Submitted by:

Gallardo Jr., Amor J.SN# 201304228

SUBJECT:

Agriculture and Food Industry

Submitted to:

Dr. Revelino GarciaIBM PROFESSOR

This research comprises the activities that are performed beforeand during the production and preparation of consumer products.With agricultural crops, the land is tilled in preparation for planting,fertilizers and pesticides are applied, and the crops are harvestedand stored before processing into consumer products. With animalhusbandry, livestock and poultry are raised and sent toslaughterhouses. Food and agricultural industries yield eitherconsumer products directly or related materials that are then usedto produce such products (e. g., leather or cotton). All of the stepsin producing such consumer items, from crop planting or animalraising to the processing into end products, present the potentialprofit opportunities.

Fertilizer Application◦ The role of fertilizers in the agriculture industry is to supply essential

plant nutrients to improve crop production.

◦ There are 16 essential elements or nutrients necessary for plant growth, three of which (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) are supplied from the atmosphere or water.

◦ Concentrations of some of these elements are limited in most soils and must be supplemented by fertilizers.

Types Fertilizer◦ Gaseous Fertilizer

Anhydrous ammonia, which supplies nitrogen, is the only gaseous fertilizer used. Farmers usually hire trained specialists to apply the ammonia used. Anhydrous ammonia is typically stored in a liquid form, most commonly under pressure, and to a lesser degree, under refrigeration. Anhydrous liquefied ammonia is applied by subsurface injection. The ammonia quickly vaporizes, but is captured by several components in the soil including water, clay, and other minerals.

◦ Solid Fertilizer

Solid fertilizers are typically either straight nitrogen fertilizers (urea or ammonium nitrate) or mixed fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphate, potassium, and other nutrients.

Pesticides are substances or mixtures used to control plant and animal life for the purposes of increasing and improving agricultural production, protecting public health from pest-borne disease and discomfort, reducing property damage caused by pests, and improving the aesthetic quality of outdoor or indoor surroundings.

Pesticides are used widely in agriculture, by homeowners, by industry, and by government agencies.

The largest usage of chemicals with pesticidal activity, by weight of "active ingredient" (AI), is in agriculture.

Agricultural pesticides are used for cost-effective control of weeds, insects, mites, fungi, nematodes, and other threats to the yield, quality, or safety of food.

◦ Dry formulations

Can be dusts, granules, wettable and soluble powders, water dispersible granules, or baits.

◦ Liquid formulations

May be solutions, emulsions (emulsifiable concentrates), aerosols, or fumigants.

Orchard heaters are commonly used in various areas to prevent frost damage to fruit and fruit trees.

The 5 common types of orchard heaters—pipeline, lazy flame, return stack, cone, and solid fuel.

The ambient temperature at which orchard heaters are required is determined primarily by the type of fruit and stage of maturity, by the daytime temperatures, and by the moisture content of the soil and air.

Emissions from orchard heaters are dependent on the fuel usage rate and the type of heater.

Cotton Harvesting◦ Cotton is defoliated or desiccated prior to harvest. Defoliants are used

on the taller varieties of cotton that are machine picked for lint and seed cotton, and desiccants usually are used on short, storm proof cotton varieties of lower yield that are harvested by mechanical stripper equipment. More than 99 percent of the national cotton area is harvested mechanically.

◦ The 2 principal harvest methods are machine picking, with 70 percent of the harvest from 61 percent of the area, and machine stripping, with 29 percent of the harvest from 39 percent of the area.

Grain Harvesting ◦ Refers to the activities performed to obtain the cereal kernels of the

plant for grain, or the entire plant for forage and/or silage uses. These activities are accomplished by machines that cut, thresh, screen, clean, bind, pick, and shell the crops in the field.

◦ Harvesting also includes loading harvested crops into trucks and transporting crops in the grain field.

Livestock and Poultry refers to beef, dairy, swine, poultry, sheep, goat, and horse operations that raise animals both in confined animal feeding operations or on pasture.

Livestock and poultry are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor.

Livestock are generally raised for profit. Raising animals (animal husbandry) is a component of modern agriculture. It has been practiced in many cultures since the transition to farming from hunter-gather lifestyles.

Economic Values◦ Meat the production of a useful form of dietary protein and energy.

◦ Dairy products Mammalian livestock can be used as a source of milk, which can in turn easily be processed into other dairy products, such as yogurt, cheese, butter, ice cream, kefir, and kumis. Using livestock for this purpose can often yield several times the food energy of slaughtering the animal outright.

