Fordyce 14 Fundamentals

Journal of Counseling Psychology1983, Vol. 30, No. 4,483-498

Copyright 1983 by theAmerican Psychological Association, Inc.

A Program to Increase Happiness:Further StudiesMichael W. Fordyce

Edison Community College

In a continued effort to research a program to increase personal happiness,four new studies are reported. The studies are continuations (modified repli-cates) of Studies 1, 2, and 3 reported in Fordyce (1977). In Study 4 (the firstof the present series), the complete program demonstrated largely statisticallysignificant happiness increases over a control group receiving summary in-struction in the program. In Study 5, the complete program showed slightstatistical superiority over a control group receiving almost half the informa-tion. In Study 6, the full program was compared to groups receiving partialinstruction from the program in their predetermined areas of "happinessweakness" and to a control receiving "placebo expectations" of greater happi-ness. All treatment groups demonstrated significant gains in happiness com-pared to controls, though no difference between the various treatments wasapparent. Finally, Study 7 involved a 9-18 month follow-up of the program'seffects on past participants, with the vast majority of anonymous respondentsreporting continued happiness increases. The collected findings from allstudies indicate that the program has a noticeable and perhaps long-lasting ef-fect on happiness for the great majority of individuals exposed to it and thatthis effect is due to the content of the information, not merely the artifact ofsensitization or expectations about happiness to which it was compared.

Happiness is the one thing everyonewants from life. In philosophy, in psycho-logical theory, and for the average individual,personal happiness is generally held to be theultimate aim of all human endeavor. Yet,the nature of happiness has always beenviewed as elusiveits attainment even moremysteriousand most assume there is littlein the way of scientific knowledge on thetopic.

Psychological research, however, has cometo dispute these assumptions, for studiesover the last 20 years have developed astrong accumulation of knowledge about thenature of personal happiness and its appar-ent causes, as well as the attributes, per-sonality characteristics, and objective sit-uations of those individuals who haveachieved high levels of happiness.

The volume of studies in the field is quite

I wish to express appreciation to the numerous re-search and clerical assistants whose work over the last5 years made the present article possible.

Requests for reprints, the fundamentals program, andother research materials should be sent to Michael W.Fordyce, Edison Community College, Fort Myers,Florida 33907.

sizable (Diener & Griffin, Note 1, cited over650 relevant articles in their recent bench-mark bibliography of happiness studies), andthe scope of many of the more importantefforts is quite impressive (some involvingdata from thousands of individuals andhundreds of variables in representative na-tional and international samples; e.g., An-drews & Withey, 1976; Bradburn, 1969;Bradburn & Caplovitz, 1965; Campbell,Converse, & Rodgers, 1976; Cantril, 1965;Gurin, Veroff, & Feld, 1960; Wessman &Ricks, 1966). The accumulated findings,therefore, are quite extensive and thus willonly be briefly treated here. In addition, anumber of adequate summaries and reviewsof this material are available elsewhere(Fordyce, 1972, Robinson & Shaver, 1968;Wessman, 1957; Wessman & Ricks, 1966;Wilson, 1967; Fordyce, Note 2; Kammann,Note 3).

In the literature, happiness has come to bedefined as something much broader in scopethan a temporary mood state. Certainly,short-term moods of happiness occur andhave often been the object of research study.But the bulk of studies have focused onhappiness as the average individual intui-

483

484 MICHAEL W. FORDYCE

tively understands it: a longer-term, overallfelt sense of emotional well-being and con-tentment with lifea global index of life-satisfaction.

This overall "sense of happiness"asbasic an experience as it isis actually theresult of numerous, complexly interactingfactors in a person's life. Some theorists,like Bradburn (1969), hypothesize it to bethe resulting balance of all positive andnegative emotional experiences over a periodof time. Others have worked on the as-sumption that it is the collected sum ofpositive life-circumstances that are quiteobjective (e.g., Campbell, Converse, &Rodgers, 1976; Gurin, Veroff, & Peld, 1960).On the other hand, Kammann (Note 4)suggested that resultant happiness is basedmore on an individual's subjective inter-pretations of objective criteria than on suchcircumstances per se. The present authorfavors a mixed theory that would include theabove but would equally emphasize indi-vidual perceptual and attitudinal sets alongwith basic temperament.

As complex as the factors that contributeto happiness are, however, the resulting ex-perience is simple and universally under-stood: an emotional sense of well-being.Although this feeling goes by many names(contentment, fulfillment, self-satisfaction,joy, peace of mind, etc.), each having its ownsubtle situational connotation, happiness isthe word most commonly understood for thisbasic emotional condition, and therefore itis the term most often used by the re-searchers who have studied it.

As a result of continuing research, thecurrent research understanding of personalhappiness is substantive, reliable, and re-markably consistent. Particularly well de-veloped is the research picture of happy in-dividuals and their many, repeatedly foundcharacteristics. However, until recentlythere has been one very important area ofhappiness research that has gone unstu-diedattempts to increase personal happi-ness itself.

Using the known characteristics of happyindividuals as a base, Fordyce (1977) re-ported a series of three studies in which aprogram of happiness-increasing techniqueswas developed and used to successfully en-hance the personal happiness of normal

community college students. The program,called the "14 Fundamentals for Happiness,"was based on two thorough reviews of over300 past happiness research studies and theirsubsequent compendiums (Fordyce, 1972,Note 2). Although it had long been estab-lished that a great variety of personality andobjective characteristics of happier indi-viduals existed, the majority were consideredto be beyond the short-term control of mostindividuals (e.g., better health; higher in-come; heightened job status and satisfaction;sustained marital bliss; high social status;etc.). Thus, the review procedure focusedon a search for happiness characteristics thatmight be amenable to the short-term controlof average individuals. A number of con-sistently reported traits were isolated, andthese were incorporated in several pilotprograms for happiness training. In theoriginal studies these programs were usedwith varying degrees of success, and even-tually the most successful elements of theoriginal programs were combined in thepresent 14 fundamentalsthat is, 14 char-acteristics highly typical of happy individ-uals that average individuals appear able toemulate.

Briefly described, the 14 fundamentals areas follows: (a) keep busy and be more active;(b) spend more time socializing; (c) be pro-ductive at meaningful work; (d) get betterorganized and plan things out; (e) stopworrying; (f) lower your expectations andaspirations; (g) develop positive, optimisticthinking; (h) become present oriented; (i)work on a healthy personality; (j) develop anoutgoing, social personality; (k) be yourself;(1) eliminate negative feelings and problems;(m) close relationships are the number onesource of happiness; (n) put happiness asyour most important priority. These basic"happiness principles" were incorporated ina course of study that included detailed ex-planations of each fundamental (with cog-nitive and behavioral techniques to actualizethem), along with a general overview of thepsychology of happiness. Together theseelements, constitute the 14 FundamentalsProgram (Fordyce, 1981).1

1 The Fundamentals Happiness-Training Program

is available from Michael W. Fordyce, Edison Com-munity College, Ft. Myers, Florida 33907.

