ANNEX 1. IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT GLOBAL PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND THEIR RELATIVE PRODUCTIVITY

In this section we briefly characterise the major farming systems of the world giving an overview of the major crops grown or livestock produced, typical yields and the major inputs. Farming systems are divided between intensive and extensive systems. Some systems are found in most regions while others are largely confined to the developing countries.

IntroductionProduction systems can be defined as a ‘population of farms that have broadly similar resource bases, enterprise patterns, household livelihoods and constraints, and for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate’ (Dixon et al., 2001). Production systems are classified as extensive or intensive, and distinctions are made between indoor and outdoor systems. The environmental impacts of production systems are introduced in this chapter and are further examined in terms of environmental impact and long-term sustainability in Chapter 2. Key resource use and environmental impacts to be examined are:

water use, whether rain-fed or irrigated; inputs of mineral fertilizers; soil (erosion, degradation and desertification); emissions to water (nitrate, phosphate, pesticides and BOD); emissions to air (greenhouse gases (GHG), ammonia (NH3), particulates); impacts on biodiversity; land use change.

These factors will be reported in the context of the productivity, yield per ha, of the system.

Key crops and livestock within each production system are identified. It is suggested that without this information, no insight into possible solutions to improve the livelihoods of farmers can be obtained based on the application of production system research. In addition, as intensification of agricultural systems occurs, livestock are increasingly dependent on crop by-products and less so on grazing on fallows and marginal areas, thus it is important to consider the relationship between livestock and crop types within the same systems (Smith et al., 1997; Naazie and Smith, 1997 in Fernandez-Rivera et al., 2004).

The approach we have adopted to identify farming systems follows the framework proposed by Dixon (et al., 2001) who considered methods to 'determine appropriate agricultural development strategies and interventions in developing countries.’ He found that ‘the definition of such broad farming systems inevitably results in a considerable degree of heterogeneity within any single system. However, the alternative of identifying discrete micro-level farming systems in each developing country – which could result in hundreds or even thousands of systems world-wide – would complicate the debate concerning appropriate regional and global strategic responses'. The main farming systems have, therefore, been grouped in order to estimate their productivity, use of resources and environmental burdens. Within each of the broad systems, we will identify the typical development issues, enabling the identification of broad strategic approaches to agricultural development and improvement of food security.

We have adopted the seven broad types of farming system identified by Dixon et al, (2001) in the developing regions:

(i) irrigated farming systems, embracing a broad range of food and cash crops, and of farm sizes;

(ii) rainfed farming systems in humid high potential areas, with systems dominated by one or another crop activity (notably root crops, cereals, industrial tree crops – both small scale and plantation – and commercial horticulture) and mixed crop-livestock systems;

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(iii) rainfed farming systems in steep and highland areas, often mixed crop/livestock systems;

(iv) rainfed small-scale farming systems in dry or cold low potential areas, with mixed crop-livestock and pastoral systems which grade into sparse, often dispersed, systems with very low current productivity or potential because of extreme aridity or cold;

(v) large-scale commercial farming systems, across a variety of ecologies and with diverse production patterns;

(vi) coastal artisanal fishing and mixed farming systems;

(vii) urban-based farming systems, typically focused on horticultural and animal production.

The above criteria and farming system groups were applied to developing countries as well, and for all regions distinction was made with respect to:

•water resource availability, e.g. irrigated, rainfed, dry;•climate, e.g. tropical, temperate, Mediterranean;•landscape relief/altitude, e.g. highlands, upland, lowland;•farm scale and structure, e.g. small scale, large scale;•production intensity, e.g. intensive, extensive, sparse;

This chapter begins with production systems in the European Union (EU-27) and North America. In terms of developing countries, key production systems are based on categories identified (Dixon et al, 2001) and TECA (2006). Again, these are classified as being either intensive or extensive, taking into account their environmental impact. Farming systems are also discussed in terms of whether they are subsistence, commercial or collective.

The inputs into each system were also considered, since the levels of inputs – whether fertilizers, labour or veterinary care – reflects fluctuations in price, environmental concerns, advances in technology and changes to the production system (European Commission, 2008).

Finally, the future of each farming system will be summarized along with a brief outline of the opportunities, threats and limitations facing each system. These include factors such as limitations on soil type and lack of finance to gain credit to buy new livestock or fertilizers.

1.1 Intensive production systems

1.1.1 Intensive arable

All crop production relies primarily on natural resources (solar energy, water, soil and oxygen and carbon dioxide) and in addition many farming systems rely on nutrients in soil and those that can be recycled from livestock production or domestic wastes which are available in varying levels of abundance. A number of factors influence the intensity of agricultural production, including the availability and quality of these natural resources (e.g. fertile soil and water for irrigation) access to and affordability of technology, biodiversity, environmental and recreational demands on the land and external factors such as market demand or subsidy systems.

