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Foreign War OfficesCaptain C. E. Callwell R.A.Published online: 11 Sep 2009.

To cite this article: Captain C. E. Callwell R.A. (1893) Foreign WarOffices, Royal United Services Institution. Journal, 37:180, 113-124,DOI: 10.1080/03071849309417735

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FOREIGN WAR OFFICES

I3j Captain C. E. CALLWELL, R.A. A FOIST whicli at oiicc nrrcsts nttcntion, vhcn foreign \Val* ofice tjystenis arc considercd and comparcd with ours, is, tliat abroad tlip War 3Iinistcr is almost nl\r-a;ys a soldici; ;md of high rank. Tho pcculiarities of our constitiitionnl arrangcmcnts render it almost. im- possible for thc portfolio of war to bc cntrnstcd to a military man. A scat in tliC,Uousc of Comriioiis could not always bc found for o Gciicral OIEccr compctcnt and milling to assurnc tho rcspoiisibilitics of :I Sccrctarj-ship of Statc. Quite apart from thc inconvcnicnccs inscparablc from thc licad of a great spending dc~inrtnient being in tlic Upper House, soldicrs arc not gcucrally i n :I position to acccpt tlic pccragc whicli ivould givc tlicni tho nccessary qualifications for joixiing tlic cabinet. A Ninistcr of the Crosvn must, with US, bc a mcmbcr of onc or othcr Chmbcr, and this constitutioid restriction p1:ices tlic snprcnic control of the administration of the British Army nlrnost of xiccessity in civilian Iiands.

I n forcign coiistitution:illy go\-crned conntrics tlic War 3linistcr ]ins gci icra~y t ~ i c riglit, in virtue of liis ofice, to%ttcnd tho sittings of Parliament dictl icr 110 lias or lias not R seat, a t least when sub- jccts dealt wit11 by liis dcpnrtrncnt of thc cxecutivo arc under dis- cnssion. Tlio practice varies somcwlia t ip differcnt countrics, but thc priuciple holds in nearly all. For instance, in France, Spain, Belgium, and thc Ncthcrlands, 110 has the right of cntry into both Chambcrs arid cnn s~icak, but onlj 11:is a rotc in on0 Clinmbcl; and that oiil? if lie linppcn to Lo a membcr. In Italy, General Oficcrs are cspccially, under the tcrms of thc constitution, included in tho category of persons who can be appointed Scnators by tlic Sovereign; in S p i n , General Oficers and Admirals of tlic hiELest ranks arc Scnators in tlicir own right. n u t tho ordinary proccdurc : h o d is that a General Oficcr is nominated War Iliuister, whicli gires him thc right to tako part in all debates on military questions, and to bring in and dcfcnd the details of tlic militaiT budget in tho Hcprc- sentativc Cliambci; which, as a rulc, nlonc deals with financial mnttcrs.

The prcscnt Italiau Wnr Minister happcns to be a mcmbcr of tho Cliambcr of Deputies; but; ns a rule, if not a Senator or Ncmbcr of the Upper House, a foreigu War Ninistcr is not a 3lcmber of Psrlin- ment. Hc is frce from the worries and trammels of party politics. Indced, in tliosc countrics whcro tho livcs of cabincts are not Yery 1~rolonged, he not unfrequcntly survives a clinngc of Government. This hns occurred recently in both Italy and France.

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Into tlic ailvantngcs niid disndraatngcs oE crc:itin,n solrlicrs 3liiiistws of War it is not pivpo~ctl to cntcr. IInt i t inny L.c pointed out tliat it sometimes iinppciis, cvcn iri coiintrics whcrc no constitiitional iin- pcdiixic'iit exists to the appointment of tlistingoislicrl Olliccrs, tlint civilinns arc iiominatcrl to tlic posh. X. Gnnilicttn, N. Frqciuct, aiid 31. Tricoiipis :irc csnmplcs of this. Xiid it will Inrcllg bc snit1 that tliesc gcritlcrncii linve bccn iiinong tlic lcnst sncccssfiil of tliose wlio 1i;ivc held thc reins of officc in thcir rcspcctivc couiitries.