Juan F PendinoResaltado

INCREASING HAPPINESS 485

Following publication of the originalstudies, Lichter, Haye, and Kammann(1980) used a basic outline of the program(coupled with ideas from Dyer, 1977) toproduce happiness, increases in their studies;and the informal use of the material by oth-ers also indicated a positive potential.Though preliminary, the data from thesevarious sources indicated the strong possi-bility that the personal happiness of averageindividuals can be elevated through appro-priate training. If this is so, the obviousbenefits for counselors, clinicians, helpingprofessionals, and the general public aremanifest.

The present series of studies was designedto continue investigating the possibility ofincreasing happiness with the 14 Funda-mentals Program. The following experi-ments basically replicated the original For-dyce studies (1977) but attempted to im-prove those earlier designs with more strin-gent control conditions, a greater variety ofcriterion measurements, and follow-ups ofprogress over longer time periods.

Research on the fundamentals has cen-tered on a simple hypothesis: If averagepeople can modify their actions, thinkingpatterns, and daily life-styles to better em-ulate the well-established characteristics ofhappier individuals, they too will becomehappier people. That hypothesis was sup-ported in the studies reported in 1977(which,- for the sake of continuity, are re-ferred to as Studies 1, 2, and 3), and thatsame basic hypothesis was central to thepresent investigations (which are calledStudies 4, 5,6, and 7).

. Study 4Training in the fundamentals has con-

sisted of two general parts. Part 1 is intro-ductory training: a review of past happinessliterature for the layman; lectures on themeaning, definition, and importance ofhappiness; and a brief overview of the 14fundamentals ("things you can do aboutyour happiness"). Part 2 consists of a de-tailed elaboration of each of the 14 funda-mentals individually (the research rationalebehind each, insight into why they work forhappy people, and specific behavioral andcognitive techniques to help achieve them).

In previous experiments with the funda-mentals, experimental groups receiving fulltraining were compared to "placebo con-trols" that were frequently given suggestionsof greater happiness but no informationabout happiness or the fundamentals.

In the present study, the control group waseven more stringent: Instead of no "hap-piness information," the control group re-ceived Part 1 training in the fundamentals(along with suggestions of greater happi-ness). The experimental group receivedcomplete instruction in the program. It washypothesized that the experimental groupwould increase their happiness significantlymore than the stringent control.

Method

SubjectsThree intact classes of adult community college stu-

dents enrolled in an adjustment psychology course weregiven information and instruction in the 14 funda-mentals as a part of normal class lectures. Of theoriginal 112 students, 98 completed the semester andwere used as the basis of analysis2 (38 males, 60 females;mean age = 24.5; age range = 16-72). Two classes re-ceived complete instruction (the experimental group,n = 64), and one class received Part 1 information only(the control group, n = 34).

Design and ProcedureThe participants in both groups were presented with

lecture materials sensitizing them to the nature, defi-nition, and importance of personal happinessas wellas a basic review of the objective characteristics ofhappy individuals according to the research. They werealso presented with a brief overview of the 14 funda-mentals, which, though not elaborated in detail, gavethem the basic ideas incorporated in the program.Individuals in the experimental group, however, re-ceived more training: They were given detailed in-struction in each of the 14 fundamentals. This con-

2 During this study as well as Studies 5 and 6, a

number of individuals withdrew from the college andfrom the experiment. This attrition (quite normal atthe college) appeared to have no biasing effects on theexperiment, since (a) subjects dropped for a variety ofpersonal reasons unrelated to the experiment; (b) at-trition fell proportionally across groups; (c) subjectswere unaware an experiment was taking place; (d) groupequality was based on covarianc.e procedures ratherthan randomizing, thus remaining unaffected, and (e)review of pretest scores showed no systematic differ-ences between those who withdrew and those who re-mained.


aisted of an elaboration of each principle, a statementof the theoretical and research background behind each,and instruction in a variety of behavioral techniques andcognitive frameworks to help realize the principles.(For example, to "stop worrying," participants wereinstructed to keep a daily record of worries that oc-curred to them, analyze the amount of daily time spentworrying, determine how many worries actually cametrue, and use thought-substitution techniques to avertworried thoughts; to "be more active," participants wereinstructed in how to schedule additional, enjoyableactivities into their daily routine; and to "get betterorganized," instruction was given in goal and prioritysetting and in the use of positive reinforcement toeliminate procrastination.) These are only a few ex-amples of the many such techniques provided to theexperimental subjects during their instruction. Acomplete replication of the treatment is available to theinterested researcher (Fordyce, 1981; cf. footnote 1).

As in past studies, the experimental design usedclasses, intact, as the basis for groups. This allowed anoptimal situation for experimentation and testing to beintroduced unobtrusively (since these adjustmentpsychology classes normally include numerous exer-cises, assignments, and tests designed to help studentsunderstand their personalities and adjustment status).Thus, the students perceived the experimental pre-sentations and testing as simply a part of expectedclasswork. Indeed, until debriefing sessions (after allprocedures were concluded), none of the participantswere aware that any experiment had been taking place,nor had they become aware that differing content hadbeen presented to other classes. All apparently as-sumed it had simply been a "normal" class.

Materials on the fundamentals were presented as"new information on happiness self-help, developedthrough recent research." There was the implicit in-dication throughout the presentations that workingwith such materials might have positive benefits, andstudents were encouraged to experiment with the in-formation, on their own, to see if anything resulted.Actual work with the fundamentals, however, was nei-ther required nor monitored in any way; and subjectswere under no obligation to record, or even pay mind to,the lectures.

Essentially, the experimental procedure was exposureto the material. Adherence to ft was left to the indi-vidual. This take-it-or-leave-it strategy, experimen-tally speaking, provided several advantages: It madethe experimental manipulation as unobtrusive as pos-sible; it provided the opportunity to determine, indi-rectly, the natural appeal of the information (as indi-cated by the percentage of individuals who might chooseto consider and apply the information when no otherincentive than potential happiness improvement wasoffered); and it gave the chance to find out how peoplewould use such information when it is presented in asuggested, rather than required manner (a manner moretypical of most counseling settings, where prescriptionsare generally more recommendatory than manda-tory).

To control for initial group differences in happinesslevels, an analysis of covariance statistical treatment ofpre- and posttest measures (with a Solomon design tocontrol for pretest sensitization effects) was selected.Eleven weeks elapsed between pre- and posttesting,

between which the fundamentals informations waspresented in full or in part to the two treatment groups.None of the participants refused to participate in test-ing; all received complete pre- and posttesting.

Although the essential independent variable in thisstudy was simply exposure to the fundamentals infor-mation, per se, and no hypothesis was made concerningthe degree to which the information was accepted orpracticed, it is of interest to report exactly what par-ticipants in the experimental group did during thestudy. Feedback on this was obtained from an anon-ymously submitted postexperiment debriefing ques-tionnaire given to the participants. According to thereports, the vast majority (93%) of individuals exposedto the information used it to some degree: 18% workedwith the specific techniques of the program on a dailybasis, practicing and thinking about the fundamentalsas completely as is recommended in the program; 25%thought about the information daily and practiced someof the recommended techniques several times a week;28% practiced the techniques less often but spent a greatdeal of time reflecting on the information from time totime and acted upon it as seemed appropriate. Theremaining 7% reported they had dismissed the infor-mation as unimportant to them, and gave it no furtherthought or action after exposure to it.