Across the EU-27, 100 x 106 ha of land out of 162 x 106 ha agricultural land are devoted to arable farming. Member States with the largest utilized agricultural areas (UAA, the EU measure for holdings) devoted to arable land include Belgium with 95% and Finland with 99%. Average farm sizes range from 1.2 ha in Malta to 143.0 ha in Slovakia (European Commission, 2008a).

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The greatest amounts of fertilizers used in the EU-27 are nitrogenous (N), with phosphate (P2O5)-based fertilisers and potash (K2O) also used in large amounts. In 2005, Belgium, the Netherlands and Malta had the highest spend (Euros per ha) on fertilizers and soil improvers, with spends of 155.7, 125.9 and 123.3 Euros per ha respectively (European Commission, 2008a).

Within countries in transition, the main crops grown are wheat and rye. Flax and cotton are typical in central Asia, with fruit and vegetables being grown south of the Caucasus Mountains. Under former communist control, most agriculture was collectivized with farms ranging in size from 2,500 to 25,000 acres (Agribusiness, 2009).

Figure 1: Harvested production of cereal crops (1000 t) in EU-27, 2007 (European Commission, 2008a)

On vulnerable soils intensive arable farming systems may face constraints from land degradation and soil nutrient depletion in the coming years. In order to increase the area of land under arable cropping, land use change may be needed. Land with limited yield potential may also be brought into production, threatening soil erosion and nutrient depletion. These potential problems may be most likely to arise in semi-arid regions such as the Mediterranean (Delgado et al., 1999; Bouwman et al., 2006).

In addition, intensive crop production is beginning to encroach on periurban areas. Combined with an increase in fertilizer use and an intensification of crop production, considerable local surpluses of nitrogen and phosphates could be produced in these areas (Bouwman et al, 2006).

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Table 1. Characteristics of intensive arable farming system

Regions/Countries

Importance in region Typical farm size (ha)

Main crop types and annual yields (t/ha in 2005) (WRI, 2009)

Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals – data from WRI datasets

Main environmental concerns

NAFTA Dominate arable production

Eastern United States – arable and pastoral systems

Central US wheat belt

192 ha in US, 24 ha in Mexico

Average national maize yields in Mexico are less than 2 t/ha, compared with 10-12 t/ha in the US.

Key crops: grain, maize, wheat, barley.

Cereals – 5.68 t/ha

The area cultivating maize increased by 0.5% while the total area under other cereals decreased by 2.9%. Wheat production was around 20% less because of poorweather, amounting to 44 million tonnes

US 2005 cereal yields – 6.54 t/ha

Canada 2005 cereal yields – 3.03 t/ha

Fertilizer use is very high in the US where 25.278 t * 10^9 of nutrient were used in 2005 (WRI, 2009). Fertiliser use intensity is 109 kg/ha (WRI, 2009) This also applies to the intensive livestock and arable farming in NAFTA.

Canada used 1.787 t * 10^9 of nutrient fertiliser in 2005 (WRI, 2009). This equates to an intensity of 53.7 kg/ha (WRI, 2009).

This represents a less intensive production system with a high level of fertiliser use.

GHG emissions

Competition for water, water pollution

Significant (historic) loss of native habitat

EU Dominate arable production

1.2 ha in Malta to 143.0 ha in Slovakia

EU average 16.5 ha

Key crops: wheat and barley; oilseed rape and potatoes; field beans and peas

In UK, wheat, barley, potatoes, oil seed rape and sugar beet are major tillage crops.

Cereal yields in 2005 (WRI, 2009)

UK – 7.23 t/ha Italy – 5.43 t/haNetherlands – 8.15 t/ha

N, with P and K where necessary. Variety of pesticides including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.Lime, manure, slurry, other organic inputs such as compost, paper waste

Fertiliser use is high, particularly of N. In areas, this has led to designation of areas as Nitrate Vulnerable Zones in UK. Here, fertiliser use in 2006 was 1.502 t * 10^9 which is a high level of fertiliser in line with Canada (WRI, 2009). The intensity of use in 2005 was 287.5 kg/ha,

In the UK in 2007, fertiliser consumption

Water quality, GHG emissions

Soil loss due to combination of low organic matter, removal of landscape features including hedges, exposed, bare seed beds over winter, poor cultivation practices leading to increased runoff, poor drainage and compaction

Localized loss of biodiversity through intensive production, pesticide use and decline in soil organic matter

Localized and catchment-specific N and pesticide water pollution – Nitrate Vulnerable Zones covered 70% of England, United Kingdom in 2009 (Defra, 2009).

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was as follows (all figures in kg/ha)

Wheat: N (190), P (31), K20 (39)Spring and winter barley: N (234), P (71), K2O (108)Potatoes: N (131); P (130) and K2O (199)Oilseed rape: N (189), P (30) and K2O (38)Sugar beet: N (92); P (41) and K2O (104)(All figures from Defra, 2007)

Countries in transition

Dominate arable production

2,500 to 25,000 acres

Key crops: wheat and rye

Cereals production in 2005 Croatia – 4.50 t/ha

N, with P and K where necessary. Variety of pesticides including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.Lime, manure, slurry, other organic inputs such as compost, paper wasteFertiliser use is low. Slovakia used 112 kg * 10^6 nutrients in 2006 (WRI, 2009) – low level of useIntensity 110.4 kg/ha (WRI, 2009).