Tlic position axid powcrs of War 3liriistcrs 1-ax-F considcraMp iii diffcrciit forcigii States. I n France, tlic hc:d of tlic War Oficc is rcnll j suprcinc on all points with rcgnrd to tlic Army, although tlic l'rcsidcnt of tlic 1icpiil)lic noininally is ;it its licnd ; all csccpt tlic v c r j highest nppoiiitmcnts arc in his hniids, nntl tlic ciitirc inilitary ibrccs of tlic conntry arc coriip1ctc1~- iiiitlcr his coiitid. I n no otlicr contiiicntol country lins thc War Jlinistcr n, position so rcsponsiblc, for tlic Sovcrcigri gciicrally cscrciscs his nuthority ns C!omni:iiitlcr-iii-- Chief to n considcrnblc cstciit iii tlic Iiinttcr of npiwiiitiiiclits arid comniniid. I n niistri:r-Hu:ijini.3., \\-licro tho \~l iolt . constitutioiinl sjstcni is grcntlj coiiiplicated Ly tlic dual form of Gocci-iimcnt, tlio IVnr Jlinistcr, who is onc of tlic t,hrec Jliiiistcrs who form tlic cciitral csecutivc of tlic Empire niid arc rcsponsiblc to the dclcgntions rcprc- scnting both nionnrcliies, adiniiiistcrs thc reguln? foi*ccs and :ilso tlic Xnvy ; mid tl:crc:irc Austrian niiil €Iiiiig,wiaii " Niiiisf crs of L)cfc"cc," who tlcnl with tho rcspcctivc iiuxilinry forces of tlic tn-o nionnrcliics, iiiid arc rcs~~oiisi l~lc f o tlicir l'nrliiirncuts. 111 coi i s id ihg tho cciitl:il ndiiiinistr:itioii of thc Xust ro-Hiingarinn Arm)- iii coniparisoii wit11 tlint ot' this and of otlicr f o r c i p coiiiitpirs, i t is, hoircrcr, con\-cnicnt to consider tlio War Minister iuid the Wnr 01licc alone, axid not to iioticc tlic two scpnr:ite " Dcfcncc Jliiiistrics." As n matter of iiict, tlicso " lhfcncc Ninistrics " nrc corriplctcly doriiinntcd by tlic W n r Olticc ; but tlieir csistciicc pleiiscs tlic rcprcsciitntircs of tho pcoplc. Tlic dustro-liungnrinn and Itnliaii IVar JIinistcrs arc, as regards tlicir rcsponsibilitics, in n vciy nnalogoiis position ; tlic Eorcrcigii, bcing Comniniidcl.-in-CIiicf, Ii:is n coJxdcixblc sharc in tlic control of militaq- mntters; the hlinistcr' is rcsponsiblc to Parlicinient (the dclcgntioiis in dusliin-Huiignrj) on qiicstioiis of cspciiditurc, n i i d issues orders in tlio 11:11xic of tho Sovcrcign on all subjects. Tiic position of tlic 1V:ir Jlinistcr in most otlicr Europesn mon;irchics- Uclginm, Spain, Portugal, ltoumnni:i, Dcnmnrk, &c.-is similar. In :uitocrntic llussin tlic 3linistcr is the cliicf military admiiiistr:itivo aiit1iorit.y iiiidcr tlic Ts:ir, to wlioni nloiic lie is responsible on finaiicinl xiid otlicr qucstioiis ; Iic h:is a11 Iiiilitary nuthoritics unc?cr his orders.

Tlic Gcrnian Enipirc incluclcs Iht-nrin, W\'iirtcmbcrg;aud Snsoiiy, which :ire quitc indcpcndcnt of tlic I'riisinn Wnr Ofhcc; but, to n certain cxtciit, Prixssin, :is Iicnci of tlii Confcdcration arid forcoiost Stntc of tIic Etripirc, dominntcs tlic wliolc Gcrninii Army. Tlic I'russinn War Minister lins 110 control over nnv:irin, . Wiirtcmlcrg, arid Saxony, which hnrc tlicir owi 3linisters. His nutliority ovcr thc Priissinn hrrnj is by no ~iicans so

Thc Gcriiinn sjstcm is pcculinr.

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conlprclicnsivc RS tlint or’ tlic Frcnch or 1t:rlinn War Blinisters. llis resporisibilitics cmbincc the finaiicinl considcration of qucstiolis as to ,stnblisliments, S-c., arid tlic control of tho sdministrntiw nird finnncid I,r:inClieS, nnd, to :L ccrt:iin cstcnt, of tlic rncdisnl scrricc. I Ic is cllnrgcd viitli tlic supply of war mntcrial, foo6, clotliiiig, remounts, kc., arid with thc prcsciitntion of cstimnics to Pnrliamcnt. With tlic conitatant scrriccs hc dcnls oirly ns reg;ir(ls supply and pj-. IIc is. uIl&!r tlic Empcror ns Courinniidcr-iii-Cliicf, aiid lins co-cpnl witli Iliril, tlic Cliicf of tlic 3lilitary Cnbirict and thc Cliicf of tlic Gcncral St:iff. 111 other forcigri coiintrics the Cliief of thc Gcncral Staff and tllc oflicinl or officials c1e:ililig with thc duties that aro in Priissia pcr- formed by tlic Cliicf of tLc 3lilit:iry Cnbinct, arc under tho Wni* JIinistcr, and not, to all iiitcnts and pnrposcs, iiidcpcndcnt of liirii. The position of BIinisrcr of \\‘fir in l’russin has really much rcscni- Llancc to that of thc Xilitnrj- 3lcriibcr of Council in India. ’ It sliould bc noted tli:it iii Austri:i-IIiirrgiry thcrc is, n t prcscnt, nii

1nsl)cctor-Ccncld of tho Amy rcsponsibk to t hc Sovcrcign nlonc. This sonicwlint nnoxnalous post lias bccn created for tlic Arclidukc ltlbrcclit, and it will not, most probnblg, sur r i rc that most dis- tiiipisliccl soldier.

lil)rpnd, tlic War l l inistcr is gc1icr:illy thc only rcprcscritntivc of tlic cciitrnl administiation of tlic Army, with an ofiicin! position :is rcgards tlic lcgislntnrc. Tlierc is 110 coiistitutioual reason, as i n this couiitry, for n suliordinntc Jlinistcr, for tho \Var Ninistcr cnii nttcrid citlicr Clinnibcr d e n inilitni-y ninttcrs :ire in dcbntc or arc tlic subject of cxiquiry. Not onlj- is no ofIicinl analogous to our Pnr1i:i- mcntary Untlcr-Sccrctnrg of State to 110 found X foreign couritrica, but :L functionnrj- sncli :is our Financial Scciuttary is nbsolutcly 1111-

knowii. Tlrc sul)rcnic cont.ro1 of the financial sido of forcign JVnr Ofliccs i sgcncrd ly rcstcd in tlic liend of om dcpnrtnicnt of tlic oflicc, who is ;I pcrxnnnciit oflicinl and not n pditicinn, and who 1i:is graduntcd in tlic finnncinl br:iriclics of thc Army and lins n ,military status. I l n t Itcads of Ucpartmerits :iro not unfrcqucritly found with scats in tlic Uppcr I€OUSC nbroncl., Several liigli 7Vnr Ofiicc otiicinls arc nierribcrs of the Pcdcrd Coiiiicil of thc German Enipirc. The Cliicf of tho Gcncral Stlff iii Italy is :I Sciintor owing to his high rank.