Measurement

Three tests of emotional morale were used as criteriaof happiness change: the Happiness Measures, theDepression Adjective Check List, and the Self De-scription Inventory.

Happiness Measures (HM). This is a quick scalingdevice that measures happiness in the fashion tradi-tional to happiness research (Fordyce, 1972,1977, Note5). It has been used extensively and is one of the bettervalidated measures of happiness. It shows (a) goodtest-retest reliability (e.g., for the main, overall score:.86 over a 2-week interval; .67 over a 4-month interval,p < .01); (b) significant validity coefficients with mea-sures of personality characteristics long associated withhappiness (sampled by some 15 popularly used inven-tories); (c) nonsignificant correlations with measuresof social desirability bias; and most important (d) sig-nificant validity coefficients with many publishedmeasures of mood and emotional morale.

Depression Adjective Check List (DACL). TheDACL is a widely used measure of clinical depressioin(Form A was used in the present investigation) con-sidered by Goodstein (cited in Euros, 1972) "the mostpsychometrically sound . . . measure of depression nowavailable."

Self Description Inventory (SDI). The SDI is a newtest, currently being developed (Fordyce, Note 6). Itis the first multiple-scale inventory measure of happi-ness and its established concomitants. The SDI comesin two sets of equivalent forms (A and B; C and D), eachconsisting of 80 nonrepeated items. The forms arehighly correlated (average interform r = .93), Items arebased on past findings, and each item demonstratessignificant correlations with other happiness measures.Five scores are produced: the achieved happiness score(the level of felt happiness and emotional satisfactionwith life); the attitudes and values score (a measure of


one's adherence to the attitude patterns of happy peo-ple); the happy personality (a measure of how closelyone's own personality characteristics coincide with thoseof the happiest individuals); the happy life-style score(how closely one's daily living pattern matches thelife-style of happy individuals); and the total score (anoverall evaluation, based upon all 80 test items). Thesefive subscales were derived conceptually, items beingclustered according to similar themes for scoring pur-poses.

In 7 years of extensive testing with over 3,000 normaladults the SDI has demonstrated (a) significant validitycoefficients with measures of happiness and emotionalmorale (e.g., the HM, all forms of the DACL, the Mul-tiple Affect Adjective Checklist, and the Profile of MoodStates); (b) significant correlations with numerousmeasures of personality traits (associated with happi-ness) on the Personal Orientation Inventory, ComreyPersonality Scales, Cattell Sixteen Personality FactorQuestionnaire, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire,.Tennessee Self Concept Scale, and Pair Attraction In-ventory; and (c) strong interform and test-retest cor-relations (ranging from .89 to .97 in 12 studies, averagen = 100). The SDI is not only designed to be a gen-eral-purpose inventory of happiness but is also designedas a diagnostic and prescriptive supplement to the 14fundamentals (since items and scoring relate directlyto an evaluation of strengths and weaknesses on the 14principles incorporated in the program).

The three tests provided some 10 different indexesof happiness change over the experimental period: 4from the HM, 1 from the DACL, and 5 from the SDI(only forms A and B were given). Collectively, theyprovided a greater number of criterion measures thanhad been used in previous studies, and the assumptionwas that this increased variety of criteria would providegreater collusiveness and reliability to subsequentresults (and thus overcome an inherent weakness of theprevious three studies, where only one device wasused).

In addition to these more objective measures, ananonymous questionnaire was given to individuals inthe experimental group at the conclusion of the studyto gain their subjective evaluations of the procedure.

AnalysisThe resultant 10 measures of happiness change were

treated through analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) todetermine the experimental outcomes. In addition, aSolomon four-group design was used (wherein a ran-domly selected half of subjects received pretesting withthe HM and DACL; the other half did not) to test seh-sitization effects of pre- on-posttesting. (Since the SDIcomes in nonrepeated equivalent forms, no testing forpresensitization was deemed necessary,)

The initial analysis showed nonsignificant sensiti-zation effects, allowing a valid ANCOVA to be reformedon all measures.

ResultsThe results tended to support the hy-

pothesis that the more information subjects

Table 1Posttest Mean Comparisons and F RatiosBetween Experimental and Control Groups

Experi-Control" mentalb

Measure M SD M SD F

Self Description Inventory

AchievedHappiness 11.1 3.7 12.4 3.3 4.52*

Personality 18.3 3.7 19.6 3.4 5.33*Attitudes and Values 13.4 2.7 14.5 2.7 4.15*Life-Style 14.3 3.9 15.5 3.4 4.26*Total score 56.9 11.4 62.0 10.2 10.39**

Combinationscore

ScaleHappy %Unhappy %

Happiness measures

64.7 16.3 72.2 15.0 5.62*7.5 1.3 7.9 1.2 3.02

55.2 23.0 64.4 21.2 4.28*17.4 12.9 16.3 12.9 .18

Depression Adjective ChecklistScore 7.1 4.6 5.8 4.2 2.35

n = 39. b n = 64. df = 1, 98 for Self DescriptionInventory; df = 1,49 for Happiness Measures and De-pression Adjective Check List.* p < .05. ** p < .01.

had on the fundamentals, the greater hap-piness gain they would demonstrate.Analysis showed that the group that receivedfull instruction in the 14 fundamentalsboosted their happiness to significantlyhigher levels on 7 of the 10 comparisons,compared to the control group that only re-ceived Part 1 instruction. As Table 1 shows,1 of the comparisons was significant at the.01 level, 6 at the .05 level, and 3 werenonsignificant, though in the predicted di-rection.

DiscussionThe statistical data favored the interpre-

tation that the fundamentals, taken in theirentirety, have enough inherent informationto aid many normal individuals in boostingtheir happiness. In the past studies, suchgains were significantly higher than those ofcontrol groups that received nothing morethan strong suggestions of greater happi-nessand those significant differences wereattributed to the content of the fundamen-


tals (rather than the more obvious "sugges-tion effect" that was controlled). Here, itappears, the indication went one step fur-ther: It seems that exposure to specifictechniques and principles embodied in thefundamentals produced greater and moresignificant results than did exposure to ageneral, informational background in thenature of personal happiness and a mereoutlining of the 14 fundamentals alone.

Subjective impressions, provided anony-mously by participants in postexperimentquestionnaires and debriefing sessions,supported the statistical outcome.3

As reported in an earlier section, a sur-prisingly high 93% of the subjects voluntarily(with no extrinsic reward apparent to them)chose to use and act upon the fundamentalsmaterials. Seemingly, the vast majority ofindividuals exposed to a happiness educationopt to take advantage of it.