Oceania Coastal areas in SE, S and SW Australia – arable and pastoral systems; rest of Australia semi-natural arid grassland; Queensland - tropical agriculture and sugar cane; large area of non agricultural land

NZ: combination of dairy and decreasing lamb production; regionally important arable, wine and fruit production

246 ha in NZ and3,127 ha in Australia

Key crops: wheat

Cereals production in – 2.07 t/ha

N, with P and K where necessary. Variety of pesticides including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides.Lime, manure, slurry, other organic inputs such as compost, paper waste

In 2006, Australia used 1.903 t * 10^9. of nutrient fertiliser. This is a high level of fertiliser use. Intensity in 2005 was 44.5 kg/ha – which is rather low compared to the total nutrient consumption.In New Zealand, intensity in 2005 was 309.4 kg/ha – intensive due to intensity of dairy farming

Soil erosion, water quality, GHG emissions

Salinisation

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1.1.2 Intensive dairy farming

A report to the EU Commission Directorate Generale for the Environment on the environmental impact of dairy farming in the European Union classifies dairy farms under three main categories based on fertilizer use, farm size, herd size, milk yield, livestock density and main winter fodder used (European Commission, 2000). Environmental impact and the importance of each system to dairy production are also considered. The categories are:

Farms which account for the greatest environmental impact, as well as providing the majority of milk in the EU in 2000;

Farms with a neutral environmental impact, where around a tenth of all EU milk is produced;

Farming systems which are ‘ecologically valuable’, despite having the ultimate goal of maintaining dairy production. These account for minimal EU milk production.

In the EU, a trend for increasing intensity of dairy production is being seen, with production centering around fewer but more intensive farms. As a result of this increasing intensity, high stocking rates, more mineral fertiliser and pesticide use and increasing mechanization occur. These can lead to point source pollution of water bodies, as well as diffuse pollution and pressure on sensitive habitats and landscapes (European Commission, 2000).

In a similar manner to the EU, milk production in the US and Canada has risen due to greater output from fewer cows and increased efficiency in productivity per cow as a result of enhanced genetics. Mexican herds are smaller, yet the development of ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk products has instigated the growth of large-scale dairies serving Mexico City and other urban areas.

The industry has grown particularly in central California, the Mountain West and the Great Plains, and has decreased in presence in the southeast and the northeast. There is still a large dairy industry in the upper Midwest, but not to such an extent as in previous decades. The average size of herd remains around 60 cows.

The future of the intensive dairy farming system is concerned with methane (CH4) emissions, a GHG with a global warming potential (GWP) 25 times greater than carbon dioxide (CH4). During the process of enteric fermentation, ruminant livestock produce CH4 which contributes 15% to the global total. Animal manure is also a source of CH4. In addition, nitrogen emissions from animal manure are greater than emissions from N fertiliser used in agricultural production (Bouwman et al., 2006). It will be a challenge to find a solution to the GHG emissions associated with this system; indeed, the human population require dairy products as part of a balanced diet, so further research might examine the level of wastage of dairy (and beef livestock) products in order to re-assess global supply and demand for such products.

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Table 2. Characteristics of intensive dairy farming system

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Regions/Countries Importance in region Herd Size (ha) Livestock Type and stocks (thousand heads) in 2006 (WRI, 2009)

Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals

Main environmental concerns

NAFTA In 2004, cow’s milk production in North America was estimated at around 95.4 million metric tonnes, that is, 15.6% of global milk output. U.S. production – 81% of North American milk output; Mexico – 10% and Canada – 8%. US: permanent pasture 237,600 thousand ha (WRI, 2009).

In 2004, the North American dairy herd consisted of 16.9 million head: U.S. - 9.01 million head, Mexico - 6.80 million head; Canada - 1.08 million head.

During the past two decades, Mexican milk production increased by one-third, while the United States and Canada saw output grow by 19% and 6%, respectively. In the United States and Canada, the increases in output havecome from fewer cows and sharp improvements in milk productivity per cow, mainly from genetics.

Around 60 cows on average

Holsteins/Friesians and crossbreeds will form significant part of N American herd

Total cattle stocks - 111,532 (doesn’t distinguish between dairy and beef farming)

N, P, K to varying degrees dependant on intensityLivestock feeds, locally produced and importedVet medicinesHerbicides

Fertilizer use is very high in the US where 25.278 t * 10^9 of nutrient were used in 2005 (WRI, 2009). The intensity of use in 2005 was 287.5 kg/ha,

Nitrogen in animal manure worldwide is greater than the volume of nitrogen fertiliser used in agriculture and contributes 40% of the global nitrogen total.

Enteric methane emissions

Ammonia and GHG emissions to air

Water contamination by manure, slurry, waste milk

Localised biodiversity loss under intensive grass production

Cattle vet medicines can also have localized impacts on biodiversity

EU Varying importance within EU Member States, depends largely on topography and hence suitability for other farming types. Also depends on proximity to population.

