater resources?

l Is the region prone to erosion?l Are there protected areas in the vicinity?

f ) Area and type of forest resources: l What is the physical area of forest land

now compared with, e.g. 10 years earlier,or before the arrival of refugees/returnees?

l What is the main tree species composi-tion? Is there evidence that this haschanged?

l What is the forest density and stockingvolume?

l What other forest-based resources can beidentified and are these used by people?

g) Forest functions and use: To what extent is the forested area used for thefollowing:

l Timber and/or firewood production?l Soil and water conservation? l Nature and biodiversity conservation? l Shelter belts? l Hunting? l Grazing? l Agroforestry? l Human settlement?

h) Use of forest resources by refugees andlocals:Information should be obtained on the follow-ing:

l Quantity of wood used for different purposes.

l Degree of commercial timber extraction.l Is charcoal burning practiced?l Level of hunting carried out.

l What, if any, pressure exists form other competing resources, e.g. livestockgrazing?

i) Existing or planned forestry activities: l What ongoing/planned activities can be

identified within the region? What is theplanned timeframe for these?

l Who are the main implementing agencies– government, NGOs, local communities– and what are their capacities?

l Who are the major donors supportingthese programmes?

Most of this information should alreadyhave become apparent during the earlier woodsupply and demand assessment exercises. Thesedata may, however, need to be updated andrefined.

Information can be gathered from a widerange of sources, including local administrationand its technical departments, local communityleaders, refugee leaders, technical institutes,universities, mapping departments, statisticaldepartments, development agencies, NGOs,and from documentation on planned andongoing projects. Similarly, as outlined inSection 5.3, existing information should be verified in the field. For this, rapid field assess-ments will need to be carried out, in close co-operation with local authorities and refugeerepresentatives.

Channelling the planning and co-ordina-tion of forest-related activities through anEnvironmental Task Force, or similar, willensure a participative approach where relevantexpertise and local concerns and priorities willbe considered. Moreover, close participationand involvement of local agencies, groups andindividuals will increase the probability that ini-tiated forest-related activities will continue afterUNHCR’s withdrawal. Once the major issueshave been decided, the resulting plan for thetree planting programme/activity will have tobe formulated in a systematic manner.


6.5 Which Forestry System BestAddresses Identified Needs?

Several approaches can be applied when plan-ning and carrying out tree-planting and forestmanagement programmes. These can be loose-ly classified as “social forestry” and “plantationforestry”.

Social forestry, also referred to as farmforestry, community forestry, community-basednatural resource management or forestry forlocal community development, refers to a broadrange of tree- or forest-related activities thatrural landowners, local communities and, inthis instance, refugee groups may undertake toprovide products for their own use as well as togenerate income. Social forestry mainlyincludes communal woodlot establishment,agroforestry, local seedling production andmanagement, and the sustainable use of

common natural forest resources – some ofwhich are described in more detail below.Communities or individuals earning incomefrom the gathering, processing and sale ofminor forest products also fall under the catego-ry of social forestry, as do governments andother organisations or groups who plant treeson public land to meet local village needs.

In contrast to social forestry where the primary focus is peoples’ needs, conventionalproduction forestry has its focus on the woodproduced. The involvement of people in production or the benefits accrued from treesduring their growth are secondary considera-tions. Listed below are some of the most impor-tant points of difference between these two concepts (Ohlsson, 1990). Examining the characteristics of both approaches, it becomesquite clear that social forestry is more closelyaligned with the general principles of UNHCRassisted refugee programmes.

Multipurpose and socio-economic objectives directlyrelated to the consumer/producer. Enhancing self-relianceLocally developed and manageable. A requirement for relevant production. People areconsidered as the main resource, an asset to besupported. People are involved and responsibleEmployed or self-employedLocal, village production units (e.g. extendedfamilies or individual families)Integrated in space and time in small farmerproduction systemsA large number of small areas with a variety ofinput requirements and productionBoth long- and short-term. Short-term is importantbecause of limited resources for delayed benefits

Objectives

TechnologyPeoples participation

LabourOrganisation

Relation to other activities

Structure and scale

Time perspective

Social Forestry

One-dimensional (wood production)

Uniform and centralisedInsignificant. People, target groups andconsumers are to be motivated and/oremployedEmployedCentralised ‘work order’ system

Separate, segmentation

Few large plantations with uniformmanagementLong-term

Conventional production forestry


6.5.1 Block Plantations – A Quick Response toUnmet Needs

The establishment of block plantations is, compared with enrichment planting and mostagroforestry practices, a rather large-scale,intensive operation as extensive areas are plant-ed with nursery-raised seedlings of one or moreproductive tree species. Site selection and sitepreparation are carried out prior to planting.

Plantations have primarily a productionfunction, often for industrial purposes. Yet, village or small-scale private block plantationsare also widely used or integrated in socialforestry programmes for the production oflocally used or marketed timber, and to providelocal energy needs.

Plantations usually have a much higherproduction level than natural forests as mainlyexotic, fast-growing species and varieties areused which have been selected for their woodquality, growth rate, stem form and diseaseresistance. Because of the relative uniformity of

the trees, plantation management is much easi-er and more efficient to manage.

Extensive monocultures – plantations consisting of a single tree species – are to beavoided because of the enhanced risk of prob-lems with disease and pests, because of theiroften poor humus quality, on account of theirgenerally low ecological value, and because ofthe lack of product diversity.

Mixed plantations offer an interesting alterna-tive: for instance a mixture of leguminous trees,Azadirachta (neem) and teak with a spacing of1x1m to 2x2m, or a mixture of Gmelina,Khaya, Terminalia and Afzelia, with a minimumspacing of 4x4m is a suitable planting system.

Coppicing has also proved to be very valu-able for certain species in fuelwood plantations.

Plantation failures can be caused by inap-propriate species selection, drought, insufficientweeding, or bad soil conditions. Replanting of failed trees is usually carried out if the diagnosed losses exceed 10 per cent. For thisoperation, particularly vigorous plants are used the year after the initial planting. Furtherinformation on planting techniques and tending of young trees is given in Annex III.

6.5.2 Agroforestry – Social Forestry withMultiple Benefits

Agroforestry is a collective term for land-usesystems and technologies where woody perenni-als such as trees and/or shrubs are used deliber-ately in conjunction with agricultural cropsand/or animals in a mutually beneficial manner.It is generally accepted that agroforestry:

ä combines the production of multiple outputs with protection of the resource base,in particular the soil;

ä emphasises the use of indigenous, multipur-pose trees and shrubs;

Site Rehabilitation In The Democratic Republicof The Congo.

Refugee camps in the Democratic Republic of Congoimpact local forests primarily through bush fires andinappropriate agricultural practices, the root causesof which can be traced to local poverty and thepressure of hosting refugees. UNHCR’s response hasbeen to:n use enrichment planting of fruit trees such as

orange, avocado and safou trees which havenutritional and economic values;

n promote natural regeneration;n promote agroforestry with nitrogen fixing plants

such as moringa trees and African winged-beans;and

n engage in environmental awareness raising andimproved monitoring and evaluation practices.

This low-cost approach is expected to reducepressure on natural forests, promote moreappropriate and improved agriculture, generatemuch needed income and help reduce the level ofmalnutrition.


ä is particularly suitable forlow-input conditions andfragile environments; and

ä is more concerned withsocio-cultural values thanmost other land-use sys-tems.