Those that did reported a variety of ef-fects: 81% of all participants claimed actualincreases in their happiness as a result oftheir learnings; 86% reported a variety ofcognitive and/or behavioral changes as re-sultant effects; 89% indicated the funda-mentals had helped to more quickly end,cope with, or stave off unhappy moods; 70%found the program helped create, maintain,and enhance happy moods; and practicallyall, 97%, felt the information had been ofsome positive educational value.

Information regarding actual happinessincreases showed the following: 6% claimed"extreme" happiness increases due to thefundamentals; 30% reported "much greater"happiness; 39% felt their happiness had im-proved "somewhat"; 6% noticed "slight"increments; 17% reported no effect; and 2%claimed happiness decreases as a result.Thus 81% actually felt some degree of hap-piness benefits from their instruction.However, the lack of gains in the remaining19% were not necessarily due to the programitself. Indeed, only two individuals cited theinformation as failing them: one tried manyof the recommendations with no result, andanother felt that exposure to the informationhad made him more keenly aware of howunhappy he was, thus reducing his happi-ness. The remaining individuals fell some-what evenly into two groups. One group ofrespondents said they were very happy to

begin with, and though they learned a lotabout their hapiness through the program,increasing their already high happiness level(not surprisingly) did not occur. The othergroup consisted of individuals who largelychose to ignore or dismiss the information.As the information was presented on atake-it-or-leave-it basis, these individualsapparently left it, reporting that they hadgiven little thought to the material outsideof class and had not attempted to modifytheir life or behavior in any way becauseof it.

Among the 14 fundamentals, the threecited as being the most helpful by respon-dents were "stop worrying," "be yourself,"and "develop positive, optimisticthinking."

Study 5Based on the positive results of Study 4,

in which the group receiving full instructionin the fundamentals appeared to increasehappiness better than the group that re-ceived only introductory information aboutthe program, Study 5 went one step further.Here, a full-instruction group was comparedto a group receiving introductory informa-tion plus specific instruction in several of thefundamentals themselves. This latter groupserved as the most stringent control used inany previous study (for, in effect, they re-ceived nearly half of all the informationgiven to the experimental, full-instructiongroup).

In addition to stricter control, Study 5 alsoexpanded the scope of measurement to in-clude more than just happiness indexes.Added to the testing procedures were theMultiple Affect Adjective Checklist(MAACL) and the Personal OrientationInventory (POI). These instruments pro-vided a variety of mental health indicatorsthat went beyond the unidimensional testingof happiness used in the past. The additionof these other measures was based upon

3 In Studies 4 and 5 the debriefing questionnaires

were only given to experimental group subjects (not tocontrols), since the focus on interest was on participantreaction to the full program. It would, however, havebeen of interest to compare these responses to those ofsubjects who received partial information (and this wassubsequently arranged in Study 6).


the strong relationship, consistently shownin the literature, between happiness andmental health. It was hypothesized that theincrease in happiness demonstrated by thefundamentals before might show compara-ble increases in general mental health aswell.

Method

SubjectsThree intact psychology classes of adult community

college students participated in the study. From anoriginal enrollment of 82, 71 students completed thecourse after normal attrition (cf. footnote 2) and'werethe basis of analysis (34 males, 37 females; mean age -23.3; age range = 17-44).

Design and Procedure

Two classes received full instruction in the funda-mentals (n = 50); the remaining class (n = 21) servedas the control, receiving Part 1 instruction (as in Study4) plus specific training in four of the fundamentals,The four fundamentals were "spend more time social-izing," "be more active," "be productive at meaningfulwork," and "get better organized" (selected becausethey are typically the first fundamentals to be discussedin normal presentations and because they have shownto be the easiest for individuals to employ). Use of theinformation, as before, was not required, although ev-eryone was encouraged to take advantage of the mate-rial.

Instruction for both groups took place over a period2J/2 months. The design employed in past studies wasreplicated: intact classes to assure unobtrusiveness oftesting and experimental manipulations and pre- andposttesting on all instruments, used in an ANCOVA tocontrol for initial class differences and to determinestatistical outcomes.

Measurement

In the present study, happiness was measured withthe HM and the SDIboth previously described. And,as mentioned above, the MAACL and the POI wereused to sample other mental health variables.

The MAACL is a widely researched measure of threeaffective states: anxiety, depression, and hostility.The instrument has demonstrated high reliability andacceptable validity (cf. Euros, 1972). The POI is anextremely popular inventory of self-actualization. Ityields 2 major scales and 10 minor subscales that mea-sure a variety of optimal mental health criteria. It iswidely used in research, and appears to possess goodreliability and strong validity (Buros, 1972). (In thepresent study, only the two major POI scales were usedin the analysis.)

Pretesting involved the HM, MAACL, POI, andForms A and D of the SDI; posttesting repeated allmeasures (with the alternate SDI pairs B and C given).

Anonymous evaluation questionnaires were also givento the experimental group at the conclusion of the studyto gain subjective feedback on the experiment. Norefusals occurred; all subjects completed all inven-tories.

Results

Statistical outcomes provided some sup-port for the hypothesis, though this evidencewas not conclusive. The trend was positive:All of the posttest differences between thegroups were in the predicted direction (withtwo-thirds of the statistics beyond the .10level). However, only 6 of the 19 compari-sons achieved significant values (p < .05).Table 2 shows the data.

Discussion

From the data, it appears that individualsreceiving the complete program grew sig-nificantly more than controls in theirinner-directedness (as measured by thePOI), happiness life-style traits, achievedhappiness, and total happiness characteris-tics (on versions of the SDI) while signifi-cantly reducing their anxiety and depressionlevels (as indexed by the MAACL). In otherareas, though, differences were not signifi-cant. However, as in Study 4, individuals inthe partial information condition did notremain static (as one might expect of a nor-mal control group); rather they demon-strated increases over the experiment on allmeasures. This would indicate, naturallyenough, that they profited some from theirpartial information. In light of this, it is notsurprising that the differences between thegroups were slight. It is also of interest tonote that the effects of the fundamentalswent beyond boosting happiness: It appearsas if other aspects of healthy adjustmentwere developed as secondary gains.