◦ Fiber Livestock produce a range of fiber/textiles. For example, sheep and goats produce wool and mohair; cows, deer, and sheep skins can be made into leather; and bones, hooves and horns of livestock can be used.

Economic Values◦ Fertilizer Manure can be spread on fields to increase crop yields. This is

an important reason why historically, plant and animal domestication have been intimately linked. Manure is also used to make plaster for walls and floors, and can be used as a fuel for fires. The blood and bone of animals are also used as fertilizer.

◦ Labor Animals such as horses, donkey, and yaks can be used for mechanical energy. Prior to steam power, livestock were the only available source of non-human labor. They are still used for this purpose in many places of the world, including plowing fields, transporting goods, and military functions.

◦ Land management The grazing of livestock is sometimes used as a way to control weeds and undergrowth. For example, in areas prone to wild fires, goats and sheep are set to graze on dry scrub which removes combustible material and reduces the risk of fires.

Meat Packing Industry◦ The meat packing industry is made up of establishments primarily

engaged in the slaughtering, for their own account or on a contract basis for the trade, of cattle, hogs, sheep, lambs, calves, and vealers for meat to be sold or to be used on the same premises in canning, cooking, curing, and freezing, and in making sausage, lard, and other products.

◦ Also included in this industry are establishments primarily engaged in slaughtering horses for human consumption.

Animals are delivered from the market or farm to the meat plant and are placed in holding areas. These holding areas should have adequate facilities for the inspection of livestock, including walkways over pens, crushes, and other facilities.

Sick animals and those unfit for human consumption are identified and removed from the normal processing flow. Plants should have separate isolation and holding pens for these animals, and may have separate processing facilities.

The live beef animals are weighed prior to processing so that yield can be accurately determined.

Animals are delivered from the market or farm to the meat plant and are placed in holding areas. These holding areas should have adequate facilities for the inspection of livestock, including walkways over pens, crushes, and other facilities.

Sick animals and those unfit for human consumption are identified and removed from the normal processing flow. Plants should have separate isolation and holding pens for these animals, and may have separate processing facilities.

The live animals are weighed prior to processing so that yield can be accurately determined.

Other meats undergo processes similar to those described above for beef and pork processing. These other meats include veal, lamb, mutton, goat, horse (generally for export), and farm-raised large game animals.

Meat rendering plants process animal by-product materials for theproduction of tallow, grease, and high-protein meat and bone meal.

Plants that operate in conjunction with animal slaughterhouses or poultryprocessing plants are called integrated rendering plants.

Plants that collect their raw materials from a variety of offsite sources arecalled independent rendering plants.

Independent plants obtain animal by-product materials, including grease,blood, feathers, offal, and entire animal carcasses, from the followingsources: butcher shops, supermarkets, restaurants, fast-food chains,poultry processors, slaughterhouses, farms, ranches, feedlots, and animalshelters.

The two types of animal rendering processes are edible and inedible rendering.

Edible rendering plants process fatty animal tissue into edible fats and proteins. The plants are normally operated in conjunction with meat packing plants under U. S. Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Services (USDA/FSIS) inspection and processing standards.

Inedible rendering plants are operated by independent renderers or are part of integrated rendering operations. These plants produce inedible tallow and grease, which are used in livestock and poultry feed, soap, and production of fatty-acids.

Meat smokehouses are used to add flavor, color, and aroma to various meats, including pork, beef, poultry, and fish. Smokehouses were at one time used to smoke food for preservation, but refrigeration systems have effectively eliminated this use.

Four operations are typically involved in the production of smoked meat: (1) tempering or drying, (2) smoking, (3) cooking, and (4) chilling. However, not all smoked foods are cooked, thus eliminating the cooking and chilling processes from some operations. Important process parameters include cooking/smoking time, smoke generation temperature, humidity, smoke density, type of wood or liquid smoke, and product type.

Popular types of natural cheeses include unripened (e. g., cottage cheese, cream cheese), soft (e. g., Brie, Camembert), semi-hard (e. g., Brick, Muenster, Roquefort, Stilton), hard (e. g., Colby, Cheddar), blue veined (e. g., Blue, Gorgonzola), cooked hard cheeses (e. g., Swiss, Parmesan), and pasta filata(stretched curd, e. g., Mozzarella, Provolone).