In practice, trees can con-tribute to farming systems andfarmer welfare in three mainways:

ä by improving the productivityof farmland by fixing nitro-gen, by providing green manureand by reducing wind erosion and soil mois-ture loss when trees are used in shelterbeltsor windbreaks. Trees planted along contoursand in other critical areas can act as effectivebarriers to the surface flow of water and thusincrease rainfall infiltration and reduce soilerosion and loss of nutrients. Finally, treesprovide wood that can replace animal dung and crop residues as fuel for cooking and

heating, so that dung and residues can goback into the soil and help crop and pastureproductivity;

ä by contributing to livestock production. Inmany parts of the world, farm trees (as wellas forest trees) provide fodder for livestock.They also provide shade for animals and canserve as living fences to keep livestock fromcrop areas; and

ä by providing a great many products for on-farm consumption or for sale. Chiefamong these products are fuelwood; fruits,nuts and other edible products; medicines;gums; tannins; poles and posts for construc-tion and other uses; and timber for housing,furniture and implements.

On the other hand, trees can also competefor scarce moisture and, through shading androot competition, can reduce crop productivity,

Alley Cropping

Alley cropping is an agroforestry system in whichfood crops are grown in alleys formed byhedgerows of trees and shrubs, preferably legumes.Fast-growing species such as Leucaena leucocephalaand Gliricidia sepiumare can be used to create thealleys of hedges. These require regular pruning toreduce shading for the crops grown in the alleys –clippings provide fodder for livestock, fuelwood orstakes for construction and/or mulch.

Alley cropping can sustain or even improve soilfertility and crop production, but it is not a solutionto all soil fertility problems. Like other applications,it works only under certain climatic, social andeconomic conditions. While many benefits canaccrue from alley cropping, it does require spaceand is time consuming. It is, however, a practicalproposal for refugee situations where land isavailable and can make positive contributions tolocal environmental enhancement.

Sustainable agricultural practices such as alleycropping and agroforestry are used to improvesoil fertility


although this can be reduced through judiciouspruning. As in all agricultural practices, positiveand negative aspects have to be considered andweighed. Annex V provides an overview ofsome the most common agroforestry practices

in the tropics and a particular form of agroforestry is described from West Africa inBox 11.

Box 11i

Combining Environmental Rehabilitation With Food Production In Côte d’Ivoire – The Taungya System

The establishment of tree plantations may be a suitable response to damage caused by refugees,especially where managed state forests have been damaged and the host government wishes to havethem rehabilitated. A project in Côte d’Ivoire shows how this can be achieved, for the mutual benefit ofthe government and the refugees.

From 1990 to 1994, 325,000 Liberian refugees fled to Côte d’Ivoire, settling spontaneously in a 25 kmwide strip along the country’s western border. Several forest reserves and a national park were threatenedby encroachment from the new arrivals. On the western border of the Haute-Dodo Forest Reserve, forexample, the population density increased from 26 people/km2 to 68 people/km2 during this period.Incursions for wood products and raffia palm became commonplace and unauthorised refugee cultivationstarted within several gazetted areas.

The Ivôrian forestry department, SODEFOR (Société pour le Développement des Forêts), is responsible formanaging the country’s forest reserves. Prior to the arrival of the refugees, SODEFOR already had plans torehabilitate an area of some 17,000ha in the Haute-Dodo Reserve: implementation of the programmebecame all the more pressing when damage began to occur on account of the people’s needs. SODEFORdecided to turn the refugees’ presence to its advantage by inviting them to cultivate in areas designatedfor rehabilitation under the ‘taungya’ system. This agroforestry system permits farming between rows ofnewly planted trees. The advantage for the forester is soil and water conservation and minimal weeding.The farmer, meanwhile, gains access to productive land for a period of time until root competition andshade from the growing trees becomes too great for continued crop production. This is typically from twoto four years in Côte d’Ivoire.

In a pilot scheme with UNHCR, SODEFOR identified 50ha for taungya trials in 1996. This was planted withframiré, a local commercial species used in construction. Refugees were then allowed to plant rice andmaize between the newly planted trees. There is now a 10–year plan to put a further 150ha under thetaungya system through a series of 25ha contracts with refugee groups.

While refugees are given no long-term rights over the forest land, the possibility of cultivating cropsprovides gives them access to fresh food and a source of income from the sale of surplus crops. They alsogain basic technical expertise in forestry. Meanwhile, UNHCR and SODEFOR have a productive workingrelationship which combines humanitarian assistance and environmental rehabilitation.

Provided clear contracts are established at the outset to ensure that contracted refugees do not exceedtheir allotted time of occupancy, the taungya system can be a cost-effective way to establish or rehabilitateforest plantations, while at the same time improving food security and creating a sense of self-determination and independence among refugees. Such arrangements can work elsewhere provided host-refugee relations are good and that the government accepts for the refugees to cultivate the land.

UNHCR, 2002a

(Note, however, that this system may not work effectively in all situations: in countries where there is astrong pressure on land, e.g. Rwanda, people may be unwilling to give up access to land when trees arematuring, perhaps even to the extent of cutting trees, to ensure that they still have access to some land.)


6.6 Forest Rehabilitation at aLandscape Level

Despite best attempts to control and limit dam-age to the environment, some impacts are like-ly to be inevitable, especially if and where highnumbers of refugees have been accommodatedfor long periods of time. Addressing the issue ofrehabilitation at such a time requires carefulthought and much discussion with stakeholders(see also Section 4.4.2).

The benefits of rehabilitating, or restoring,the functions of forests across the landscapeinclude improved water quality and soil stabi-lization, enabling local communities to contin-ue to live off the land by producing food andraw materials such as fruit, nuts, rubber andrattan.

Facilitating natural regeneration (e.g. inmiombo woodlands) has proven to be an effec-tive means of re-establishing natural groundcover in already forested areas which were

subjected to use during refugee operations. Italso connects forest fragments, linking protect-ed areas and creating corridors for wildlife. Andby achieving the right balance of land-use, ithelps to mitigate the impact of devastatingweather events and builds natural resistance tothe onset of climate change.

Forest landscape rehabilitation is a careful-ly planned process that aims to regain ecologi-cal integrity and enhance human well-being indegraded or deforested forest landscapes. Likethe intended purpose of the forest managementplan itself, landscape rehabilitation takes abroad approach to the subject matter, but itsoverarching goal is to reverse negative trendsand activities in forest management to conservebiological diversity, enhance options for peo-ple’s livelihoods, and reduce poverty.

The broad, landscape approach adoptedthrough forest landscape rehabilitation ensuresthat ecological systems and service – not justpatches of forest – are considered inrefugee/returnee operations. The approach thushelps:

ä restore damaged environmental functions;

ä natural regeneration;

ä preserve watersheds, thereby improvingwater quality and quantity;

ä restore benefits for people through inter aliaproviding food and raw materials, or preventing natural disasters:

ä address root causes of forest loss and degra-dation by consulting and involving localpeople, changing policies related to land-use,and replacing harmful incentives with morepositive ones;

ä planning with key stakeholders to identifysolutions and training local communities;and

Kitchen gardening using waste biomassand water for food production andmaintenance of a green environment atthe household level


ä stabilise and improve soils and rangelands;and

ä improve and/or expand habitats for wildlifeby connecting fragmented forest patches,providing windbreaks and preventing erosion from taking place.