EU-25 countries produce 131.1 million metric tonnes ofcow’s milk (Farm Foundation, 2006).

Permanent pasture in UK - 11,180 thousand ha (WRI, 2009)France - 9,934 thousand ha

Average herd - EU-15, 1997, 24 cows40% of EU dairy cows kept in herds 50+ Nearly 50% of UK dairy cows are kept in herds of 100+

Large proportion of EU intensive dairy herd made up of Holsteins/Friesians and crossbreeds

Dairy cows often bred with beef bulls to produce beef offspring

Jersey and Guernsey breeds, and other local/regional breeds also used

Total cattle stocks – 128,218

N, P, K to varying degrees dependant on intensityLivestock feeds, locally produced and importedVet medicinesHerbicides

UK: 1.502 t * 10^9 which is a high level of fertiliser use. This equates to an intensity of 287.5 kg/ha (2005) (WRI, 2009).

Defra (2008) state fertiliser use on grasslands (kg/ha) - Total N – 65Total P – 14Total K20 – 18

Nitrogen in animal manure worldwide is greater than the volume of nitrogen fertiliser used in agriculture and contributes 40% of the global nitrogen total.

Enteric methane emissions

Ammonia and GHG emissions to airWater contamination by manure, slurry, waste milk

Localised biodiversity loss under intensive grass production

Cattle vet medicines can also have localized impacts on biodiversity

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1.1.3 Intensive livestock farming

Livestock production currently accounts for around 40% of the gross value of agricultural production worldwide. The share from industrial countries is over half the world total (FAO, 2003). In 2005, across the EU-27, 50,806,000 ha of land were devoted to permanent pasture (European Commission, 2008a). The UK, France, Estonia and Denmark accounted for 17%, 16%, 15% and 10% of this land-take respectively in 2005 (European Commission, 2008a).

In the EU, intensive livestock farming covers indoor egg and poultry meat production as well as a small proportion of beef production where cattle are housed indoors, or in outdoor yards, on a permanent basis. Livestock holdings are measured in terms of livestock units (LSU), with one LSU being the equivalent of a single grazing adult dairy cow. In 2005, the EU-27 had 9.0 million agricultural holdings. Of those agricultural holdings with over 100 LSU, 53.9% were in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. However the largest livestock farm densities are in Malta, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark. Figure 2 below outlines the animals slaughtered in the EU-27 in 2007 (1000 t).

Figure 2: Animals slaughtered by species (1000 t) in EU-27, 2007 (European Commission, 2008a)

Livestock production in Asian countries is becoming increasingly intensive. This intensification is in response to the general shortage of land and plentiful supply of cheap labour as well as increasing demand for livestock products. As a result, small-scale intensive systems including “cut and carry” and stall-feeding have become more predominant due to the small land requirements and high labour input. Rising availability of capital permits these countries to purchase machinery and inputs including improved breeds of livestock, food and medicines to ensure the health of animals. This trend has led to increasing productivity and has made pigs and poultry more attractive to rear than sheep and cattle (FAO, 2003a).

In developing countries, the share of land taken for livestock production is rising quickly as a result of growth in population and incomes and changes in lifestyles and dietary habits. Between 1997/99 and 2015, livestock production in developing countries will grow by only 2.6% pa compared with annual growth of 5.5% between 1989 and 1999. Between 2015 and 2030, this growth is expected to fall to 2.1% pa. This represents a slowdown in the growth of

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global livestock production, exacerbated by downturns in China and Brazil which previously experienced a large growth in this area (FAO, 2003a).

A number of trends have been witnessed in livestock production in recent years which are outlined below. These will be addressed in more depth in Annex 2.

Migration of disease vectors as climate becomes warmer and more humid in areas further north

Shift away from traditional, smallholder practices towards more intensive practices Increasing competition for grazing land putting pressure on the land to support

livestock Rise in demand for cereal feeds as a result of increased livestock production, thus

potentially causing tension between supplies for human consumption and for livestock feed (FAO, 2003).

1.1.3.1 Intensive feedlot systems

Under some systems of beef and veal production cattle are housed indoors on a permanent basis and fed on cereal or silage based diets. This could be considered an intensive system. In North and South America beef cattle are commonly fattened in intensive feedlot systems which are outdoor yards in which large numbers of cattle are housed, in high densities, and fed on grain and other compound feeds (Williams et al., 2009). This system is typical in parts of Europe (Central, Eastern and Mediterranean). In Spain, for instance, 80% of beef is produced under the feedlot system (Canali, 2001).

Animals reared intensively on concentrates tend to grow faster than those grazed outdoors and tend to be more productive, both in terms of meat, milk and offspring (Leguen de Lacroix, 2004). As Europe’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) continues to focus on more extensive agriculture indoor beef production is likely to decline (Steinfield and Maki-Hokkonen, 1995). As with intensive dairy farming, intensive livestock farming is an important source of CH4

emissions. As discussed, the process of enteric fermentation releases CH4 which is 15% of the global total. Again, animal manure is also a source of CH4 and nitrogen emissions from animal manure are greater than those from N fertilizer (Bouwman et al., 2006).