Examples of processed cheeses include American cheese and various cheese spreads, which are made by blending two or more varieties of cheese or blending portions of the same type of cheese that are in different stages of ripeness.

Cotton ginning takes place throughout the area of the United States known as the Sunbelt.

Four main production regions can be designated:◦ Southeast—Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama,

and Florida

◦ Mid-South—Missouri, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana

◦ Southwest—Texas and Oklahoma

◦ West—New Mexico, Arizona, and California

Cotton ginning is seasonal. It begins with the maturing of the cotton crop, which varies by region, and ends when the crop is finished. Each year the cotton ginning season starts in the lower Southwest region in midsummer, continues through the south central and other geographical regions in late summer and early autumn, and ends in the upper Southwest region in late autumn and early winter. Overall, U. S. cotton is ginned between October 1 and December 31, with the bulk of the crop from each geographical region being ginned in 6 to 8 weeks. During the remainder of the year, the gin is idle.

Canned Fruits and Vegetables◦ The canning of fruits and vegetables is a growing, competitive industry,

especially the international export portion. The industry is made up of establishments primarily engaged in canning fruits, vegetables, fruit and vegetable juices; processing ketchup and other tomato sauces; and producing natural and imitation preserves, jams, and jellies.

Dehydration of fruit and vegetables is one of the oldest forms of food preservation techniques known to man and consists primarily of establishments engaged in sun drying or artificially dehydrating fruits and vegetables.

Although food preservation is the primary reason for dehydration, dehydration of fruits and vegetables also lowers the cost of packaging, storing, and transportation by reducing both the weight and volume of the final product. Given the improvement in the quality of dehydrated foods, along with the increased focus on instant and convenience foods, the potential of dehydrated fruits and vegetables is greater than ever.

This industry includes facilities that produce pickled fruits and vegetables, salad dressings, relishes, various sauces, and seasonings.

The two vegetables that account for the highest production volume in the U. S. are cucumbers (pickles) and cabbage (sauerkraut). Sauces entail a wide diversity of products but two of the more common types are Worcestershire sauce and hot pepper sauces. Salad dressings are generally considered to be products added to and eaten with salads. In 1987, 21,500 thousand people were employed in the industry. California, Georgia, Michigan, and Pennsylvania are the leading employment States in the industry.

Pickled Vegetables◦ In the U. S., vegetables are pickled commercially using one of two general processes:

brining or direct acidification (with or without pasteurization), or various combinations of these processes. For sodium chloride brining, fresh vegetables are placed in a salt solution or dry salt is added to cut or whole vegetables whereupon the vegetables undergo a microbial fermentation process activated by the lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, and other microorganisms. Direct acidification of fresh or brined vegetables, through the addition of vinegar, is a major component of commercial pickling. This process may be accompanied by pasteurization, addition of preservatives, refrigeration, or a combination of these treatments. While cucumbers, cabbage, and olives constitute the largest volume of vegetables brined or pickled in the U. S., other vegetables include peppers, onions, beans, cauliflower, and carrots.

Sauces◦ A typical sauce production operation involves the mixture of several

ingredients, often including salts, vinegars, sugar, vegetables, and various spices. The mixture is allowed to ferment for a period of time, sealed in containers, and pasteurized to prevent further fermentation. The production processes for Worcestershire sauce and hot pepper sauces are briefly described as examples of sauce production.

Salad Dressing◦ Salad dressings (except products modified in calories, fat, or

cholesterol) are typically made up of oil, vinegar, spices, and other food ingredients to develop the desired taste. These dressings are added to many types of foods to enhance flavor. There are U. S. FDA Standards of Identity for three general classifications of salad dressings: mayonnaise, spoonable (semisolid) salad dressing, and French dressing. All other dressings are nonstandardized and are typically referred to as "pourable".

Alfalfa Dehydrating◦ Dehydrated alfalfa is a meal product resulting from the rapid drying of

alfalfa by artificial means. Alfalfa meal is processed into pellets for use in chicken rations, cattle feed, hog rations, sheep feed, turkey mash, and other formula feeds. It is important for its protein content, growth and reproductive factors, pigmenting xanthophylls, and vitamin contributions.

Bread Baking◦ About 600 large commercial bakeries produce breadstuffs in the united

states. Because bread is perishable and delays in distribution to retail outlets are undesirable, bakeries are usually located in or near population centers. Because population correlates with vehicular travel and other emission sources., bakeries, are frequently located in ozone nonattainment areas.