A few of the most relevant aspects of forestlandscape rehabilitation to refugee/returneeoperations are described below: readers seekingadditional information on this subject arereferred to the bibliography.

6.6.1 Facilitating the Natural Regenerationof Degraded Forests

Degraded forests often have the capacity to naturally regenerate. The degree of degradationtogether with the climate and soil conditionsdetermine the capacity and the time needed forregeneration.

Natural regeneration is often the quickest,most appropriate and most cost-effective meansof forest rehabilitation. It can be facilitatedthrough silvicultural operations such as soilpreparation and the removal of competing vegetation in certain locations for easier estab-lishment of young trees. Yet, success will onlybe guaranteed if the concerned area is left alonefor some time. Protection measures are there-fore invariably essential to ensure successfulregeneration. These may include fencing thearea and protecting it from grazing animals andhuman encroachment or, if community actionis strong enough, awareness raising programmesmay be sufficient to prevent people from enter-ing these off-limit areas (see Box 12).

In some situations, however, natural reveg-etation will either not be possible or will take along time, for example, in situations where treeshave been uprooted (a frequent occurrence inrefugee situations), where soils are poor orseverely eroded, and under extreme climatic

conditions. In such situations, alternative solu-tions will need to be found (see for exampleSection 5.6).

6.6.2 Enrichment Planting in Natural Forests

Enrichment planting is carried out in naturalforests in order to rehabilitate – either partly orentirely – degraded forests. Forests shouldpreferably be enriched by planting useful treespecies which already occur as part of thatecosystem, as there is always a risk that theintroduction of other tree species would modi-fy the original forest composition.

Many indigenous species of commercialvalue are, however, slow growing, difficult topropagate and need rather specific conditionsto become successfully established. For this reason, planting fast-growing exotic species (e.g.Acacia or Gmelina species) that can produce theneeded fuelwood, fodder or poles in a relativelyshort time is a solution which is occasionallypreferred in refugee operations. This happensfor example in cases of acute shortages of forestproducts or when the original forest is sodegraded that it would not be practical to plantindigenous species. In most situations, however,this should be avoided and natural regenerationfavoured.

Discussions with local forestry authoritiesshould provide an indication on how best toapproach enrichment planting. Furtherdestruction to existing natural forest should beavoided, so careful choice of species and sitesneeds to be considered. Care should also betaken to avoid the introduction of invasive alienspecies that could do long-term harm to anecosystem. Planting is probably best carriedout in open spaces, where small groupings ofnarrow-spaced (1x1m to 2x2 m) trees might beestablished. Competition between the seedlingsand trees will reduce the need for furthertending.


6.7 Monitoring and Evaluation

While a careful build up to identify and assessneeds and opportunities is a fundamental start-ing point for any forest management plan,ensuring that this same plan has a carefullythought out, appropriate and, above all, practi-cal monitoring and evaluation component is ofat least equal importance.

This section briefly deals with two differ-ent kinds of monitoring, both equally impor-tant for further planning purposes and formeasuring the impacts of the activities so farundertaken. It also contains a streamlinedchecklist which may be useful in the monitor-ing/evaluation process.

6.7.1 Monitoring of Ongoing Activities

Through relatively simple programme monitor-ing it is possible to know:

ä how the programme is proceeding comparedwith the schedule;

ä the impact of implemented actions;

ä which activities have been successful; andthe reasons behind eventual failures, non-acceptance or delay; and

ä what steps might need to be taken to addressthose aspects which may not be performingas well as anticipated.

Box 12i

Area Closures for Natural Regeneration, Tigray, Ethiopia

Land is a scarce commodity in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Since 1991, several hundred thousand refugeeshave returned from Sudan. Population pressure has intensified, compounding problems of over-cultivation, overgrazing and unsustainable exploitation of vegetation for fuel, fodder and buildingmaterials. Mountainous areas are most severely affected, with over-exploitation often leading to soilerosion on steep slopes.

Regional government surveys in 1993 recommended that priority be given to rehabilitating degradedareas to return them to productive use. This was to be done through collaboration between the RegionalAgricultural Bureau, local communities and the Relief Society of Tigray (REST). Through negotiation withlocal community members, a total of 45,000ha has been designated for protection. Human interference islimited in those areas to allow natural vegetation to regenerate. Two control options are practised: eitheraccess is forbidden, or livestock grazing and grass cutting are permitted. Most of the ‘closed’ areas are notactually fenced, but their boundaries are known and agreed by local communities.

Community members have shown strong compliance with restrictions on access to closed areas. Trespass,grazing or extraction of wood products are considered punishable acts. Anyone who commits such an actor fails to report offenders is often viewed as a saboteur of a national cause. They are not only subject tostigma, but can also be charged through the legal system.

In situations where land is particularly degraded, enrichment planting of trees is carried out to encouragere-growth. REST operates over 150 central and community nurseries with an annual production capacityof 12 million seedlings: 25 per cent of these are used in the rehabilitation of closed communal lands tocomplement natural regeneration.

The primary cost for area closures are wages for guards (paid by REST through a food-for-work scheme)and, sometimes, fencing materials. Closures can deprive livestock herders of pasture, or local people offorest products. The use of natural resources for short-term economic gain is not sustainable. Consultationwith the affected communities has contributed to the success of these efforts and an understanding oftheir limitations.

This kind of information – derived fromgroup discussions, site visits and analysis – facilitates a quick re-orientation of the initialplans when deemed appropriate, and helpsensure that the programme remains flexible andfocussed.

The development of an operational moni-toring and evaluation system requires a detailedinitial planning with the identification of indi-cators (see UNHCR, 2002b), a data recordingsystem, frequent visits to the field, interviewswith involved people and an efficient system foranalysing field records. As the set of indicatorsconstitutes the core element of a monitoringand evaluation system, some examples of indi-cators relevant to the forestry sector are givenbelow:

ä tree nursery best practices introduced andfollowed;

ä number of seedlings produced v target;ä number of surviving seedlings at end of first

growing season; and

ä increased refugee involvement in plan-ning/managing forest resources and treenurseries.

6.7.2 Monitoring Changes in VegetationCover

Monitoring deforestation, degradation andafforestation processes on a large scale is anessential planning tool for people identifying,designing and evaluating refugee assistance programmes.

Changes in vegetation cover can be evalu-ated using satellite images or aerial photographstaken over a known period of time. While inter-preting and analysing the available imagery, factors such as vegetation type (includingspecies composition), vegetation density, vegetation quality (growth rate, health), anddistance from camp sites to forest supply areasshould be considered.

Satellite images and aerial photographyinterpretation, in combination with ground-truthing, using global positioning systems, arealso useful but still relatively costly techniquesin preparing forest and vegetation maps.

Possible indicators to consider for thisaspect of monitoring are:

ä area of degraded land;

ä change in vegetation cover; and

ä land set aside for fallow/regeneration.

Information gathered from all of the aboveshould be routinely analysed and used to mon-itor any change taking place, the resultinginformation being used to revise and guide theproject/programme process further. A checklistof common forest management activities withregards refugee and returnee operations is provided in Annex VII to assist with regularmonitoring of this nature.



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Wollenberg, E. and Ingles, A. W. (Eds). 1998.Incomes from the forest: methods for thedevelopment and conservation of forest productsfor local communities. Centre for InternationalForestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia.