The placing of thc X a ~ y nuder tlic War Jlinistcr, ns in Anstrin- Hungarr, is iiniisiinl. Tlic Iloumaninn :uid Bulgarian flotillas arc under tlic War Oficcs ol tliosc countiics, Li l t t h y comprisc only :i fen- small vcsscls.

A r c iy important fcnturc in iiinny forcipi couiitrics is tlic existciicc of a superior military couIicil, arid, bcforc procccdirig to cznmine tliu distribution of work within tlic War Oficcs of the riiorc iinportm~t, coutincntal Powcrs, u fcrv dctails as to tlicso coiiucils m:iy bc g i w n with ndvnntngc. In some cnscs thcy consist siniply of licnds of War Of€icc Dq~nvtmcnts ; in others they are fornicd of Oflicers who linrc 110 conuection with tlic Ccnt.ral Administration ; in otlicra, again, t h y nrc composed partly of’ olIicinls and partly of autsidcrs spccinllj- nominntcd. Thc Inst is tlic system adopted i n Frnncc, wlicrc tlic

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fuuctions of tlic Supcrior War Council, :is it is called, aro c1ci1rI~- laid down by decree, and its composition definitely fisd It comprises tho Chief of tlic Gcncnl Stall’ nud ccrtain other cz o@io mcmbcrs, togcther with eight Gcncml OfIiccrs appointed by name, including tlioso with Icttcrs of scrvicc nominating them to the command of armies on mobilization. Tho War 3linistcr prcsidcs, but tho Prcsi- dcut of tlic Republic may call tlic Council togcthcr, arid, in sucli case, the Prcmicr and Ministcr of 3Iarinc join in * tlic deliberations. Importarit questions of niilitary policy arc submitted to it, niid it cnablcs the Generals, who will in thc cvcnt of war hold high corri- niand, to girc thcii. opinions on any great projects of reform, kc., which niny bc formulatctl by tlic \Var Officc; tho War Jlinistcr is bonnd to consult it on certain matters, but hc is not obliged to :hide by its adricc. In Bclgiuiii and in Roumariia tlicrc arc similar mixed couucils, consisting partly of War Oflice onicials and partlx of Gcncral Olliccrs specially appointcd. In Germany, tlic “ Dcfciico Committcc,” which mccts ouly by ordcr of thc Emperor, consists partly of otlicials of tlic Ccntral Admiriistixtion, ilicluding the Chicf of tlic Gcncml Staff, and partly of General oficcrs and representatives of thc Navy spcciallj appointcd. But the Prcsidciit is a Gciicral Otliccr of highest rank, and tlic post was Iicld 1)~- tlie lato Emperor Fredcrick whcn Crown Prince, and by Count Von Noltke after his rctircrucut from tho control of thc Gcncral Staff. In Ucniiiark thc War Officc Couricil consists of War 0 5 c c o 5 c i ~ l s

alonc. 1x1 Russia, on thc other hand, thcrc is n “ Suprcrnc Military Council I’ wliicli consists ciitircly of Gcncral Oficcrs, who arc not only unconncctcd with tlic Central Adhistrat ioi l , but also hold no corIim:inds, and which is, under thc prcsidcncy of tlic War l h i s t e r ; this Council has cstcndcd powcrs, for its decisions must bo acccptcd by the Ilinistcr, subjcct to tlic approval of tho Tsar. I n Spain, thc Supcrior 3Iilitarj Council is, as in Ihssia, composed of nou-oliicial members. Ncithcr in Austria-Hungary nor in Italy am tlicre rcgu- Iarly constitntcd councils wliosc duty i t is to consider and giro their opinion upon broad pr’inciplcs of militarypolicy ; but it is thc practicc of the Sovcrcign to call togcthei. tho Commaudcrs of Army Corps from timc to timc, arid to dclibcratc with them and tlic War Ministcr and Chicf of tlic Gcncral Staff on rnattcrs of importance.