Cereal Breakfast Food◦ Breakfast cereal products were originally sold as milled grains of wheat

and oats that required further cooking in the home prior to consumption. In this century, due to efforts to reduce the amount of in-home preparation time, breakfast cereal technology has evolved from the simple procedure of milling grains for cereal products that require cooking to the manufacturing of highly sophisticated ready-to-eat products that are convenient and quickly prepared.

Corn Wet Milling◦ Establishments in corn wet milling are engaged primarily in producing

starch, syrup, oil, sugar, and byproducts such as gluten feed and meal, from wet milling of corn and sorghum. These facilities may also produce starch from other vegetables and grains, such as potatoes and wheat. In 1994, 27 corn wet milling facilities were reported to be operating in the United States.

Grain Elevators And Processes◦ Grain elevators are facilities at which grains are received, stored, and

then distributed for direct use, process manufacturing, or export. They can be classified as either “country” or “terminal” elevators, with terminal elevators further categorized as inland or export types. Operations other than storage, such as cleaning, drying, and blending, often are performed at elevators. The principal grains and oilseeds handled include wheat, corn, oats, rice, soybeans, and sorghum.

Pasta Manufacturing◦ Although pasta products were first introduced in Italy in the 13th

century, efficient manufacturing equipment and high-quality ingredients have been available only since the 20th century. Prior to the industrial revolution, most pasta products were made by hand in small shops. Today, most pasta is manufactured by continuous, high capacity extruders, which operate on the auger extrusion principle in which kneading and extrusion are performed in a single operation. The manufacture of pasta includes dry macaroni, noodle, and spaghetti production.

Almond Processing◦ Almonds are edible tree nuts, grown principally in California. The nuts

are harvested from orchards and transported to almond processing facilities, where the almonds are hulled and shelled. The function of an almond huller/sheller is to remove the hull and shell of the almond from the nut, or meat. Orchard debris, soil, and pebbles represent 10 to 25 percent of the field weight of material brought to the almond processing facility. Clean almond meats are obtained as about 20 percent of the field weight. Processes for removing the debris and almond hulls and shells are potential sources of air emissions.

Peanut Processing◦ Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), also known as groundnuts or goobers, are

an annual leguminous herb native to South America. The peanut peduncle, or peg (the stalk that holds the flower), elongates after flower fertilization and bends down into the ground, where the peanut seed matures. Peanuts have a growing period of approximately 5 months. Seeding typically occurs mid-April to mid-May, and harvesting during August in the United States.

Sugarcane Processing◦ Sugarcane processing is focused on the production of cane sugar

(sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake. Bagasse, the residual woody fiber of the cane, is used for several purposes: fuel for the boilers and lime kilns, production of numerous paper and paperboard products and reconstituted panelboard, agricultural mulch, and as a raw material for production of chemicals. Bagasse and bagasse residue are primarily used as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam. Thus, bagasse is a renewable resource. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source of sugarcane wax. Molasses is produced in two forms: inedible for humans (blackstrap) or as an edible syrup. Blackstrap molasses is used primarily as an animal feed additive but also is used to produce ethanol, compressed yeast, citric acid, and rum. Edible molasses syrups are often blends with maple syrup, invert sugars, or corn syrup.

Sugarbeet Processing◦ Sugarbeet processing is the production of sugar (sucrose) from

sugarbeets. Byproducts of sugarbeet processing include pulp and molasses. Most of the molasses produced is processed further to remove the remaining sucrose. The pulp and most of the remaining molasses are mixed together, dried, and sold as livestock feed.

The industry group producing fats and oils includes cottonseed oil mills, soybean oil mills, vegetable oil mills (other than corn, cottonseed, and soybean), and other mills. Wet corn mills are the primary producers of corn oil. Approximately 137 vegetable oil plants operate in the United States. Soybean processing, which dominates the industry, produces approximately 80 percent of the volume of vegetable oil and is concentrated in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, and Minnesota, but also found across the nation. Likewise, wet corn mills are concentrated in Corn Belt states. Cottonseed oil mills are found in southern states and California.

Distilled Spirits◦ The distilled spirits industry includes the production of whisky, gin, vodka, rum, and

brandy. The production of brandy is discussed in AP-42 Section 9.12.2, "Wines and Brandy". Distilled spirits production also may include the production of secondary products such as distillers dried grains used for livestock feed and other feed/food components

◦ Distilled spirits, including grain spirits and neutral spirits, are produced throughout the United States.1 The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) has established "standards of identity” for distilled spirits products.