Electronic Resources

http://www.toolkitparticipation.nl/The Participation Toolkit Partnership website isa growing group of civil society (NGO) andlocal government organisations, working to

promote participatory governance in localgovernance. The site offers information on toolswhich promote citizen participation and aforum for discussions, and holds articles forfurther reference.

http://www.worldbank.org/participation/tools&methods/toolkitsmanuals.htmThis section of the Civic and ParticipationGroup website of the World Bank providestoolkits and manuals for performancemonitoring, governance, civic engagement,community driven development, sectoralissues, sustainable development and more.

http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/Surveys+By+Country?openview&Count=1999Directory of national household surveys, socialindicators, poverty assessment summaries andparticipatory poverty assessments (PPA/PPAs),focusing on those related to poverty issues.Entries describe the survey, its contents,methods and how to access the data. Compiledby the World Bank PovertyNetdepartment.

http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/particip/This is the homepage of the Institute ofDevelopment Studies’ Participation Groupwhich serves as a global centre for research,innovation and learning in citizen participationand participatory approaches to development.This site has downloadable books andpublications on participation.

http://www.odi.org.uk/pppg/index.htmlODI’s Poverty and Public Policy Group(PPPG) has the mission to contribute throughresearch, advice and communication tomeasures that work effectively towards the goalof eradicating poverty on a global scale. PPPGinterests span all aspects of public policy forpoverty reduction, including "upstream" policyand management issues and "downstream"analysis of the causes of poverty and socialexclusion. This site has downloadable booksand publications on participation.


http://www.eldis.org/participation/index.htmThe Eldis Participation Page is a comprehensiveonline listing of major participation resourceswith description of organisations, site content,contact details, Practical manuals, Major wwwsites, Bibliographic sources, Organisations,Networks and Discussion lists.


A sustainable supply of timber or fuelwood implies a harvesting rate that does not exceed the annualwood production rate. To assess the sustainable wood supply of a forest or plantation, it is necessaryto estimate its total area and annual production capacity. Note, however, that such measures ofsustainability do not take into account other forest values or functions.

The annual production of a forest or plantation varies considerably according to local environmentalconditions (exposure, soil types, rainfall), species represented, and with the level and nature ofsilvicultural management. If local forest services cannot provide details on the production rates oflocal forest areas, the examples in Tables 1 and 2 could be used as an indication for furthercalculations.

For closed evergreen rainforest, the mean annual increment for an unmanaged closed evergreenrainforest would be around 3m3/ha/year (Whitmore, 1992), while for savanna woodland growingunder harsh conditions one should consider only 1m3/ha/year. This figure will drop even more in thecase of tree and shrub savannas (Whitmore, 1992). By means of comparison, the average annualproduction of west European forests varies from between 2.4m3/ha and 2.7m3/ha (A. Bary-Lenger etal., La Forêt, 1979).

IEstimating Supply

Capacity of a Forest

Annex

Pinus patulaPinus patulaPinus caribaeaPinus caribaeaEucalyptus hybridsEucalyptus grandisEucalyptus grandisParaserianthes falcatariaParaserianthes falcatariaGmelina arboreaAraucaria sppSwietenia macrophylla

Usutu Forest, SwazilandViphya Pulpwood Project, MalawiFiji Pine CommissionJari Florestal, BrazilUnité d’Afforest. Ind. du Congo (UAIC), CongoAracruz Florestal, BrazilShiselweni Forestry, SwazilandPaper Ind. Corp. of the Ph.(PICOP), PhilippinesSabah Softwoods, MalaysiaJari Florestal, BrazilCommonw. N. G. Timbers, Papua New GuineaSeaqaqa plantations, Fiji

1918

15–20203555182830

15–252014

Table 1. Average Growth Rates in some Tropical Plantations (Lamprecht, 1989)

Location Tree Species

Mean AnnualIncrement

(m3/ha/year)

15–1716

17–2016779

107–10

104030

Rotation(years)


Having estimated the production of the concerned forest resource, one can then calculate the numberof hectares of this type of forest needed to meet the total demand assessed. Considering, for example,a minimum requirement of 0.5m3/year/person and an annual production of 10m3, one hectare willbe sufficient to sustainably produce wood for 20 persons. In this case, the total surface which willbe necessary is: Surface (ha) = Population divided by 20. If the production is different from10m3/ha/year, the surface should be multiplied by the co-efficient: 10/the actual production rate.

In most cases, however, it will not be possible to identify places with sufficient forest resources whoseannual production would completely cover the demands of a refugee/returnee population. As aconsequence, more than the annual production – and thus part of the forest’s stocking volume – willbe harvested. In this respect, it is necessary to calculate the stocking volume of the surroundingplantations or forests. This can be done either through a forest inventory, enquiries with the forestauthorities or the forest owners or, for plantations, through multiplying the average yearly productionby the age of the plantation.

Table 3 provides indicative data on the stocking volume of the different natural forest types and onthe maximum extractable volume (40 per cent of the stocking volume) under emergency situations.It is assumed that the forest will have the capacity to regenerate naturally if at least 60 per cent of theinitial stocking volume remains untouched and if no further extraction takes place during theregeneration period. However, if negative changes in the original structure and ecology of theforest are to be avoided, the extraction should be evenly spread over a range of trees of allspecies and age classes. With regard to the figures of respective stocking volumes, it is assumed thatthe concerned forest has not been cut during the past few years. If this is not the case, the figurespresented in Table 3 have to be adjusted according to the formerly harvested volumes.

Sub-tropical eucalyptusTeak plantationsTropical hardwood plantationsTropical pinesTropical eucalyptusTropical high forest (managed)South-east Asia dipterocarp forest (managed)

5–304–18

25–4515–45

up to 700.5–7

up to 17

Table 2. Growth Rates of Managed Forests and Plantations (After Lamprecht, 1989)

Forest Resource

Mean annualincrement

(m3/ha/year)

8–2540–808–208–307–20––

Rotation(years)

Closed evergreen forestMoist semi-deciduous forestDry deciduous forestSavanna woodlandTree and shrub savanna

360–500180–30070–16040–100

< 40

Table 3. Indicative Values of Stocking Volumes of Forests

Forest Type

StockingVolume(m3/ha)

140–20070–12028–7016–40< 16

MaximumExtractable

Timber(m3/ha)


The possibility of supplying charcoal as an alternative for fuelwood should also be examined. As thetotal energy yield is known to be lower with charcoal, this solution should only be considered whenincreasing distance between the providing and consuming areas would prohibitively raise thetransportation costs of wood. In practice, the supply of charcoal could become advantageous if theconcerned distance exceeds 100km.

If charcoal is used as fuel, the required area of forest or plantation – when compared with the figuresin Table 3 – has to be doubled.


In addition to the information outlined in Section 5.5, the following details should also be noted.

Access to Supply Areas

Though harvesting in remote areas may initially seem to be the more expensive option – due totransportation and eventual road rehabilitation costs – it can avoid irreversible damage to nearbyvaluable forest areas and reduce future costs of forest rehabilitation.

Areas selected for controlled harvesting/supply programmes are quite often situated in less denselypopulated and remote places. When harvesting from such forest areas, one will have to cope withproblems related to their location. Access roads, for example, might be lacking or be in bad shape. Insuch instances, planning for rehabilitation and the possible construction of feeder roads must forman essential part of supply plans.

Transportation

Transportation is often the more expensive part of an organised wood supply. Before signing anytransportation agreement, it is necessary to determine the common means of transport (lorries,donkeys and so on) in the concerned area, as well as the normal corresponding prices.