Bouwman et al. (2006) suggest that the dependence of ruminant production on grassland resources is reducing, whilst food crops and other feedstuffs will become more important. However, they project an increase in grass consumption as a result of intensification of livestock and arable production. This will require an increase in the use of fertilisers, better management and greater use of grass-clover varieties. However, nutrient loading from manure application is already a concern and the ability of the environment to recycle these nutrients varies depending on climate and hydrology, amongst other factors. It is suggested that intensive livestock and dairy farming should shift to drier regions to minimize run-off and leaching of nutrients. However, this poses a constraint in that additional irrigation might be needed (Farm Foundation, 2006).

Further research might focus on the global supply and demand of meat products; is there wastage in the EU and NAFTA which suggests production could be reduced in these regions? Or could these surpluses help meet food demand in other countries?

In the future, a rise in global livestock trade is projected to threaten the livelihoods of UK farmers due to influxes of cheaper meat and dairy imports. Key options for British farmers are to lower input costs and diversify into specialist markets in order to gain a competitive advantage.

Another threat to dairy farming systems is climate change, especially in continental countries. It is suggested that adopting traditional farming methods may help the system to last, since some of these techniques can help production become more resilient to changes in weather patterns (Phillips, 2002).

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Table 3. Characteristics of intensive livestock systemsRegions Importance in region Farm Size (ha) Livestock Type Inputs, kg/ ha N, P

K, other agrochemicals

Main environmental concerns

NAFTA Intensive feedlot systems are a common feature of this system.

Mixed crop-livestock systems across eastern United States

Livestock production accounts for around 40% of agricultural production worldwide. This share is over half the world total in developed countries (FAO, 2003).

In 2004, the North American beef cow herd was estimated at around 49.2 million head. Here, beef production of 14.9 million metric tons on a carcass weight equivalent (cwe) basis accounted for one quarter of global beef production. The United States produces about 80% of North American beef, while Mexico produces around 12% and Canada around 8%. This supports the figures of fertiliser use as shown in table 1.0 (Farm Foundation, 2006).

Farms tend to be large.

Beef cattle are fattened in intensive feedlot systems - outdoor yards in which large numbers of cattle are housed, in high densities.

Pigs - hogs and swine; Broilers and eggs;

Beef reared on outdoor intensive feedlots

Total cattle stocks in US - 111,532 thousand heads (WRI, 2009)

US meat production in 2006 – 41.081 kg *109

(WRI, 2009)

Total cattle stocks in

New Zealand - 9,652 heads (WRI, 2009)

Canadian meat production in 2006 – 4.493 kg *109 (WRI, 2009)

Fertilizer use is very high in the US where 25.278 kg * 109 of nutrient were used in 2005 (WRI, 2009). This equates to 109 kg/ha (WRI, 2009) This also applies to the intensive dairy and arable farming in NAFTA – no data available.

Canada used 1.787 kg * 109 of nutrient fertiliser in 2005 (WRI, 2009). This equates to 287.5 kg/ha (WRI, 2009). This represents a less intensive production system with a high level of fertiliser use.

Animals reared intensively on concentrates tend to grow faster than those grazed outdoors and tend to be more productive, both in terms of meat, milk and offspring;

Migration of disease vectors as climate becomes warmer and more humid in areas further north;

Shift away from traditional, small holder practices towards more intensive practices worldwide posing a dilemma over what to do with the excess nitrogen rich manure as well as emissions to atmosphere;

Increasing competition for grazing land puts pressure on the land to support livestock;

Rise in demand for cereal feeds as a result of increased herd sizes, thus potentially causing tension between supplies for human consumption and for livestock feed;

Concern about animal welfare in increasingly intensive systems;

In western United States, main concern is the salinisation of soils (Powers and Angel, 2008).

Concerns over nitrogen, sulphur and GHG emissions to the atmosphere from poultry production in the United States (Powers and Angel, 2008). Arise from manure storage and housing;Significant point sources of air and water pollution due to quantity of manure/slurry;

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EU Intensive feedlot systems in Spain.

Mixed crop-livestock and intensive livestock farming (animals indoors permanently) – largest holdings in Malta, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark

In 2005, the EU-27 had 9.0 million agricultural holdings. Of those agricultural holdings over 100 LSU, 53.9 % were in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. However the largest livestock farm densities are in Malta, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark

Range from 0 LSU (2 988.9 holdings across EU-27) to over 100 LSU (282.9 holdings across EU-27) Of those agricultural holdings over 100 LSU, 53.9 % were in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. However the largest livestock farm densities are in Malta, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark

Indoor egg and poultry meat production;Small proportion of beef production where cattle are housed indoors permanently.Cattle, sheep, pigs, goats

Total cattle stocks for region – 128,218 thousand heads (WRI, 2009)

UK: 1.502 kg * 109 which is a high level of fertiliser use. This equates to an intensity of 287.5 kg/ha (2005) (WRI, 2009).