The position of tlic Chief of thc Gcucral Staff iu forcigu armies is of especial intcrcst to militaiy mcn in this countrr,owing to tho rccornmcndations madc by Lord Hartington’s Commission as to tho crcatiori of tlio ofice of Cliicf of thc Staff in our IVar 05cc. Bcforc going fnrthci., i t may a t oncc bo pointcd out that it is quite incorrcct to describe this ollicial, G S lic cxists abroad, as tlic Cliicf of thc Staff. H c is Chicf of tlic Gcncid Staff, not Chicf of the Staff. Tlic idcn convcycd by tlic titlc, ‘‘ Chicf of thc Staff,” is that of tlie principal Staff Oficcr of somc supcrior, mlio issues oidcrs in thc namc of that supcrior to all who arc nndcr tlic superior’s authority. This is, iu fact, tlic position of tlic Chicf of the Staff i n Limcof wnr in our Army, :ind it is the position which, as n rulc, thc Chief of the General Staff abroad nssumcs on tlic issuc of orders for mobilization. But in t:mc

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of pencc tbc powx of tlic Cliicf of tlic Gcncral Staff to issuc ordcrs is gcncrallr very rcstrictcd in forcign comitrics. I n tiiosc countries ,r]iCrc Iic is nu csccutivc licad of n W a r OKcc depnrtmcnt lie is not superior to tlic Iicnds of tlic otlicr dcpwtmcnts in ony ~ n y . His titlo is dcriwd from his rclntions with n pnrticulnr brnucli of tlio A i ~ n y , tllc Gcncral Staff, not froin his position as vcgnrds tlic otlier oiliccrs

I n tlic lnnjority of forcigri coiintrics 110 is mnirily in :I consultatiw position, and cannot issac ordcrs at nll, csccpt under limitatioiis :mil to ccrtnin Spccid scrviccs. T1ici.c is in this country n fnirly clcar distinction between Staff arid Gcncrnl Staff; bu t sincc the rcorganizatiou of tho d r m g Scmice Corps, Gcuernl St:ttl'\\-ith US lins bcconic a morc com- 1)rchcnsiv-o tcrru thnii Geizeralstob in Gci*many niid Austria-Hungmy, or E;'tat Nujor cZe Z'ArniEe in Frnncc, which csactly rcprcscnt wlint ivns covcrcd by our Gcncrnl Staff bcforc it cnnic to inclndo iutcndnncc.

Every European country, csccpt Spain, Switzcrland, hlontcncgro, tlic Unitcd Kingdom, lins a Cliicf of tlic Generil Staff. Although

the position of this ollicial- considerably Tnrics .in diffcrcnt armies, tllcrc arc ccrtniu dutics nlinost aliva~s confidcd to his charge. IIc is rcsponsiblc for tlic prcpnrntion of plans for possible cnmpnigiis. To Iiitii arc confidcd tlic stiidj- of tho strntcgical coiiditions of his own and forcign countries, mid thc clnboratioii of sclicmcs of mobilization and concentration. He is cltargcd with tlic suycrintctidciico of jntclligcnco work 'and with the control of Gcncrd Staff training. Uc lins gciicidly tlic ninnngcnicnt of s u i ~ c y nnrl topogr:ipliical work, and cscrciscs spccinl supcrintcndcncc over tho r:iilwny and tclcgmpli troops. In Gcrmniij-, tlic Chicf of thc.Gencm1 Sti% (Prussinn) Iiolds qiiitc nn csccptionnl position, bcirig rcsponsiblc to tlic Eiiipcror alone, nnd on :L footing of cqiiality with tlic War Slixiistcr; thc Cciit id Depnrtnicnt nndcr his inimcdintc control is tlic cclcbmtcd Grcnt Gciicrnl Staff; liis position is nltiiost cntircly consultntivc; rsccpt ns rcgnrds tlic Grcnt .Ccncrni Staff, tlic SU~VCJ-, tlic rn i lwq and tclcgraph troops, and sonic minor mattcrs, lie has 110 czccutirc autlioritr. In Russia, tlic Chicf of tho Gciicrnl Staff is not only clinrgeil mitli tlic dutics dcscribcrl nbovc as tlioso generally pcrformcd by thc oflicinl bcnriiig tliis titlc, but, :dso practically with all tlic dutics pcrforincd in our \Val* OBcc b ~ - tlic Adjutant-Gcxicrnl's and Military Sccrctary's Dcpartincnts ; 110 is Iicnd of 0x10 grcnt blanch of tlic JVar OEcc, nnd is nndcr the W a r hlinistcr; kc acts, of conrsc, both in an csccutiro mid n consn1t:itivc cnpncity, nnd in tlic coixiprcliciisivc clmxctcr of his functions lins no prototypo in any 0 t h forcign IVar Ofiicc.

1x1 Frnncc, tlic Cliicf of tlic Gcucml Staff is hcad of one dcpnrtnicnt of tlic IVar OLficc, and stands on csnctly tho same footing as othcr bcads of dcpartrncnts, e.g., the llii.cctoi* of drtillcq-, csccpt i n that 110 is ex qflicio rncrnbcr of tlic Siipcrior JLilitnrJ- Council. O m division of his depirtnicnt dcnls with tlic dislocntion of tho Army, with tlic position and orpnizntion of ?Iic m n p i n c s of stores prcpnrcd for war, with tho issuc of ordcrs as to nrnngcmcnts for mobilization, &c. ihiotlicr division dcnls with communications in gcncrd, with railways, and with tlic transport of troops. In addition, thcrc arc the dirisions

officials forming tho Staff of tlic Cciitral Administration.