In general, wood transportation will cost US$5–15 per stere delivered to the camp, depending ondistance from the harvesting areas and on the opportunity for the hauliers to take on another loadfor the return journey.

A call for tender and competitive bidding might be considered, but this is often not feasible due tothe structure of candidate companies. A permanent negotiation with the hauliers and theestablishment of short-term agreements (e.g. one month) is an excellent alternative that still allowssufficient space for competition.

If the need for transportation exceeds the local capacity and negotiations with operational partners(NGOs, agencies or international private companies) becomes necessary, establishment of longer-term (> 6 months) agreements may be required through tendering.

IIKey Aspects of a Wood

Supply Programme

Annex


In some cases, transportation agreements can be made with refugee entrepreneurs, provided that thiscan fit within the refugee policy of the host country (limitation of movement, prohibition of the issueof working permits for refugees or of any income generating activity, encouragement to repatriationrather than settlement, etc.)

A last option could be the hiring or purchase of lorries by UNHCR itself, although the managementand maintenance of a transportation fleet could easily grow beyond the capacities of the UNHCR’slocal logistical support unit.

As the loss of wood during transportation is a common feature, it is advisable to strictly monitor thequantity of wood delivered. The stere is an imprecise measure as it depends very much on the waywood is stacked. Any control is therefore best be made by unloading the wood and stacking it againin steres at the storage area(s) in or near the camp. For the same reason, and as previously described,the unit price paid for transportation can best be fixed per unit delivered wood.

Distribution

Before distribution, wood should be given sufficient time to dry in order to improve its burning qualities. In this regard, it may be necessary to keep the collected wood for some time atstorage/distribution sites. Such distribution sites may be located in the camp itself or at some distancefrom the camp, preferably within walking distance.

Wood that has been chopped by the supplier before transport will be much better seasoned. In mostcases, however, the task of chopping is left for the refugees themselves who will take care of itfollowing distribution. A special team is usually engaged to ensure supplies to services such ascommunity centres, hospitals and nutritional centres.

Wood distribution should be carried out on the basis of updated beneficiary lists. The rules for distribution should be unambiguous and made clear to the refugee population in order to avoidconflicts and irregularities. Experience has shown that well-designed distribution systems allow for areduction in supervising and assisting personnel. Depending on the local situation, the wood rationscan be distributed to individual families, groups of families or well-defined camp sections throughgroup leaders. In special cases, wood may only be distributed to vulnerable groups who are unable tocollect wood themselves.

Protection Measures

Organised fuelwood supply to refugees will only be effective in reducing or stopping uncontrolledwood harvesting, and subsequent damage to woodland, if measures are taken to protect wooded andforested lands in the vicinity of the camps against illegal and/or damaging cutting by the refugees.These measures include:

ä the enforcement of forestry rules and regulations through patrolling and punitive actions;ä the placement of signposts and fences; and ä awareness raising on the implications of illegal and uncontrolled woodcutting.


Agreements with Owners and other Implementing Partners

Transparent and comprehensive contracts will have to be prepared with institutions, organisationsand individuals involved in the supply chain. These contracts should specify the harvesting areas, thekind and volume of wood to be extracted, harvesting schedules, unit prices, restrictions, andtransportation arrangements.

The price of wood at harvesting sites is usually between US$1–8 per stere. In refugee situations, thisrate tends to increase and prices of US$10, or more, can be expected. In such cases, it isrecommended to negotiate. Whenever possible, contracts should be awarded following competitivebidding. Inflation of wood prices may encourage plantation owners and farmers to sell their lastpieces of wood in order to get a quick income. This may lead to irreversible damage and woodshortages for the local population. On the other hand, the purchase of wood from plantation ownersand farmers may be a positive incentive for them to plant more trees.

Monitoring the Wood Balance

Regular monitoring of the wood balance should provide the required elements for ongoing planningof forestry activities, as well as for controlled harvesting and fuelwood supplies. Good records on thewood demand, as well as the levels of wood supplied, are therefore essential.

On the demand side, records should be kept of changes in wood requirements as a result ofpopulation fluctuations, per capita wood requirements, or any change following the availability ofalternative energy sources. At the household level, wood requirements should be monitored withselected families by means of a repeated weighing of stock and of new, incoming wood. At the camplevel, wood consumption is measured through intake surveys, recording the total number of loadscoming into the camp along each road/pathway and subtracting from this the total number of loadsbeing taken out. The resulting figure is then divided by the camp population to give the average percapita consumption.

On the supply side, records should be kept of changes in the forest and woodland areas, as well aschanges in species composition as a result of wood harvesting activities (controlled and uncontrolled),natural regeneration of forests, plantations and reforestation. This is achieved through an ongoingprocess of forest inventories and mapping. Aerial photography and interpretation of satellite images,in combination with ground-truthing using global positioning systems, are useful techniques inpreparing forest and vegetation maps.


Introduction

Seedlings for tree planting programmes are commonly raised in nurseries. Nurseries can be either permanent or temporary, they can be private undertakings or managed by the national forest depart-ment or an NGO, and they can vary widely in capacity. Common characteristics of nurseries andtheir development are their objectives, their location requirements and their basic infrastructure andinputs.

Refugee participation should be encouraged in the production of forest plants. The management ofa small tree nursery can easily be observed by individuals, family groups or modest co-operatives. Thequality of raised seedlings is generally better and it provides an excellent opportunity to encourageincome generating initiatives.

Purpose and Design

The main objectives are:

ä seedling production for reforestation or afforestation activities, using specific seedlings;

ä multipurpose seedling production for dissemination to households, corresponding to previousneeds analyses carried out within the community; and

ä seedling production for sale.

Location requirements include the following:

ä the nursery should be as close as possible to intended planting sites in order to reduce costs anddifficulties (for example during the wet season) in transporting the seedlings;

ä a permanent water supply must be available;

ä the site should be well drained;

ä if natural shelter is not present, screens (cloth, branches, leaves…) will probably need to be provided against strong sun and heavy rain;

IIIPlant Production andNursery Establishment

Annex


ä the proximity of a source of adequate soil material is an advantage; and

ä sufficient local availability of personnel, labourers, as well as managerial staff.

When planning a new tree nursery, the design should allow for:

ä a productive area which will be the place where seedling beds are laid out. The number and sizeof the seedling beds has to be calculated on the basis of production targets;

ä security against animals, theft or natural features such as flooding;

ä paths between the seed beds; and

ä an additional area for the construction of a store and office and for other activities such as soilpreparation and seed processing.

An indication of the relations between the area to be planted, the number of seedlings to be raisedand the required size of the nursery is shown below.

Needs

The most basic tools include wheelbarrows, watering cans, shovels, rakes, hammers, pruning tools,knives, boxes for seedling transport, axes, hoes, sprayers, sieves for soil and seed, boxes for seed, meas-uring tapes and a weighing scales. A functional watering system with a pump, water reservoirs,pipelines and taps should be installed.

Nursery supplies include seed, suitable containers and substrate for seed beds and plant containers.Trees are either propagated from seed or cuttings. Seeds can be obtained from forest seed centres orfrom other seed supplying forest services that provide seed from selected stands or individual trees.Seed can also be collected locally from vigorous and well-shaped parent trees. If collected locally, theseed should be properly dried, cleaned and treated before storage or sowing.