Oceania Sheep grazing occupies 7.1 million hectares in New Zealand, forage for 40 million sheep

Total cattle stocks for region – 38,730.

9,652 thousand heads cattle in New Zealand

In NZ, meat production per person 349.00 kg in 2006

1.445 kg * 109 of meat produced in New Zealand;

3.941 kg * 109 of meat produced in Australia (WRI, 2009);

191.94 kg/person meat production in Australia (WRI, 2009)

New Zealand: 418 kg * 10^6 of nutrient, which equates to an intensity in 2005 of 309.4 kg/ha – intensive due to intensity of meat production in (WRI, 2009).

Increasing concern in NZ with respect to impacts on water quality and GHG emissions. Sheep grazing emits 5.9 Gg of N2O-N a year, compared with 6.3 Gg N2O-N from dairy cow grazing.

In a study by Saggar et al (2007) emissions were suggested to be 7.4 g N2O-N per hectare per day for sheep grazed pasture; compared to 3.4 g N2O-N per hectare per day for an ungrazed site. Conclusions suggested that sheep-grazed pasture acted as a source of methane as well as a sink but was an overall annual methane sink (plus or minus 0.64/0.19 kg CH4-C ha-1). In the summer, methane consumption was highest in the summer whilst it was lower in winter, colder and wetter months.

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1.1.4 Intensive horticulture

Horticulture is the production of fruit, vegetables and flowers (often referred to as fresh produce). Fifteen per cent of the EU’s agricultural production comes from horticulture. Despite only occupying 4% of the EU’s total agricultural land, the EU is the second largest exporter of fresh produce in the world (at the time of EU-15). The region is also the biggest importer of these commodities.

The main exports of the EU are citrus fruit (1.0 million tonnes), apples (0.5 million tonnes), grapes (0.2 million tonnes) peaches and nectarines (0.2 million tonnes) onions (0.4 million tonnes) and tomatoes (0.2 million tonnes) (European Commission, 2003). The EU is also a key wine producer, accounting for 45% of all land used for wine growing, 65% of all production, 57% of global consumption and 70% of worldwide exports (European Commission, 2009). These figures highlight the intensive nature of horticulture in the EU and therefore the potential for environmental degradation.

Most fruit and vegetable production occurs in only a few EU Member States, highlighting a vulnerability should threats from climate change, extremes of weather, trade or political disputes arise. For example, Poland produces around 60% of the EU-27’s carrots and 63% of the EU-27’s tomatoes came from Italy and Spain (European Commission, 2008).

Worldwide, horticulture in 2001-2002 lead to the production of over 1,230 million tonnes of fruit and vegetables. Asia had a 61% share in this total, the EU had 9%, North and Central America also 9%, Africa 8% and South America 7% (European Commission, 2003).

In terms of inputs to horticultural production systems, a broad distinction can be made between fruit production and vegetable production. For instance, vegetables require large inputs of fertiliser which have adverse impacts on water quality while the need for intensive cultivation can have a damaging effect on soil sustainability, whereas a lot of fruit (in particular top fruit – fruit which grows on established trees) are long-term crops which can protect soil against erosion.

Bertschinger et al. (undated) suggest there are a number of concerns facing the horticulture production system. These include food safety issues (such as the bioaccumulation of pesticides), climate change, globalization and the ability of local producers to earn a fair wage. Competition from supermarkets is threatening the ability to ‘buy local’ and the continued viability of independent retailers and markets. One example of minimising pesticide use in fresh produce production is a European project called ‘ISAFRUIT’. Using innovative IT-controlled spraying technology, the project aims to reduce pesticide use by 80%, through more efficient spraying.

Despite increasing energy prices and the implications for greenhouse vegetable production, this agricultural sector may remain competitive in the coming decades.

In the future, the potential exists for the horticultural production system to provide increased employment in developing countries, by means of crop diversification into cultivation of high value crops. Asia already has a 61% share of the world total for horticultural goods. For example, in India, the Maharashtra Horticulture Development Programme provides full wages and the capital needed by small farmers, tribes and ethnic minorities for the production of fresh produce. Some farmers have been given subsidies to pay wages and inputs were provided which included planting materials, fertilisers, a new road and a website, helping make the products produced internationally competitive. Between 1996 and 2006, 213 million man-days of work were created. Between 1989 and 2001, 96% of the area planted with fruit in Maharashtra was supported by this programme. It is important to note that vegetable production is more intensive than cereal production, requiring greater inputs of fertiliser, seed and labour (WDR, 2008). This should be taken into account when considering the availability of and access to inputs, especially in developing countries where farmers might not be able to readily afford them.

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In Chile, structural reforms introduced in 1974 provided farmers with greater security over the property rights of their farmland. Before this, crops were grown on an annual basis, rather than perennial, due to the farmers' unwillingness to invest. Allowing farmers to own their land has encouraged them to plant perennial crops and as a result, fruit and vegetable production has increased greatly (Avermaete, 1998).