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clcaling with intclligencc work, and with tlic drawing up of top,-,. graphical rcports and historical Jrorlis. U~idcr the control of tlic Chief of tlic Gcncrnl Staff is also thc gcogmpliicnl and surrcy scrvicc. Tllc departnicnt is :in crccutivc clcpartmcut, with poivci* to issuc oidcrs oI1 many subjccts to Army Corps Coniinnndcrs, in addition to performing tlic mcrc consiiltativc functions of drawing up sclicmcs for campniji~ls, stiidjing forcigii arniics niid forcigii thcatrcs of war, niid so forth. Tllc position of tlic Chiefs of tlic Gciicrnl Stnff iu 1ionniani:i and iii Greccc is very siinilnr to wli:it it is in Pixncc. n u t i n most foreigii conritries --Ihistrin-LIiiiiSary, It nlj-, Bulgaria, Uciimnrk, Portugal, d-c.-tho Chief of tlic Gcncrd Staff, although ~ indc r the W a r IIinistcr, is in 3 consultativc position outsidc tlic IYar 0 5 c c propcr. I n tlicsc countrics, csccutivc work in councction with mobilization, morcnicrlt of troops, &c., is cnrricd out by spccinl brnnchcs or sections of tho W:ir Oficc.

Tlic Uritisli War OIlicc consists, in tlic first plncc, of (1) a Ccntrnl Onicc, (2) a JIilit:ir*r Dcp:irtnicnt, and (3) :I Civil Dcpartuicnt. Tlic Ccntral Onicc rlcals with rcgistrj- nnd i*ccord of corrcspondcxicc ; i t is in fact tlic chancery, and this is foulid, in some form or other, in all forcign W:ir Offices. Tht tlm himd clirision hit& mi1itm-j- and n civil sidc is not tr. bc foiind abroad. Thc civil sidc in Pall X n l l comprises n finn~v:;;il biancli, :L contr:icts branch, and n bmnch in cllargc of inannfactnring cstnblishmcnts. Iu foreign countries tlicrc is gcncr:iily n distinct fiiiaricinl brarich, forming a War OKcc Dcpnrtniciit ; but tlic rcspoiisibilitF for contrach :ind for Gorrrnmcnt fnctorics rests with thc dcpartmcuts that d ~ i l with warlikc storcs, with works, and with clothing.

1111 forcign War OIliccs arc split up into scvcral dcpnrtnicnts or scctioiis. I n Italy tlicrc arc sis dcp:irtnicnts, licsidcs n central branch, wliicli includes :i clinnxry and scvcral scctioiis dealing with a wricty of siibjccts. h i Russia tlierc aro eight dqiartmc~its. In thc Prussian War Onice tlicrc arc seven dcpnrtnicnts. Thc Austro-Hungarian \V:w Oflicc coiiipriscs n chnnccry, :I special l)rnucl, and fifteen sections, Lcsidcs n Xnval Ucp:irtmcnt ; tlic spccinl braiicli mid tkc fiftccn sec- tions arc grouped toqctlicr into five dcpnrtmcnts, bnt tho tcndeiicy of tlic soiricwl~at 1-01nniinons re~iil~~tions on tlic subject is to rnal;c tlic licnd of tlic scctioii, niid not tlic licad of the tlcpartinciit, ilic rcally responsible oftici:il. * Tlic \Val* Xnis tc r is, in :ill tlicsc coiiiitrics, thc central authority denling directly ivitli tho licads of dcpnrtmcnts. h i Italy tlicrc is a Gcncral Ooiccr as Undrr-Secrctary of Statc at tho 1ic:id of thc ccntrnl brancli, who acts as deputy of tlic War Minister in liis nbscncc, but wlio otlicrwisc 1i:is no coiitiol orcr hcnds of dcpnrt- iuciits. Tlicrc is an Uiidci*-Sccrct:irj in Spain, in a vcry nnalogous position.

Our J l i l i t a y Sccrctnry's .Division dcals inaiiilg with tlic nppoint- incnt, proiiiotion, nnil rctircmcnt of Olliccrs, and with qucstions of rcrvard. 111 Ccrruany thcse mnttcrs rcst (csccpt as rcgaivds thc Gciicrnl Skiff, wliicli in all forcign cciuiitrics is undcr the Cliicf of tho Gcncral Stnff, wherc one cxisis) with the Cliicf of thc Military

111 Frniicc tlicre arc tcii departnicnts and n clnnccry.

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l.-ol:l~:lGs \Y.\Ii OFFICES. 11!J

Cabinet, id16 is not undcr thc Wni* Ninistcr. . In Russia tliesc c p s - tioiis hrc dcalt with b ~ - ccrtnia scctioiis iiiider tlio Cliicf of thc Gcncriil Staff, as already stated. Iii Austrin-Iiungary tlicj- arc dcalt with by tlw speci:d branch and onc scction. 111 Bclgiuin and in Portugal oni! section is clinrgcd with thcsc dutics, niid in Spain tlic work is diriidcd lict~vccii two sections. niit in France mid in I t a l j all qucst.ions as to Officers arc dealt with in thc dcpartmciit conccrncd with tlint brmcli (if tlic scrvicc to which thc Officers bcloiig ; foi. iiist:mx, all arraiigc- iiicnts as to artillci-j Omccrs arc carricd out in tlic Artillery I)cp:irt- mcnt.