Forest seed centres can accurately calculate the required amount of seed for the production of a givennumber of seedlings of a certain species. Following purchase, seed should be stored in dry and wellventilated conditions. In order to germinate properly, some seeds may require pre-sowing treatment,of which several possibilities exist. Supply companies will, upon delivery of seeds, indicate the most

<33–20

20–50

Individual lots; agro-forestryVillage afforestationMultivillage/regional

<10,00010,000–50,000

50,000–125,000

Nature of Programme

Indicative Surfaceof Planting Area

(ha)

Nursery Capacity(number of

plants)

<250250–1,000

1,000–2,500

NurserySurface

(square metre)


appropriate treatment for the concerned seeds. One of the most common treatments is soaking seedsfor a certain time in cold, hot or boiling water.

The most widely used containers for seedling production are polyethylene bags or tubes. Several fac-tors might be taken into consideration when deciding upon suitable containers. Bags, for example,have a bottom, have a defined size, are ready for use, have holes on the side for drainage and are eas-ier to fill than tubes. Bags are, however, more expensive than tubes.

An appropriate substrate should be used for raising seedlings. The soil mixture must have the rightphysical and chemical properties; it must be homogeneous, free of stones, pieces of wood, grass orother objects; and it should not contain more than 20 per cent of clay soil.

The production of high quality seedlings, especially fruit trees, requires a specific substrate contain-ing a lot of organic matter and mineral nutrients.

Nursery Operations and Techniques

Subsequent nursery operations are:

ä sowing (timing, depth of sowing, sowing in containers or in seed beds);

ä shading and daily watering of the seed beds;

ä pricking out or transplanting;

ä hardening off the seedlings;

ä regular weeding and pruning; and

ä grading, culling and seedling transportation to the planting site.

Nursery techniques can differ considerably according to the tree species and climatic conditions, inparticular, the length of the dry season.

Seed is usually sown in seed beds where it germinates and where it is left until the plants show 3–4leaves. According to the species, this phase takes 1–3 months. The type of sowing varies with the sizeof the seed: line sowing is applied for small seeds (Cedrela), broadcast sowing for very small seeds(Eucalyptus) and hole sowing for larger seeds (Anacardium, Tectona). Tree species with large seeds (e.g.Acacia, Tectona, Khaya, Afzelia species) are frequently sown and raised directly in polyethylene bags.Freshly sown seeds should be protected against direct sunlight. This can be accomplished by placingscreens made from local materials over the seed beds.

Seedlings are often transplanted in order to obtain more vigorous plants with a dense rooting system.Transplanting has to be done carefully in order to avoid any damage to the fragile roots. Seedlingscan be transplanted to containers, notably to large (22cm high and 18cm wide) or small (13cm highand 7cm wide) polyethylene bags/tubes or, again, to seed beds but at a larger spacing (e.g. 20x20cmfor Gmelina).


The price of polyethylene bags increases production costs but the plants are usually less fragile compared with those raised under other means. Raising seedlings in containers makes it easier totransport them successfully to the planting site. The plants cannot, however, stay for prolonged periods in the nursery because the roots start winding and strangling (regular root pruning should bedone).

Transplanting in seed beds and the production of bare-rooted seedlings is another technique thatrequires more care during the extraction and transplantation operations. This should be discouragedin dry areas where the root system would easily dry out.

In humid equatorial climates, direct sowing in seed beds to obtain bare-rooted plants (Aucoumea,etc.) or stumps is not a problem. The seedlings remain in the nursery for about one year. Just beforeplanting the leaves are stripped off (stripling) – two or three leaves are left on larger plants – whichfacilitates transportation to the planting site and reduces the risk of drying out.

The length of the raising period in the nursery is strictly dependant on the species and on themethods used, and varies from 4–12 months. The planting schedule, which depends on the timingof dry and wet seasons, is the decisive factor for the nursery time schedule. With a seedling growthperiod of around eight months, and with a planting season in July, soil preparation in the nursery hasto be done in November, with sowing and transplanting taking place in December and January,respectively.

Cost Norms

Initial investment costs include:

ä construction of a permanent infrastructure, including an appropriate, reliable, water supply system and shade provision. Construction materials, as well as labour, should be considered. Thecosts will increase with an increasing capacity of the nursery, though not at a proportional level;and

ä procurement of equipment and basic tools as listed under Annex III. Prices will vary considerablywith the local market and with the quality and amount of equipment required.

Recurrent costs include:

ä materials such as seed, soil substrate, containers, fertilizers and pesticides;

ä labour for activities such as soil mixing and preparation, container filling, seed processing, sowing,weeding, pruning, watering, transplanting, grading, culling, and loading for transport;

ä transport needs for the supply of materials and soil substrate, and for the distribution of theseedlings produced; and

ä a watchman.


The initial cost for basic nursery equipment and supplies is about US$700 for a small permanentnursery (10,000 plants/year) to which an additional yearly sum of US$210 should be added for oper-ational costs. Generally, profits are generated from the second and third year following market conditions, the production method, the variety of species produced and the management quality.

The cost of a temporary nursery with a production capacity of 5,000 to 10,000 seedlings, should notexceed US$60–80.

The production cost of 1ha (2x3m = 1.666 seedlings) of teak comes to about US$440 in containersand US$30 with stumps.


Planting Techniques

The most common technique is planting in formerly dug holes (minimum size 30x30x30cm) whichhave been cleaned of stones and roots. If the seedlings are delivered in containers, one must removethis container before putting the plant in the ground. In case of bare rooted seedlings, one shouldprotect the roots from drying out by not exposing them to desiccating winds or direct sunshine. Ifthere are delays between delivery and planting, it is advisable to temporarily plant the seedlings in ashallow ditch prepared especially for this purpose, firming them in gently in a shallow, coveredtrench.

During planting, the seedling’s position should be such that the roots remain as natural as possible,the root collar being level with the surface. After refilling the hole with soil, eventually enriched withsome manure or fertilizer, the soil should be firmly pressed in by hand and subsequently tamped withthe feet, and the hole filled in once again with loose soil.

In humid climates with vigorous growth of vegetation, it is recommended to leave the marking pegsin the field, as this will help locate young trees during future tending operations.

In drier areas – Sahelian and Sudano-Sahelian areas, for example, or rocky slopes and dry exposures– the creation of micro-catchments (hollow or lunar-shaped holes) at the planting holes helpsincrease the survival of young trees as they concentrate available water close to the roots of theseedlings. Another technique to apply in dry areas is mulching, where the area around the tree collaris covered with coarse organic material in order to reduce evaporation. In some cases, tree plantationscan be irrigated; this is a more expensive but efficient way to overcome drought problems.

Waterlogged planting sites should be avoided as, due to lack of oxygen in these soils, the seedlingstend to suffocate.

Tending and Maintaining Trees and Plantations

Young trees need proper maintenance in order to survive, regardless of where they have been plant-ed. Only in rare cases where large and vigorous seedlings are used in combination with a fertile soiland abundant rainfall, will young trees manage to survive and compete successfully with natural vegetation without weeding operations.

IVTree Planting and

Maintenance Techniques

Annex


It is strongly recommended that the skills and know-how of local forest authorities or other organisations are used formaintenance operations. If provided with some financial andlogistical support, they will contribute to supervising andmonitoring various activities that will help communities inthe long-term.