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Table 4. Characteristics of intensive horticultural systemsRegions Importance in region Farm Size (ha) Main crop types and

annual yields in tonnes, 2003 or kg/ha, 2005 (WRI, 2009)

Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals

Main environmental concerns

NAFTA 9% world total

Horticultural crops provide 60% of all farm revenue in Californian agriculture, and California provides 37% of the horticultural cropvalue in the United States

Around 25% of all farms produce in the region of 75% of total production (Avermaete, 1998)

In California, average farm sizewas 82.1 hectares, however the median farm comprised only 13.7 hectares. There were relatively few very large farms and manyvery small farms (Lee and Blank, 2004). The average size of the USA farm is 21 ha for fruit and nuts and as large as 50 ha for vegetables and melons (Avermaete, 1998)

Tree and vine (fruit/nut) crops, vegetables, andornamental crops

Roots and tubers:

US agricultural production in 2005 -41,692 kg/ha;Canada - 29,394 kg/ha

Pesticide use in US – 2.3 kg/ha in 1997 (based on WRI, 2009);Canada – 0.6 kg/ha in 1994.

Only a few countries produce the EU’s fruit and vegetables. E.g. Poland produces around 60% of the EU-27’s carrots and 63.4% of the EU-27’s tomatoes came from Italy and Spain. This leads to exacerbation of pressure on land and water resources.

Horticultural production tends to be more intensive than other agricultural types. In Europe, current practices lead to very large water and nutrients loss in the environment (Agrinet, 2001).

Vegetables require large inputs of fertiliser which can have an adverse effect on water quality. Vegetable production tends to require intensive cultivation and can damage soils, whereas fruit is a long-term crop which can protect soil.

EU Despite only occupying 4% of the EU’s total agricultural land, the EU is the second largest exporter and biggest importer of vegetables in the world (at the time of EU-15). 45% of all land used for wine growing.

Around 25% of all farms produce in the region of 75% of total production (Avermaete, 1998)

In 1998, the average size was 4.2 ha for vegetable production and 7.9 ha for fruit production

Citrus fruit (1.0 million tonnes), apples (0.5 million tonnes), grapes (0.2 million tonnes) peaches and nectarines (0.2 million tonnes) while onions (0.4 million tonnes) and tomatoes (0.2 million tonnes) in 2003.

Roots and tubers agricultural production in EU, 2005 – 16.8 t/ha;France – 43.2 t/haGermany – 40.4 t/ha

Mainly mineral N, P, K Also pesticides including fungicides, herbicides

Pesticide use in UK - 5.8kg/ha (2001) from WRI (2009);France – 4.5 kg/ha;Germany – 2.3 kg/ha

Countries in transition Roots and tubers, agricultural production in Romania – 14.0 t/ha;Slovenia – 24.5 t/ha

Pesticide use in Romania, 2001 – 0.8 kg/ha;Slovenia in 2001 – 6.8 kg/ha

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Oceania Roots and tubers, agricultural production in Australia 16.8 t/ha;New Zealand 41.3 t/ha

Pesticide use in Australia in 1992 – 2.5 kg/ha;New Zealand in 2001 – 1.0 kg/ha

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1.2 Extensive livestock systems

In 2005, 7.8 million agricultural holdings were recorded in the EU-27 (European Commission, 2008a). Just under a half of these (46.6 %) were located in Romania and Poland together. 46% of the EU-27’s agricultural holdings were semi-subsistence small units and in Slovakia (81.2%), Hungary (78.3%), Bulgaria (77.9%) and Romania (71.0%), this share was greater (European Commission 2008). These can be compared with systems in developing countries such as in smallholder rainfed highland systems, where herds can be as small as 1 or 2 head of livestock, such as in China’s Gansu Province (Nolan et al., 2008).

1.2.1 Extensive beef and sheep grazing

Much beef and sheep meat production in the EU can be classified as extensive. In many Member States, beef cattle are turned out to graze in the spring after being housed during the winter, depending on the climate of a country. They are then left out until autumn before being brought in again. The time that cattle spend outdoors will depend on grass growing conditions and the weather. For instance, in the UK, some farmers bring their animals in overnight for a period after turning them out in the spring, and this may also happen as the time for bringing cattle in for the winter approaches. Cattle are turned out earlier in the South than in the North. Cattle being finished prior to slaughter are often housed inside or in straw yards (Webb et al., 2009).

As well as access to grazing on some systems, ruminant livestock are fed on forage diets (such as silage) or compound feeds which can be brought in, or produced on-farm from home grown cereals, sometimes mixed with other, imported ingredients. Cereal-based beef production systems tend to develop where the climate limits or halts grass growth in the summer, as well as in areas where cereals grow abundantly.

Of the 9 million agricultural holdings in EU-27 in 2005, 75% had less than 5 livestock units (LSU) and could be classified as extensive. The lowest livestock densities can be found in Slovakia and the Baltic Member States.