T.'or o u r ddjutniit-aencral's Divisioii, cornprisiiig as it does tlic control of rccriiiting, of qiicstions :is to cstnblishmciits, of disciplinc, of tminiiig aiid drill, of ausilini*j- forces, of artillery a i d cngiiiecr O%ccrs, and of mobilizntioii mid Iioiiiu clefeiicc, tlicrc is no cquivn- lent to lic fouiid in any coiitiiicnfal W:ir Officc, csccpt i n tlic dcpart- m w t oE- tlic Chief of tlic Gciicrnl StaG in Russia. It must be rc?iiicinbercd tlint thc dcccntmlization, wliicli is the lxynotc of forcigii iiiilitnrj- orgnnizatioii, tcnds to rclicrc \ V Z r Ofliccs abroad of muclt clctnil that is goiic into i n tlic Ildjutaiit-Gciicr~l's Officc iii gall AInll. .In Gcrinnny tlicsc dutics arc: rcnlly carricd out by Army Corps Coniiiiaiidcrs, 'and as r c g d - --;robilization by thc Great Gcncxal 8t:iff. I n Ir'ixiicc tlic duties nrc distributed bct\vccn tlic clcprtinciit of tlic Chief of tlic Gciicral St:iff and tlic Iiifniitr~-, Car:ilr~-, Artillcrj-, :iiid Eiiginccr Dcpnrtmcnts ; each of tlicsc latter is responsiblo for cvcrjtliiiig as regards its OIFII nriii, csccpt rccruitiiiy, wliicli is rspccinlly mndc a f'unctioii of tlic Ii1f:liitrX l)cpwtrnciit, : i i id discip- liiic, wliicli coiiies undcr o ~ i c section of tlic Cavalry I)cp:irtmciit ; tlic aiisili:ii*j- forces in Fixncc nrc especially placcd uudcr tlic Iiifniitry llcpnrtmcnt. 111 Italy cxccutivc work, ns regards Iiiotilization, is cnrricd out by onc division of thc Ccntrnl Urnucli; otlicrv-isc tlic system is much ns i n France. Uut 0110 department cspccinlly deals with rccrnitiiig, posting, cstnblisliiiicnts. Bc., of noii-commissioncd oficcrs aiid iiicn of lo th Regulars tind Rcscrvc forces. In Austria- Hungary tlic dutics pcrforxiicd bj- OUT Adjutant-Gcncrd's Uivisioii arc spi~acl over s i r of tlio fiftccn' sections. It is gciicidly tho casc abroad, as in Fraiicc, tliat. onc sectioii of some dcpr tmen t dcnls with cliscipliiie. Tlierc is gciicrnlly also a kind of Court. of Appeal with ~iower to rci-ise aiid qnnsli scntcnccs, with a position comparing more or less with our Judgc hdvocntc-Gcncral's Departmelit. I n Spain oiic such court suffices for both tlic Inilitary and nnval forces, nltliougli ,these arc .?diiiinistrntircly.quitc distinct. Wit11 ris tlic Inspector- Gcncrnl of Cavalry is uridcr tlic Adjutant-Gcncml's Divisioii, but nlJrontl Tqicctors-General arc as n i*iilc quitc indcpcndcnt of War Ofiicc dcpnrtmciits, rcportiiig direct to tliu Sovcrcigii or clso to tlic \Yn r 11 iuis tcr.

Tho ~uartcrinnstcx.-Gcncrnl in this country is cllnrgcd with supply- ing the nrmr with food, foragc, fiicl and light, qiiartcrs, transport, :uid rcmoiiiits, with the iiiorcmcnt of troops, with tho distribution of tlicir ,!orm and cquipniciit, ntid with tlic administration of tlic Arm)- Scrvicc Corps. Here, n g h , therc is very great dificulty in c s t a b

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120 FOREIGN Whll OFFICES.

Iishing cornparisons with contincntnl systcms. As a rnlc thc t n i n is n totally distinct branch abroad from tlic commissariat service ; in Italj-, indccd, it forms part of the artillcry, ’ Abroad tlic fiupply of food, for;igc, fuel and light, clothing, and cquiprnciit is gciicxiilly undcr occ dcpartmcnt ; nnd this gcxicrally dcals also with the pay of troops. Tlic Qiiartcrmastcr. Gcncrd’s Division licing ouc of our great spending dcpartmcnts, its principal duties arc neccss:irily pcr- formed in branches of tlio \Val* Office in I’russin ; tlic “ Economy Departrncnt ” of thc l’russiaii l\rar Officc dcals with food, foixge, ant1 quarters, nnd also with thc pay service, with finnncc in gciicral, with audit of accounts, and with thc supply of clothing and cquipnicnt. The suppl,r of clothing is Fit11 us, i t must bc rcmcrnbcrcd,undcr tlic civil side. In Fraucc, in Italy, and in Russia thc supply of food, forage, aud clothing, nlld also thc pay scrvicc, arc under one dcpartrncnt, aiid in Austria-Hung:iry undcr sections groiipcd in onc dcpartmcut. Tlicrc is a special rcmounts branch in tllc Prussiari War Oficc; iii Fiance thcrc is n rcrnounts scction in tho Cara1i.y Dcpartmcnt, and in Italy in tho joint Cavalry and .Infantry Departmcnt ; in Austria-Hunpy tlic Cavalrr Scction clcals with rcmounts. The t rar i f~ort sci*vicc is abroad gciicrally cithcr undcr the Cartilq- or Artillcry Department, being a combatant scrvj .c. 111 thc I’russian and Italian War Ofliccs tlic quartering of troc;ls comes under tlic sarnc branch as thc supply of food, clothing, Lc., b u t in Francc it is snpcrintcridcd by tlic Engineer. ncpnrtmcnt. In Francc thc transport of troops is under tilo Cliicf of tlic Gcncinl Staff, and in Austria-llungarj- and Italy nndcr thc exccu- tivc sections of the War OlTico dcaling with Gcncral Stnff qucstions ; in tlic Prussi:in War OEco tlicro is onc cspecial section concerncd with tlic transport of troops.