Tending or weeding is the first operation which needs to becarried out, the frequency of which will depend on thevitality of the plants compared with the growth rate of

competing vegetation. In general, the frequencyof weeding will vary from once during

the first season after planting, totwice per season in the following twoor three years.

Tending consists of removing vegeta-tion growing up around the young

trees, clearing for example a circle ofabout 50cm in diameter around the tree

stem. This is done manually using hoes,machetes or a scythe. Particular attentionhas to be paid to not damaging the tree itself.

This can be avoided by good initial demon-strations, close supervision of workers and

perhaps subsequently imposing a penalty onlabourers who cut a tree.

Cultivation of agricultural crops such as beans ormaize between large-spaced trees can reduce theneed for costly tending operations during a cou-ple of years as the farmers – who must be aware ofthe tree planting exercise – will naturally take care

of this during routine maintenance.

Survival rates should be assessed at the end of the first season. If more than 10 per cent of the plant-ed trees have died, one would normally consider replanting (“beating up”) those empty spaces. Forthis purpose, large, vigorous seedlings should be used so that their progress will soon match that ofthe other trees.

Although watering is not always required for young trees, the seedlings’ survival might depend on itin dry areas or in periods of excessive drought. In places with water supply problems, trees shouldonly be watered with waste water. In order to keep the soil around the trees moist, mulchingpractices or planting techniques that involve micro catchments should be applied, in addition towatering.

Pruning and thinning operations will considerably increase the quality of the produced timber.Pruning consists of cutting the branches along the trunk. This is done to reduce the number of knots

Protection measuresfor newly planted treesagainst animalsincreases survival rate


in the produced timber. If feasible, the pruned branches should be used as fuelwood and not be wast-ed. During a thinning operation, the number of trees is reduced in order to give the dominant(tallest) and straightest trees more growing space, and thus better conditions for development. Thesetwo operations are normally not necessary for the production of fuelwood or poles.

Protecting Trees

It is important to protect seedlings and young trees against damagefrom fire, by grazing animals or by human activities. The estab-lishment and maintenance of fire breaks is therefore essential.Fire breaks of 6–20m width should be established around andeventually within a plantation by cutting the vegetation, work-ing the soil and removing all organic material, the latter beingused as mulch.

Controlled burning outside the plantation or woodlot perimeteris also a possibility. As soon as the trees have reached a height of3–4m, controlled burning could also be applied within the plan-tation. Obviously, this measure bears a certain risk and the keyconcern is to find the right moment to start burning. If the fire isset too early, when the grass is still green and fresh, burning willbe difficult. On the other hand, if one waits too long, the grassyvegetation will be very dry and there is an increased risk of firesgoing out of control.

Allowing people to cultivate fire breaks can be part of an effective management system, providingaccess to additional agricultural land and, hence, additional income or food, while at the same timereducing the costs of regular tending and clearance.

In many areas, it will be essential to protect seedlings and young trees against cattle, goats and other live-stock. This should be done in co-operation with livestock owners and might require guarding and/orfencing. For single trees along roads or around houses, it is often necessary to protect them individuallyagainst grazing by means of small cages made of bamboo, reeds, thorny branches, bricks or wire.

Local populations or refugees can also destroy a plantation by early harvesting or by lack of care whilecultivating between the trees. Sometimes this is done intentionally to maximise the area of cultivableland available. In such cases, dialogue is necessary with the concerned people to make them aware ofthe benefits of the plantation and, if possible, to find another solution to their problems.

Coppicing Plantations

Another type of maintenance is applied after cutting coppicing species, for example certainEucalyptus species. Cut tree stumps naturally produce a large number of rather useless, thin stems. If,however, these are thinned out, leaving just 2–3 per stump, they should grow into vigorous trees asthere is no longer as much competition for light or food. Such operations usually take place one ortwo seasons after cutting the original tree.

A rich tree environment


VCommon AgroforestryPractices in the Tropics

Annex

Brief description ofarrangement ofcomponentsWoody species planted and leftto grow during the ‘fallowphase’Combined stand of woody andagricultural species duringearly stages of establishment ofplantationsWoody species in hedges;agricultural species in alleys inbetween hedges; microzonal orstrip arrangement

Multispecies, multilayer denseplant associations with noorganised plantingarrangements

Trees scattered haphazardly oraccording to some systematicpatterns on bunds, terraces orplot/field boundaries 1: Integrated dense multi-

storey mixtures ofplantation crops

2: Mixtures of plantation cropsin alternate or otherregular arrangements

3: Shade trees for plantationcrops; shade trees scattered

4: Intercropping withagricultural crops

Agro-ecologicaladaptabilityIn shifting cultivation areas

All ecological regions, wheretaungya is practised; severalimprovements possible

Subhumid to humid areas withhigh human populationpressure and fragile(productive but easilydegradable) soilsAreas with fertile soils, goodavailability of labour, andhuman population pressure

In all ecological regions,especially in subsistencefarming; also commonlyintegrated with animalsIn humid lowlands or tropicalhumid/subhumid highlands(depending on the plantationcrops concerned); usually insmallholder subsistence systems

Major groups ofcomponentsw: fast-growing preferably

leguminoush: common agricultural cropsw: usually plantation forestry

speciesh: common agricultural crops

w: fast-growing, leguminousspecies that coppicevigorously

h: common agricultural crops

w: different woodycomponents of varyingforms and growth habits

h: usually absent; shade-tolerant ones sometimespresent

w: multipurpose trees andother fruit trees

h: common agricultural crops

w: plantation crops such ascoffee, cacao, coconut andfruit trees (esp. in 1);fuelwood/fodder species(esp. in 3)

h: usually present in 4, and tosome extent in 1; shade-tolerant species

Agroforestry practiceImproved fallow

Taungya

Alley cropping(hedgerow intercropping)

Multilayer tree gardens

Multipurpose trees oncroplands

Plantation cropcombinations

Fogrosilvicultural Systems(crops – including shrub/vine/tree crops – and trees)


Intimate, multi-storeycombination of various treesand crops around homesteadsTrees on bunds, terraces,raisers, etc., with or withoutgrass strips; trees for soilreclamationTrees around farmlands/plots

Interplanting fuelwood specieson or around agricultural lands

In all ecological regions,especially in areas of highpopulation densityIn sloping areas, especially inhighlands, reclamation ofdegraded, acid, alkali soils, andsand-dune stabilisationIn wind-prone areas

In all ecological regions

w: fruit trees predominate;also other woody species,vines, etc.

w: multipurpose and/or fruittrees

h: common agricultural species

w: combination of tall-growingspreading types

h: local agricultural cropsw: fuelwood speciesh: local agricultural crops

Home gardens

Trees in soil conservationand reclamation

Windbreaks and shelterbelts, live-hedges

Fuelwood production

Brief description ofarrangement ofcomponentsTrees scattered irregularly orarranged according to somesystematic pattern

Production of protein-rich treefodder on farm/rangelands forcut-and-carry fodder productionExample: cattle under coconutcrops in south-east Asia andsouth PacificIntimate, multi-storeycombination of various treesand crops, as well as animalsaround homesteadsWoody hedges for browse,mulch, green manure, soilconservation, etc.