As in all past studies, participants' sub-jective reports, incorporated in anonymouslysubmitted posttesting questionnaires, werevery favorable (see footnote 3). What in-dividuals did with the information presentedto them showed that a surprisingly highnumber chose, on their own, to work with it(96% of the subjects decided to use it: 16%used it rigorously, as intended; 27% practicedit regularly; 33% reflected upon it often; 20%thought about it from time to time; 4% gave


Table 2Posttest Mean Comparisons and F RatiosBetween the Experimental and ControlGroups0

Experi-Controlb mental0

Measure M SD M SD

Personal Orientation Inventory16.9 3.3 17.5 3.7 .87Time competence

Inner-directedness 86.1 14.0 91.6 12.4 6.70*

Multiple Affect Adjective ChecklistAnxiety11Depression"1Hostility*1

8.36 4.3 5.5 3.9 8.44**14.3 8.1 10.2 6.4 5.40*9.0 4.7 8.0 4.5 .73

Happiness measuresCombination

scoreScaleHappy %Unhappy %d

67.27.4

60.720.3

17.81.6

21.913.4

71.2 19.2 1.017.7 1.8 .78

64.9 22.7 .7914.4 12.3 3.62

Self Description InventorySet A & Be

Achieved Happiness 10.6Personality 18.4Attitudes and Values 13.8Life-Style 12.6Total score 55.4

Set C & DeAchieved

Happiness 8.1Personality 15.5Attitudes and Values 11.5Life-Style 12.1Total score 47.4

3.7 11.9 3.4 3.874.2 19.0 4.3 .043.7 15.0 3.2 2.654.9 14.4 4.3 4.74*

14.9 60.2 13.3 3.63

4.8 9.9 4.4 3.99*4.7 17.1 4.4 3.093.5 12.9 3.5 3.854.4 12.8 4.4 .06

16.0 52.7 14.8 4.01*a Means are adjusted from the analysis of covariance (df

= 1,69). b n = 21. c n = 50. d These scores are nega-tive (the higher the score the unhappier the interpre-tation). e Subjects received both sets of the Self De-scription Inventory. Form A, from the first set, wasgiven in pretesting, Form B in posttesting. Form Dfrom the other set was given in pretesting, with its mate,Form C, in posttesting.*p


in Studies 1 and 2, group members got noinformation at all about happiness yet wereled to expect that "their happiness wouldprobably increase.") The object of the de-sign was threefold: first, to see if differencesagain occurred between full and partial in-struction; second, to see which third of the14 fundamentals, if any, was relatively moreeffective; and third, to determine if all as-pects of the program, as well as the full pro-gram itself, would show significant happinessincreases compared to "expectation" con-trols.

In addition to these design features, Study6 employed, for the first time, time-seriestesting to monitor happiness changes atseveral points during the experiment. Also,the study provided an opportunity to use thediagnostic and prescriptive elements of theSDI (which was designed as an adjunct to thefundamentals).

Method

SubjectsThree intact psychology classes of adult community

college students (n = 57 after normal attrition [cf.footnote 2]; 21 males, 36 females; mean age = 25.2; agerange = 18-64) were used for the three basic conditionsof the experiment (full instruction condition, n = 14;one-third instruction condition, n = 30; control condi-tion, ft = 13).

Design and ProcedureOn the basis of pretest scores on the SDI, the one-

third instruction group was subdivided into three finaltreatment groups, each receiving instruction in justone-third of the fundamentals in small work groups. Insubdividing this latter group, scores from the three di-agnostic scales of the SDI were used (the PersonalityScale, Attitude and Values Scale, and Life-Style Scale).As the SDI was originally designed in conjunction withthe fundamentals, test items were written to assess anindividual's progress in each of the 14 "happinessprinciples." However, instead of 14 different scales,related items were combined in the inventory underthree broader categories: the Life-Style Scale (Fun-damentals 1, 2,3,4, and 13); the Attitudes and ValuesScales (Fundamentals 5, 6, 7, 8, and 13); and the Per-sonality Scale (Fundamentals 9,10,11, and 12). Indi-viduals were assigned to the three final treatmentgroups on the basis of their lowest score (i.e., theirweakest areas). Low scores fell about equally in allscales, producing three relatively equal groups (life-style, n = 8; attitudes and values, n = 12; personality,n = 10).

Time-Series Measurement

Happiness was measured during the experiment atthe beginning (prior to any treatment) and every 2weeks thereafter. Criterion measures used were thepreviously described HM and alternating forms of theDACL (both instruments were shown to be relativelyunbiased by repeated use). Data from each testing wereused in an ANCOVA, with pretest scores to control forinitial happiness differences between the intact groupsand to determine experimental outcomes. Addition-ally, varying forms of the SDI were given to subjects inthe experimental groups to view differences in happi-ness change among these groups at the halfway pointand at the end of the experimental period. As in thepast, people in the experimental groups also providedanonymous posttest debriefing questionnaires regardingtheir subjective opinions of the procedure. No subjectsrefused to participate in the testing. All other proce-dures were the same as in Studies 4 and 5.

Results

The general hypothesis, that individualsreceiving information in the fundamentalswould increase their happiness more than"suggestion" controls, was confirmed for allexperimental groups. A survey of thetime-series data showed the happiness levelsof all experimental groups uniformly rose onall measures during the experimental period.The four criterion scores used (i.e., the HMscale, happy and unhappy percent scores,along with the DACL score) have beencombined into one overall composite indexand plotted in Figure 1, (This has beendone for the sake of brevity and because theindividual plots of these scores were so sim-ilar.) As can be seen, at the 2-week point(after the bulk of instruction was nearingcompletion), all group happiness levels re-mained close to the baseline (with the ex-ception of an initial jump in the experimen-tal group receiving the "life style" funda-mentalsconsidered, according to pastfeedback, the easiest to implement). At thispoint no significant differences were ap-parent. By the 4-week testing, all experi-mental groups had increased their happinesslevel over the baseline, and in half of the 16statistical comparisons, significant differ-ences were observed between these groupsand the control (p < .01). At the end of theexperiment, all 16 of the statistical compar-isons between experimental and controlgroups were significant (14 indexes, p < .01;


WEEKS

75

70

65

60

55

BASELINE

I

FULL TREATMENTPERSONALITY 1/3ATTITUDES & VALUES 1/3LIFESTYLE 1/3EXPECTATION CONTROL

I _L IFigure 1. Group changes in happiness level over the experimental period (composite index).

2 indexes, p < .05). Table 3 provides thedata.

Although the data indicated strongly thatinstruction in the various presentations ofthe fundamentals appeared to have led to asignificantly greater increase in happinesscompared to the control group, data betweenthe various experimental treatments provedmuch more equivocal. Although three in-struments (the HM, DACL, and the SDI)providing some nine measures of happymorale were given at various points to theexperimental groups, none of the dozens ofstatistical comparisons proved significant.Apparently, all treatments workedand toan approximately equal degree. If therewere any differences between parts of theprogram, the observed data would indicatethat the life-style fundamentals were themost immediately effective, whereas theremaining fundamentals grew more slowlyin their effect.

Tabulations from the anonymous post-experiment questionnaires confirmed the

statistical data. Percentages from all fourexperimental groups were fairly equivalent.In each group, the majority had worked withthe information in some fashion (89% aver-age), either through actual practice with therecommended techniques (32%) or throughfrequent time spent thinking about thematerial (57%), and in each group a quitesimilar pattern of positive effects was re-ported. Collectively, 91% of the participantsreported positive effects from their happi-ness education, with 74% claiming increasesin happiness as a result (4% extremelyhappy; 22% much happier; 36% somewhathappier; 12% a little happier). Of those whonoticed no happiness increases, 15% claimedto be too happy to begin with, and 10% feltno effect (though most of these had not at-tempted to use the information). Only oneindividual felt the information had createda deeper sense of unhappiness.