Tho Dcpnrtnlent of OUT Dircctoy of Artillery admits of inoro ready comp3rison with forcign systcnis. Erc1.7 contincntnl \Vnr Office may bo s;&l lo ham onc branch chargcd with thc supplj-, storagc, and manufacture of nrmnincnt mid ammunition ; but France is peculiar in tliat the say)ly, &c., of powder is undcr a distinct branch indcpcndcnt of tllc Artillcry Dcpnrtmcnt. Tlic systcm abroad, liowercr, diffcrs from tliat in this country iu that tlic tirscnals and f‘iictorics arc undcr tbc Artillcry Dcpartmcnt, wliilc with us thcy arc under the civil side. 3lorcovcr, all contracts for war matcrial and ordnaucc storcs arc an-anged for by tlic Artillcry Dupartmcxit in foreign War OEccs. Emccpt in tlic I’rnssinn Wnl. Officc, it is ~ c r ~ gcncrally tlic caso that thc Art illcry Department is rcspoiisiblc for tlic pcrsonncl and technical cduc:;!ioii of tlic arf illcry arm. In l h n c c tlic Dirccfox. of Artillcry is rcsponsiblc for everj*tliiiig csccpt recruiting ; in Italy for cycrjtliing cxccpt tlic pcraonncl mid cstablislirncnts of non-commissioncd officcrs and men. I n Russia and Aiistria-Uung:q- tlic Artillcry Dcpartmcnt dcds wit11 training arid organization gcncrally, bnt not with pcrsoniicl. Tlicrc are, as R rule, corisaltntivo cornmittccs, siinilar to our Ordnance Cornmittcc, chargcd with carrying out cxpcrinicnts, &c., and watching the progress of tcclrnical science.

ALmad, an Engineer Dcpartmcnt, sorncwliat nnnlogous to our Inspect or-Gencral of Portificotions arid Rnjal Engiiiccrs’ Division,

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POREIGS WAR OFFICES. 121

almost invariably exists. The Engiriecr Department is in cnch caw on the same lincs as thc corresponding Artillery Department. Thus, in France, the Dirwtor of Enginecrs is respnsiblc for cverjthiug 2s ,-@~rds fortifications and the engineer service escept its recruiting. I t must be remembered that the pmtico is for railway and telegraph troop8 and balloon establislimcnts to be ,under tho Chicf of thc General Staff. The Intclligcncc, Topo,mphical and Map-making Services, com-

b i n d in tlic Jntclligcnco Division of our War O ~ C C , do not as a rnle form part of foreign War Oficcs, being under the Chief of the Gcncral Staff. In Belgium, however, they arc not undcr the Chief of tho Gcncral Staff, who is merely responsible for maintaining a geneid superintendcnco over tliQ Gcncral Staff as n branch of tho scrvicc, but form part of tho W a r Office. In France, Russia, Roumariin, arid Grccce, they, with thc Chicf of the General Staff's Dcpartmcnt, bclong to tlic War Oficc; but in Prussia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and most other continental countries, they arc outsido of it. Onc important point is that abroad the snrvey of tlic country, which with us is undcr the Board of Agriculture, is mdcr the Cliicf of thc General Staff. T5tp-making of remoto and partially explored territories, which fy:fns snch n large part of tlic xork of our Intelligence Division, is, owing to tlic greater comphctncss of contincntal countricsand their possessions, a less important work to them, nnd t h y trust largcly to civilian geographers for maps of countries not on thcir imrncdintc bordcrs. In Franco onc division of tho departmcnt of thc Chicf of tho General Staff is cspccially chargcd with the studr of thc theorj of war and with com- piling works tlicreon ; abroad such works 'arc gcncrnlly prcparcd in the Chicf of tho Gcucral Staff's Department ; iu our War Otlico no branch is made rcsponsiblc for this dnty. Nor is any branch of our War 0 t h charged wit8 tho. compilntion of historical works nnd rccords of campaigns, although such books actuallj aro gcxicrnlly pcparcd in tlic Intclligencc Division ; France, Germany, niid dnstria-Hungary haw special historical scctious, but such do not appcar to esist in Italy or Rnssia.

Tho duties of our Dircctor-General of 3lilitarr Edncation :iro generally in forcign countries confidcd to scmral departmonts. Institntions similar to our Staff Collcgo arc almost invariably undcr tlic Cliicf of tlic Gcrieral Staff. Tcchnical education of artillcry aud

mcnts. Tlic education of non-commissioncd oniccrs aurl men of diffcxcnt arms falls in most conntrics uuder tlic dcpartmcnts dcaling with the pcrsooncl of tliosc arms.

Nost foreign War Offices have a department very similar to that of our Director-General of tho Medical Department, with thc control of medical pcrsonnel and of 1106pitdS. This gcnc idy lias charge of tlic supply of mcdical storcs and of drawing up all mcdical rcgnla- tions. It is, moreover, as a rulc, entirclyrcspoxisiblo for tho tcchnical cdncation nnd instruction of tho mcdicnl scrvicc.

Coming to'thc qucstion of the*financinl. department of the War YOL. XXIVII. I

engineers is, as n rulc, I nnder tlio Aistillcry and Enginccr Dcpart-

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122 FOREIGS ViAR OFJKICES.