Agro-ecologicaladaptabilityExtensive grazing areas

Usually in fairly denselypopulated areas

In areas with less pressure onplantation crops

In all ecological regions withhigh human population density

Humid to subhumid areas withhilly and sloping terrain

Major groups ofcomponentsw: multipurpose; of fodder

valuef: present a: presentw: leguminous fodder treesf: present a: presentw: plantation cropsf: present a: presentw: fruit trees predominate;

also other woody speciesa: present

w: fast-growing and coppicingfodder shrubs and trees

h: similar to alley croppingand soil conservation

Agroforestry practiceTrees on rangeland orpastures

Protein banks

Plantation crops withpastures and animals

Home gardens withanimals

Multipurpose woodyhedgerows

Silvopastoral Systems(trees and pastures and/or animals)


Brief description ofarrangement ofcomponentsTrees for honey production

Trees linings fish ponds, treeleaves being used as ‘forage’for fishFor various purposes (wood,fodder, soil protection, soilreclamation, etc.)

Agro-ecologicaladaptabilityDepending on the feasibility ofapiculture

Lowlands

Various

Major groups ofcomponentsw: honey producing (other

components may bepresent)

w: trees and shrubs preferredby fish (other componentsmay be present)

w: multipurpose species;location-specific species(other components may bepresent)

Agroforestry practiceApiculture with trees

Aquaforestry

Multipurpose woodlots

Other


VISelected Tree Species

Annex

20–22°C (1000–1400 metres)Acacia albidaAcacia cyanophyllaAcacia salicinaBrachychiton populneumCeratonia siliquaDalbergia sissooEucalyptus camaldulensis (N. Provs.)Eucalyptus camaldulensis (S. Provs.)Eucalyptus cladocalyxEucalyptus occidentalisParkinsonia aculeataProsopis juliflora

22–24°C (600–1000 metres)Acacia albidaAcacia cyanophyllaAcacia cyclopsAcacia salicinaBrachychiton populneumCeratonia siliquaColophospermum mopaneDalbergia sissooEucalyptus camaldulensis (N. Provs.)Eucalyptus cladocalyxEucalyptus microthecaEucalyptus occidentalisEuphorbia tirucalliParkinsonia aculeataProsopis cinerariaProsopis juliflora

24°C and above (0–600 metres)Acacia albidaAcacia niloticaAcacia tortilis subsp. raddianaButyrospermum paradoxicumParkia biglobosa

Species Worth Considering in Areas of 400–650 mm of Rainfall Mean Annual Temperature (Altitude)


20–22°C (1000–1400 metres)Acacia albidaAcacia cyanophyllaAlbizia lebbekAlnus nepalensisCupressus torulosaDalbergia sissooEucalyptus botryoidesEucalyptus camaldulensis ( N. Provs.)Eucalyptus camaldulensis ( S. Provs.)Eucalyptus citriodoraEucalyptus gomphocephalaEucalyptus tereticornisFicus benghalensisGleditsia triacanthosJacaranda copaiaJacaranda mimosifoliaLeucaena leucocephala (Hawaiian type)Leucaena leucocephala (Salvador type)Pinus elliottii var. elliottiiProsopis juliflora

22–24°C (600–1000 metres)Acacia albidaAcacia cyanophyllaAlbizia lebbekAlnus nepalensisAzadirachta indicaBorassus aethiopumCassia siameaDalbergia sissooEucalyptus camaldulensis (N. Provs.)Eucalyptus citriodoraEucalyptus microthecaEucalyptus tereticornisEuphorbia tirucalliFicus benghalensisGleditsia triacanthosJacaranda copaiaJacaranda mimosifoliaLeucaena leucocephala (Hawaiian type)Leucaena leucocephala (Salvador type)Pinus elliottii var. elliotiiProsopis juliflora

24°C and above (0–600 metres)Acacia albidaAcacia auriculiformisAcacia niloticaAcacia seyalAnacardium occidentaleAnogeissus leiocarpus Azadirachta indicaBorassus aethiopum Butyrospermum paradoxicumEucalyptus citriodoraEucalyptus tereticornisKhaya senegalensis (valley sites)Parkia biglobosaTamarindus indica

Species Worth Considering in Areas of 650–1000 mm of Rainfall Mean Annual Temperature (Altitude)

20–22°C (1000–1400 metres)Pinus elliottii var. elliottiiPinus kesiyaPinus palustrisPinus patula subsp. tecunumaniiSchizolobium parahybumTaxodium distichum

22–24°C (600–1000 metres)Gleditsia triacanthosGliricidia sepiumGmelina arboreaJacaranda copaiaJacaranda mimosifoliaMelaleuca leucadendronPinus caribaea var. hondurensisPinus elliottii var. elliottiiPinus merkusii (continental Provs.)Samanea samanSesbania grandiflora

24°C and above (0–600 metres)

Species Worth Considering in Areas of 1000 –1600 mm of Rainfall Mean Annual Temperature (Altitude)


20–22°C (1000–1400 metres)Aghatis dammaraAraucaria hunsteiniiEucalyptus degluptaPinus merkusii (Island Provs.)

22–24°C (600–1000 metres)Aghatis dammaraAlbizia falcatariaAraucaria hunsteiniiCariniaria pyriformisEucalyptus degluptaTectona grandis

24°C and above (0–600 metres)Afzelia africanaAfzelia bellaAfzelia bipindensisAfzelia pachyloba Aucoumea klaineanaCariniaria pyriformisChlorophora excelsaCleistopholis glaucaEntandrophragma cylindricumEucalyptus degluptaHieronyma chocoensisMusanga cacropioidesNauclea diderrichiiOctomeles sumatranaTarrietia utilisTectona grandisTerminalia ivorensisTerminalia superbaTriplochiton scleroxylon

Species Worth Considering in Areas of 1600 mm and above of RainfallMean Annual Temperature (Altitude)


Wood Supply and Harvesting

Quality and quantity of required wood products? Expected fluctuations in time?Demand-reducing factors to be expected?Existing forest resources in the surroundings?Their supply capacity in volume and in kind?Presence of protected areas or other sites of importance?Presence of harvesting priority areas?Accessibility?Distance to refugee sites?Transport required?Harvesting agreements with the owners?Centrally organised supply or controlled harvesting by the refugees?Control and protection measures?Support from local administration and/or implementing partners?

Tree Planting Programmes

Objectives, purpose of the tree planting activity?Type of re/afforestation: blocks, agroforestry systems, enrichment planting?Planting site?Tree species? Availability of planting stock or seed to raise the required planting stock?Need for nursery establishment? Type, capacity, management?Time schedule? Transport of seedlings?Organisation of the planting activities?Most appropriate planting technique? Ownership and user agreements?Support from local administration and/or implementing partners?

VIIChecklist of Common

Forest Actvities

Annex


Maintenance of Young Plantations and Trees

Required post-planting operations?Who will take care of the young plantations and trees?Needed protection measures?Need for beating-up? Incentives for high survival rates?

Awareness Raising Campaigns and Forestry Extension

Who can assist in conducting such campaigns and extension activities?Objectives and content of the sessions?Preparation of extension material (flip charts, posters, leaflets)?Identification and invitation of the target groups?Frequency of the sessions? Infrastructure and required equipment?Nature of the session: informative meeting, participative discussions, practical on-the-job-training?

Income Generating Activities

Nature of the activity? Nature and level of the incentives: cash, food, wood?Who will provide the incentives?Who will supervise the quantity and quality of the work?Recruiting procedures?Possibilities for promotion of private initiatives?

Documents

FOREST MANAGEMENT - HEDON Household Energy Network