Generally, the effectiveness of the pro-gram came through educational insight (96%of the respondents indicated this had oc-


curred) and actual changes in attitude andlife-style (72% reporting such modifications).The fundamentals helped 67% cope better

Table 3Adjusted Mean Changes on all Measures Overthe 6-Week Experiment"

Happiness indexes

Group

Happiness measures

% % un-Scale happy happy DACL CIb

Full treatmentPersonality VsAttitude and

values VsLife-style VsControl

Initial testing

6.77 54.36.77 54.3

6.77 54.36.77 54.36.77 54.3

23.023.0

23.023.023.0

8.5 68.48.5 68,4

8.5 68.48.5 68.48.5 68.4

Second testing


values VsLife-style V3Control


values VsLife-style VsControl

6.53 52.6 18.06.59 53.5 21.4

6.69 53.0 22.96.88 65.3 12.36.49 57.2 16.5

Third testing

7,51** 63.0** 20.67.64** 66.8** 13.7

7.55** 65.6** 14.67.86** 73.8** 14.55.69 43.9 24.6

8.99.3

7.76.99.3

7.28.5

7.26.89.9

68.367.6

68.575.369.4

74.076.0

76.279.461.7

Final testingFull treatmentPersonality VsAttitudes and

values VaLife-style VsControl

7.55**7.39**

7.94**8.01**5.39

64.9**67.5**

68.6**74.0**36.9

14.0**16.2**

14.1**9.5**

31.5

6.6*"6.8*

6.8*5.2**

10.2

76.776.2

78.482.357.2

Note. DACL = Depression Adjective Check List. CI= composite index.a All means are adjusted posttest means from the

analysis of covariance, Week 1 means are adjusted toprovide an equivalent baseline. Composite index is an equally weighted average ofother scores on a 100-point positive scale (not used instatistical comparisons, but used for brevity in Figure1 above).* F ratio between this'mean and control mean signifi-cant beyond the .05 level.** F ratio between this mean and the control groupmean significant beyond the .01 level.

with or prevent bad moods and 51% creategood moods. In the group that had all fun-damentals to select from, "be yourself wasmore often mentioned as "the most helpfulfundamental"; six others shared a closesecond place.

Discussion

The data, taken as a whole, showed alltreatments effective. Yet, contrary to thehypothesis, full, general instruction in thefundamentals was neither better nor worseat increasing happiness than concentrationon specifics from the program, aimed at anindividual's weakest areas. In retrospect,though, this lack of difference is not sur-prising. Evidence from past studies hasindicated that individuals always use theentire program in a selective way. Eventhough they have the complete informationto work with, feedback indicates that peoplenaturally focus their work on the funda-mentals they perceive as their weak points.In this light, the hypothesis that the fulltreatment would surpass partial concentra-tions was improperly founded. Perhaps ifthe "third" had been selected at random (ashad been done in Study 5), rather than as-signed by the weak-point strategy used here,the hypothesis would have been appro-priate.

On the positive side, however, the dataclearly indicate that all major subdivisionsof the program have validity (i.e., no super-fluous materials are incorporated in thecomplete program) and that diagnosis ofspecific "happiness weakness," as done withthe SDI, can make the program more selec-tively useful and efficient.

Study 7

In the 6 previous studies, experimentswith the fundamentals had demonstratedhappiness changes, but in all cases this ef-fectiveness had only been created in shorttime frames (from 2 weeks to 4 months) andin situations where participants were captiveand continuously reminded of the material.Though these attempts to increase happi-ness had appeared consistently successful,a question remained: How long-lasting weresuch positive effects, especially if no moni-


toring occurred? To answer this question,a survey study was conducted.

MethodFrom the past records, a list was made of 150 ran-

domly selected individuals who had received completeinformation on the 14 fundamentals program, 9-18months previously. These individuals had receivedtheir instruction on a "take it or leave it" basis as partof college psychology courses and public workshops, soit was unknown if any of the individuals had consideredor applied the information, either when they hadlearned about it or in the months that followed theirlearning about it.

The individuals were sent an extensive open-responsequestionnaire regarding their long-term experience withthe fundamentals, a stamped return envelope, and aletter that explained the research. The questionnairesasked for a variety of long-term reactions to the fun-damentals and stressed that only honest feedback("whether positive, negative, or neutral") was desired.To ensure candid responses, the questionnaires askedfor no names (all were anonymously returned). Re-turns were subjected to a content analysis. An initialreading of the returns by a panel consisting of the authorand two assistants was used to develop basic responsecategories in order to codify returns. Three judges thenscored the returns independently, using the developedcodification system. Agreement in codifying responsesaveraged 91% among judges.

Results

Of the 150 mailings, 40 were returned bythe postal service as undeliverable, and 69questionnaires were received completed (18men; 51 women; mean age = 25.6; age range= 19-65). Assuming all deliverable mailingswere indeed received by the proper persons,this represents a 63% response (no furtherattempt was made to gain returns from thenonrespondents).

The responses gave a very positive ratingof the lasting value of the fundamentals.The vast majority of respondents, 96%, notonly recalled the information well but alsocontinued to think about and use the infor-mation. To a question as to how often thefundamentals still came to mind, 39% actu-ally reported that the material occurred tothem very often, almost daily; 28% thoughtabout it sometimes; 20% only when they hit"down times"; 8% rarely; and 5% never.Likewise, as far as continuing to use thefundamentals, 30% said they still actuallypracticed many techniques; 35% thoughtabout the principles regularly; and another11% felt the fundamentals had become more

or less unconsciously incorporated in theirpersonality. Of the remaining 24%, half hadworked with the fundamentals at first, butas time had passed, they had forgotten them;the other half had dismissed the informationto begin with.

As to happiness changes, 23% of the re-spondents felt the information had madethem somewhat happier in the long term;25% felt they had become a good deal hap-pier; and 24% claimed the fundamentals hadhelped them extremely, making them farmore happy than they might have been.The remaining 28% fell into four categories:11% said the material had helped their hap-piness at first, but they had subsequentlyforgotten it; 8% felt they had always been toohappy to achieve any greater increase; 8%claimed no long-term effects because theyhad dismissed or ignored the information tobegin with; and only one individual claimedto have worked with the program but to havegained no happiness. On a subjective100-point scale, the average respondentrated his or her current happiness 12 pointshigher than it would have been without theeducation. The specific fundamentals mostoften mentioned as the most helpful were"spend more time socializing," "stopworrying," "lower your expectations andaspirations," "be yourself," and "developpositive, optimistic thinking."