OtFce, nliicli with us ,forms the most important part of the civil side, there is a clearly marked distinction betwecu tlie system ob. taining in this country and that generally adopted abroad. In foreign countries the arrangement and responsibilitj- for pay of troops rest as a rule with the same department as dcals with the sup111y of food, clothing, $c. The central financial dopartment of the Office is concerned only with tho examination and general audit of accounts from othcr departments, with tho compilation of tlie estimates in bulk from the estimates sent in by otlier depart- ments, and with tlie control of certain spccial funds. In France, what may bc callcd the central financial branch is undcr.thc Director o€ Control, an official bclongiug to tho control scrvicu of the army, t h e personnel of which is wholly under the Dircctor. This control scrricc is an institution of somewhat reccnt creation, Khich is in- tended mainly to safeguard the interests of the Treasury; tliosc officials of tlie service who do not belong to the Ccntral Administration havo no executirc functions, they mcrclr report t 9 - h Dircctor tho rcsult of thcir inspectioiis. Bcsidcs supcrintejlJi;lg tho operations of the controllcrs, tho departnicnt of the Director of Control ld charged with tlio preparation of tho budget, with tho examination from the financial point of vicw of every administrativo mcasuiic that may crcate supplementary or unusual erpenditure, Kith general audit of accounts, and with corrcepondcnce with tlic Blinistry of 1” * inanec. Tlic pay and allowanccs of troops aro in France ndministcrcd undcr the department of tlio nircctor of Administratire Services-that which dcals with the supply of food, clothing, cquipmcnt, &c; In the Prussian War Ofice, on the otlicr hand, tlio financial branch, diicli forms one section of tile “Economy Departincnt,” deals also with pay and allowanccs. In Italy there is (I financial dirision in the Ccntral 33mncl1, and this dcals with compilation of cstimatcs, liqui- dationof expenditure, gcneral audit, bc.; but, as in Franco, pay?nd allomanccs comc under the department for administratiro scrvicee. I n Austria-Hungary one section dcals with prcparation of estimates aiid nuothcr with pay and allowanccs. It must bo remcmbcrcd that tlie usual system abroad is for spcnding dcpartmcnts to h a ~ o what- erer sums they estimate for placed at tlieir disposal-provided of course these are approvcd by Parliarncnt-and they then h o m e rcspnsiblc for the expenditure.

The s p t e m of mnintaining special departments for dcding with contracts ii !general, and for superintcnding gorernmcnt factories, is peculiar to this country. As has been already pointed out, the con- trol of tliesc scrvices rests with those departmcnts wIiic1i from their nntoro have to obtain stores, &c., b y contract or clso by manu- facturing them.

Pcrmanent consultative committees analogous to our Ordnance Committee arc very gcncral abroad, aa auxiliaries to tlie Tarious War Ofiecs. In France there is such a committco for each arm of the service. Them committeee assist the l i eds of War Offico depart- ments. I n BORIQ countries the artillery and engineer committees are eepecially charged with the duty of noting changes, discovcriee, bc.,

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FOREIGN WAR OFFICES. 123 as regards thcir arms in foreign countries ; thcy act in fact as intelli- e n c o departments on technical subjccts ; this is tho caso in Austria- nuqpry . In Itnly cornmittccs have lntcly bccn rcplaccd by Tn- spcctors-Gcncrd of the different arms with subordinates under them. I n most foreign countries there are Inspectors-Gcped ont- side the War OtIicc who rcport on tho diffcrcnt bwnchcs o€ the scryicc to tho War >Iinister, and in somo cases to thc Sovereign. I n Prussia tho Inspectors-Gencrl of Foot ArtillcrS; of Engineers, Yioiicers, and Fofircsscs, of Military Education, and of Rifles and Sharpshootcrs, rcport dircct to the Emperor, and possess morcovcr e r t a i n crccutiw powers.

From tho ahow notcs as to the distribution of work in foreign War Officcs, it is obvious that there is much varicty in tho systems that arc in voguc. Itegmding tlicso diffcrcnt systcms from tho British point of ricw, thoso obtaining in Fraiicc and Italy sccm of grcatcst intcrcst. The Russian and Prussian systems arc wholly in- compatible with tho Dritisli Constitution. War Office cannot, owing to tho pecnlinr relations cxisting bctwce ria% Iieacls of dcpartrncnts and hcads of sections forming part of tho clcpartmcnts, be talicn ns a model of a sound organization with a well- estnblishcd chain of rcsponsibility. Tlic central administrations of the military forces of tho Gcrmnn and Austro-Hungarian Empires arc xnorcowr complicatcd, owing to spccial arrangcmcnts arising from tlic fact that theso Powers rcprcsciit federations and not homogeneous monarchies. Yct in certain respects continental War Of€icc systcms nrc all alike. In no foreign War Office does an official in the position of R

Nastcr-Gencral or Surve~ol*-Gcncml, a post which some writcrs on our ccntrnl military administration sccm desirous o€ creating, exist ; the Intcndance Department, Artillcry Department, and Enginccr De- partment-tho three branclics dealing with supply which would bo plnccd undcr such an oficial-are almost invariably perfectly distinct. In no foreign War O5ce is the liead of the financial branch or of any other branch n politician wvlioso tcnurc of offieo tcrminstes in. tho ovcnt of n cliange of Gorwnmcnt. No foreign Wnr Offico is split into two camps--" military sido 2nd a civil side.

Tho Aii+.o-Hung?

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MAP TO ILLUSTRATE GENERAL SIR D, STEWART'S MARCH.

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