Malt Beverages◦ Breweries typically purchase malted grain (malt) from malting

operations. In the malting process, grain is first soaked in water-filled steeping tanks for softening. After softening, the grain is transferred to germination tanks, in which the grain germinates, typically over a 1-week period. From the germination tanks, the grain enters a kiln, which halts germination by drying the grain. To begin the brewing process, malt (usually barley malt) is transported by truck or rail to a brewery and is conveyed to storage silos. The malt is then ground into malt flour by malt mills and transferred to milled malt hoppers. Many small breweries purchase malt flour (malted and milled grain) from facilities with malt mills. Malt provides the starch-splitting and protein-splitting enzymes that are necessary to convert grain starches into fermentable sugars.

Wines and Brandy◦ Wine is an alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of sugars

in fruit juices, primarily grape juice. In general, wines are classified into two types based on alcohol content: table wines (7 percent to 14 percent, by volume) and dessert wines (14 percent to 24 percent, by volume). Table wines are further subdivided into still and sparkling categories, depending upon the carbon dioxide (CO2) content retained in the bottled wine. Still table wines are divided into three groups: red, rosé (blush), and white, based on the color of the wine.

Coffee Roasting◦ The coffee roasting industry involves the processing of green coffee

beans into roasted coffee products, including whole and ground beans and soluble coffee products. The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code for coffee roasting is 2095.

Fish Processing◦ Fish canning and byproduct manufacturing are conducted in 136 plants

in 12 states. The majority of these plants are in Washington, Alaska, Maine, Louisiana, and California. Some processing occurs in Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, New York, and Virginia. The industry experienced an 18 percent increase in the quantity of fish processed in 1990, and additional increases were expected in 1992 as well. Exports of canned fish and fish meal also are increasing because of diminishing supply in other countries.

Snack Chip Deep Fat Frying◦ The production of potato chips, tortilla chips, and other related snack

foods is a growing, competitive industry. Sales of such snack chips in the United States are projected to grow 5.7 percent between 1991 and 1995. Between 2007 and 2011, potato chip sales increased from 649 x 106 kilograms (kg) to 712 x 106 kg (1,430 x 106 pounds [lb] to 1,570 x 106 lb), an increase of 63 x 106 kg (140 x 106 lb) (10 percent). Snack chip plants are widely dispersed across the country, with the highest concentrations in California and Texas.

Yeast Production◦ Baker’s yeast is currently manufactured in the United States at 13

plants owned by 6 major companies. Two main types of baker’s yeast are produced, compressed (cream) yeast and dry yeast. The total U. S. production of baker’s yeast in 1989 was 223,500 megagrams (Mg) (245,000 tons). Of the total production, approximately 85 percent of the yeast is compressed (cream) yeast, and the remaining 15 percent is dry yeast. Compressed yeast is sold mainly to wholesale bakeries, and dry yeast is sold mainly to consumers for home baking needs. Compressed and dry yeasts are produced in a similar manner, but dry yeasts are developed from a different yeast strain and are dried after processing. Two types of dry yeast are produced, active dry yeast (ADY) and instant dry yeast (IDY). Instant dry yeast is produced from a faster-reacting yeast strain than that used for ADY. The main difference between ADY and IDY is that ADY has to be dissolved in warm water before usage, but IDY does not.

Leather tanning is the process of converting raw hides or skins into leather. Hides and skins have the ability to absorb tannic acid and other chemical substances that prevent them from decaying, make them resistant to wetting, and keep them supple and durable. The surface of hides and skins contains the hair and oil glands and is known as the grain side. The flesh side of the hide or skin is much thicker and softer. The three types of hides and skins most often used in leather manufacture are from cattle, sheep, and pigs.

There are approximately 111 leather tanning facilities in the United States. However, not every facility may perform the entire tanning or finishing process. Leather tanning and finishing facilities are most prevalent in the northeast and midwest states; Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, and Wisconsin account for almost half of the facilities. The number of tanneries in the United States has significantly decreased in the last 40 years due to the development of synthetic substitutes for leather, increased leather imports, and environmental regulation.

Food and agricultural industries add value to and increasedemand for farm outputs, thereby contributing to povertyreduction and food security in rural areas. They provideemployment opportunities in off-farm activities such ashandling, processing, packaging, storage, transportation andmarketing of food and non-food agricultural products

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