Discussion

A subjective reading of the returnedquestionnaires leads unquestionably to theconclusion that for many people, the edu-cation about happiness, incorporated in thefundamentals, holds a reasonably long-termand valued effect. Certainly the rather highresponse rate of 63% (by survey-researchstandards), is indicative of positive reactionsto the information that goes beyond the re-sults reported herein. Even if for the sakeof argument we assume all nonrespondentsactually received their questionnaires andrefused to return them because they weredisappointed with the program and its ef-fects, a remaining figure of 45% still claimsustained happiness gains. Considering thepassage of time and the simple "take it orleave it" method of presentation, even thisfigure would seem to indicate that the fun-


damentals have an effect that may be ratherpermanent. Of course, longer term researchwith the program would give clearer impli-cations, and such was attempted as part ofthe present study. A like amount of thesame questionnaires (n = 150) were mailedto the last known address of individuals ex-posed to the fundamentals 2-4 years previ-ously. The returns, unfortunately, wereminimal (20% responselargely due tostudent transience) and thus were not reli-able enough to base solid conclusions upon.Returns received, however, showed the samepositive indications seen in the 9-18 monthgroup: 96% of those responding said theystill thought about the information fromtime to time; 79% claimed the informationhad a lasting effect in increasing their hap-piness; and 59% still practiced many of thetechniques. Though not conclusive, thesedata suggest that an even longer term effectfor happiness training may eventually bedemonstrated.

General DiscussionTaken collectively, the results of the

present investigations, coupled with thefindings of the original studies, argue thathuman happiness can be increased for many,if not most, individualsgiven the properinformation.

The 14 fundamentals provide this infor-mation in a format designed for averagepersons. The program appears to be effec-tive as a tool for short-term happiness en-hancement, and there is evidence that itseffectiveness may well be long-lasting and itsimpact more global (in terms of other mentalgains).

In the seven studies conducted with thefundamentals, a variety of strategies havebeen employed. The program has beencompared to placebo programs (.where sug-gestions and expectations of happiness werecreated); it has been compared to itself (indesigns where half the information wastested against the whole); those working di-ligently with the program have been com-pared to those who ignored it; data on theprogram have been gathered from individ-uals using it from as little as 2 weeks to asmuch as a year or more; a wide variety ofcriterion measures have been used; and ad-

herence to the program has been required insome studies and optional in most others.In each case, the statistical data seem to in-dicate that the fundamentals indeed helpindividuals become happier and that thisincrease in happiness is due largely to theinformation and techniques involved in theprogram, and is not just a product ofheightened sensitization to happiness orexpectations and suggestions of greaterhappiness.

In addition to the objective data, there issubjective testimony of the participantsthemselves, provided by their anonymousreports. Since in the final analysis happi-ness is a totally subjective, privately expe-rienced phenomenontruly known only tothe individualthese personal avowals havereceived strong consideration. Throughoutthe studies, the feedback provided by thesubjects shows that the gains observed in theobjective data were indeed experienced asreal, on a subjective, personal level. Aver-aged together (over all seven investigations),81% of the individuals receiving the programclaimed happiness gains (38% reporting thatthe information had made them "muchhappier" or "extremely happy"). Specificeffects ranged from the development of newbehaviors and attitudes, changes in life-style,new insights and understandings, bettercopings with bad moods, enhancement ofhappy moods, to a better awareness of hap-piness itselfand virtually all (96%) suggestthe program is worthwhile educationally.

From this consistently positive feedback,and from the positive statistical trends ob-served in the objective data, it would appearthat the fundamentals program does in-crease happiness.

However, caution is in order, for even inthese further studies a number of short-comings exist that possibly attenuate thispositive conclusion.

Adequate measurement, for one, has al-ways been a concern in happiness research.In the present studies, self-reporting in-struments were used to measure happiness.This is typical in happiness studies, sinceother measurement modalities (e.g., peerreports, behavioral observations, physio-logical indexes, etc.) are, according to pastresearch, sorely invalid. The method ofchoice has always been self-reporting de-

496 MICHAEL W. PORDYCE

vices, yet unfortunately for the field, no es-tablished standard of measurement hascome to the fore, nor has any method beenused consistently across studies. Effortshave been underway by the author (Fordyce,Note 5, Note 6), Kammann, Christie, Irwin,& Dixon (1979), and others (cf. Campbell,1976) to rectify this problem, and soon,perhaps, research in the area can profit frominstruments of sounder psychometrics andstandard usage.

Given the state of the art, the presentstudies incorporated the best availablestrategy, using two of the most thoroughlytested measures of happiness currently de-veloped (the HM and the SDI) and bol-stering them with a variety of other, betterrecognized tests of clinical depression andmental health. The use of these numerouscriteria seemed prerequisite to convincinglydetermine statistical outcomes (especiallysince the lack of multiple criteria was a majorcriticism of the 1977 studies). The fact thatthese numerous indexes all demonstratedsuch highly similar statistical patterns, onone hand, seems a plus to these studies. Itadds much greater confidence in the findingsthan would have been the case if a singlemeasure had been used alone. On the otherhand, however, it is an appropriate precau-tion to note that because the measures usedwere intercorrelated to a degree, and becauseonly univariate comparisons of the data wereemployed, a possibility of Type I error exists.This may weaken these conclusions, al-though the author is inclined to feel that thepossibility is not a large one.

Another concern in the present studies liesin the presentation of the fundamentals in-formation itself. In all seven studies, ma-terials were presented to the various groupsby the same instructor, in verbal lectureform. Therefore, it is obvious that the ac-tual treatments were not precisely identicalin every case. This method was used tocreate treatments that were presented to thesubjects as unobtrusively and "normally" aspossible, but it lacks the generalizabilitynecessary for further study.

For research to continue, the programneeds to be in a standard form for replica-tion. This form is now available, in a pack-age of recorded and written materials that

provides a complete course in the funda-mentals (Fordyce, 1981). (The bulk of thesematerials, incidentally, were transcribedduring training sessions of the presentstudies and thus provide an actual replica-tion of the studies.) Future studies here willrely on this standardized presentation as theexperimental variable, and the package isavailable from the author for those inter-ested in similar research (see foot-note 1).

A final concern also involves the mannerof presentation employed in these studies.Since all information was presented by theexperimenter, there is the possibility that thepresenter's enthusiasm and ability to moti-vate may account for the demonstrated in-creases more than the techniques them-selves. Throughout the seven studies, avariety of strategies and designs were de-veloped to control for this possibility. Butthe issue can only be unequivocally resolvedin designs employing a variety of present-ersor, as addressed above, through the useof a standardized method of presentationthat remains uniform. The independent,positive results of Lichter, Haye, and Kam-mann (1980), who successfully used thefundamentals information in their program,provide some evidence that presenter biasmay not be a problem.

Ultimately, the issues involved with pre-senter bias, measurement, and uniformpresentation can only be fully addressedthrough the objective research efforts ofothers. In candor, the author would beremiss in not acknowledging the possibilitythat as developer, presenter, and experi-menter of the present program he may haveinadvertently injected bias into these hap-piness studies. Yet it has not been the ob-jective of the seven studies necessarily toconfirm the 14 fundamentals; it has onlybeen to develop them to the point that otherswould have a basic foundation to buildupon.

The fundamentals are seen only as a be-ginning, and they are merely offered as such.Far more research will be needed before thetrue merits of the program are determined,and the possible directions for such studycan only be outlined here. Some obviousstudies come to mind: (a) comparisons be-


tween the 14 fundamentals and other self-help programs of study; (b) replications ofthe present studies using the standardized14 Fundamentals Package now available; (c)replications of the present studies usingdifferent presenters; (d) studies with dif-ferent normal and clinical populations; (e)research wherein the program is used as anadjunct toor possibly in lieu ofothercounseling procedures; (f) studies that fur-ther scrutinize the contents of the programthat might enhance effective portions andeliminate noneffective portions; and (g)studies that might use the fundamentals asa basis of comparison to develop newly con-ceived programs aimed at happiness andmental health increment.

The placing of these seven studies in thecontext of other research is somewhatproblematical. In a narrow sense, they canbe viewed as pioneering efforts in a new areaof psychological research. To the author'sknowledge this series represents the onlyattempt to date (except for the Lichter et al.,1980, study) designed to study programati-cally the potential increment of averagepeople's overall happiness as a researchtopic. Yet, in a broad sense, these studiesare certainly in line withand have reliedheavily uponthe bulk of literature andresultant techniques in such fields as mar-riage and family counseling, psychotherapy,self-help, behavior modification, job satis-faction, self-actualization, and orthopsy-chology. Indeed, on a larger scale, thesestudies have a close bond with all psycho-logical research effort. For the implicit aim,it would seem, of all psychological study isthe ultimate increment of human happinessthrough better understanding of humanbehavior.

So what is so different here? It is pri-marily a difference in focus. The presentstudies focus on happiness directly and ex-plicitly, whereas other psychological effortfocuses on topics that only indirectly andimplicitly contribute to eventual happiness.It is a matter of putting the cart before thehorse. Instead of focusing on the myriad ofproblems and satisfactions one encountersin day-to-day living that aid or hindereventual happiness, the fundamentals pro-gram addresses the topic of happiness itself.

It appears that this focus works, for it helpsindividuals place the means of their every-day living in perspective with one of its mostimportant ends: happiness.

In the original studies (Fordyce, 1977), itwas concluded that such "perspective" wasone of the most pronounced effects of thefundamentals program. Participants re-ported that through their exposure to thematerials, they had developed a muchgreater appreciation and understanding oftheir own happiness, and of its importanceas a personal goal. This heightened aware-ness apparently helped direct their effortstoward greater happiness. Participants inthe present studies reported the same phe-nomenon. It seems that focusing on hap-piness directly can have quite successful re-sults. And indeed, this focus is at the veryheart of the 14th fundamental: "Put hap-piness as your most important priority."Contrary to the oft-quoted folk wisdom thatVpursuing happiness directly is the surestway to lose it," the 14th fundamentalsuggests (and the results of these studiesshow) that thinking about one's happinessregularly, pursuing it actively, and placingit as a top priority are some of the main waysto increase it.

As stated in the outset of this article,people see happiness as the ultimate end ofhuman existence; yet as important as hap-piness is, most know nothing about it.Commonly, happiness is seen as an ephem-eral, illusory, and intangible phenome-nonnot a thing to be understood, studied,or worked upon. And perhaps until the re-cent focus of psychological research in thisarea, this perception was true. But nowthere exists a growing, research-basedknowledge of happiness. Furthermore, itappears that this knowledge can be used tohelp individuals better realize their pursuitof happiness. Knowledge in any field can beenlightening and useful, and it appears thatknowledge about human happiness is nodifferent: Those who understand happinesshave the best chance of attaining it.

Reference Notes1. Diener, E., & Griffin, S. Subjective well-being:

Happiness, life satisfaction and morale (Compre-


hensive bibliography). Unpublished manuscript,University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, De-partment of Psychology, 1982.

2. Fordyce, M. W. Human happiness: The findingsof psychological research (chaps. 2-4). Unpub-lished manuscript, 1974. (Available from M. W.Fordyce, Edison Community College, Fort Myers,Fla. 33907.)

3. Kammann, R. Psychological well-being: A syn-opsis of three research texts. Unpublished manu-script, University of Otago, New Zealand, Depart-ment of Psychology, 1977.

4. Kammann, R. Objective circumstances, life satis-factions, and general well-being: Consistencieshopping across time and place. Unpublishedmanuscript, University of Otago, New Zealand, De-partment of Psychology, 1980.

5. Fordyce, M. W. The happiness measures: A thirtysecond index of emotional well-being and mentalhealth. Unpublished manuscript, 1977. (Availablefrom M. W. Fordyce, Edison Community College,Fort Myers, Fla. 33907).

6. Fordyce, M. W. The self description inventory: Atest to measure happiness and its concomitants.Unpublished manuscript, 1980. (Available from M.W. Fordyce, Edison Community College, Fort Myers,Fla. 33907).

ReferencesAndrews, F., & Withey, S. R. Social indicators of

well-being. New York: Plenum Press, 1976.Bradburn, N. The structure of psychological well-

being. Chicago: Aldine, 1969.Bradburn, N., & Caplovitz, D. Reports on happiness.

Chicago: Aldine, 1965.Euros, 0. K. (Ed). The seventh mental measurements

yearbook. Highland Park, 111.: Gryphon Press,1972.

Campbell, A. Subjective measures of well-being.American Psychologist, 1976,31,117-124.

Campbell, A., Converse, P., & Rogers, W. L. The

quality of American life. New York: Russell SageFoundation, 1976.

Cantril, H. The pattern of human concerns. NewBrunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1965.

Dyer, W. W. Your erroneous zones. London, England:Sphere Books, 1977.

Fordyce, M. W. Happiness, its daily variation and itsrelation to values. (Doctoral dissertation, UnitedStates International University, 1972). DissertationAbstracts International, 33, 1266B. (UniversityMicrofilms No. 72-23,491)

Fordyce, M. W. Development of a program to increasepersonal happiness. Journal of Counseling Psy-chology, 1977, 24, 511-521.

Fordyce, M. W. The psychology of happiness:Fourteen fundamentals. Fort Myers, Fla.: CypressLake Media, 1981. (Also available from the author,Edison Community College, Fort Myers, Fla.33907.)

Gurin, G., Veroff, J., & Feld, S. Americans view theirmental health. New York: Basic Books, 1960.

Kammann, R., Christie, D., Irwin, R., & Dixon, G.Properties of an inventory to measure happiness (andpsychological health). New Zealand Psychologist,1979, 8,1-12.

Lichter, S., Haye, K., & Kammann, R. Increasinghappiness through cognitive retraining. New Zea-land Psychologist, 1980, 9, 57-64.

Robinson, J., & Shaver, P. Measures of social psy-chological attitudes. Ann Arbor, Mich.: SurveyResearch Center, Institute for Social Research,1968.

Wessman, A. E. A psychological inquiry into satis-faction and happiness. Unpublished doctoral dis-sertation, Princeton University, 1957.

Wessman, A. E., & Ricks, D. F. Mood and personality.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1966..

Wilson, W. R. Correlates of avowed happiness.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1967,23, 295-305.

Received April 11,1983Revision received June 6,1983

Documents

Fordyce 14 Fundamentals