In Canada, only 17% of all land is used for agriculture. Two-thirds of this is used for the grazing of cattle, thus representing an extensive farming system. The prairie regions have low crop yields due to lack of precipitation. Similarly, cattle farming in Australia is considered extensive with 58% of land being used for rough grazing. Sheep and cattle stations are large, comprising 10,000-50,000 animals (Agribusiness, 2009). Grassy areas of plateau and river basins in Brazil provide grazing for cattle, however two-thirds of the country is covered with forest (Agribusiness, 2009).

Sheep tend to spend most of their lives outdoors, being brought indoors only during winter in some cases. However, under some production systems in parts of Europe, flocks may be housed on a more permanent basis, whether kept for the production of meat or milk. Ewes will often be brought inside for lambing, especially if they are doing so early in the year and if the weather is particularly cold or wet. Lambs spend relatively little time in housed accommodation due to the majority being born when grass has begun to grow again and sufficient grazing being available. Animals may also be housed temporarily for management purposes such as tagging and shearing or to relieve stress on grazing pastures.

Globally, livestock grazing accounts for a quarter of total land area. Extensive pasture provides 30% of total beef production and 23% for mutton (FAO, 2003a). In developing countries extensive grazing systems have typically increased production through rising herd sizes rather than by increasing productivity. However, the market share from such extensive systems is declining in comparison to other production systems. This is due to the reducing availability of land, through arable land encroachment and land degradation as a result of population increase. This limits the potential for further increasing herd numbers in these systems (FAO, 2003a).

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Table 5. Characteristics of extensive beef and sheep grazing systemsRegions Importance

in regionFarm Size (ha)

Livestock Type and stock numbers (thousand head) (WRI, 2009)

Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals

Main environmental concerns

NAFTA Two thirds of all agricultural land in Canada is used for grazing

Sheep and cattle stations are large, comprising 10,000-50,000 animals

Many UK and EU breedsSheep - 7,168

Fertiliser use in this system will be low due to its extensive nature.

In industrialized countries in 1995, 8.9 Tg N from animal manure was disposed of in industrial grazing systems; 7.2 Tg was applied to land.

Enteric CH4 emissions and emissions of N2O from excreta deposited when grazing.

EU UK biggest sheep meat producer and all UK sheep production is extensive.

Smaller sheep sectors in other Member States including sheep dairying

EU beef production becoming more extensive due to recent CAP changes reducing incentives for high production

Of the 9 million agricultural holdings in EU-27 in 2005, 75% had less than 5 LSU

Variety of beef and sheep breeds, often regional/country specific, although some breeds (including a number of French and Belgian beef breeds) have become more widespread

Sheep - 137,429

Ruminant livestock are fed on forage diets (such as silage) or compound feeds. In industrialized countries in 1995, 8.9 Tg N from animal manure was disposed of in industrial grazing systems; 7.2 Tg was applied to land.

Fertiliser use in this system will be low due to its extensive nature.

Negative biodiversity impacts caused by under and over grazing on pasture which has developed as a result of well managed grazing

Localised sheep dip (pesticide) pollution problems

Localised biodiversity problems due to vet medicines remaining in manure

Countries in transition

Sheep – Slovenia – 129;Croatia – 680;Bosnia and Herzegovina - 995

In 1995, 4.0 Tg of N from animal manure was disposed of in mixed/industrial grazing systems. 4.3 Tg was applied in mixed/industrial systems.

Oceania Cattle farming in Australia uses 58% of land for rough grazing – sheep grazing in New Zealand occupies 46% of all land (Saggar et al, 2006).

Very large, 100,000 ha not unusual. Some stations (large cattle farms) measured in square miles

British/European breeds, often cross bred with tropical breeds (such as Brahmin)

Merino sheep very widespreadSheep – 140,212

In New Zealand, fertiliser use in 2006 was 418 kg * 10^6 of nutrient, which equates to an intensity in 2005 of 309.4 kg/ha (WRI, 2009)

25% increase in N2O emissions since 1990 due to increasing intensity of pastoral land use, towards dairy-farming (Saggar et al, 2006)

The future of the extensive grazing system is likely to face challenges including attracting and maintaining the necessary skilled labour force as well as attracting the necessary funding which is needed to sustain small and medium sized farms (Farm Foundation, 2006).

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1.3 Production systems in developing countries

Figure 3: Map showing production systems in developing countries (Dixon et al, 2001 and TECA, 2006))

  Irrigated  Smallholder rain-fed humid  Wetland rice cultivation  Smallholder dry and cold   Dualistic mixed   Coastal artisanal  Smallholder rain-fed highland

1.3.1 Wetland rice cultivation (intensive)

Wetland rice cultivation is typically carried out in lowland, submerged soils in East and South Asia. The system supports an agricultural population of nearly 860 million and supports c. 1.5 billion people in total (FAO, 2003). The benefits of growing in flooded soils suit rice cultivation well and provide the necessary fertile soils and an abundance of freshwater during the wet or monsoon seasons. Low-lying land, including valley bottoms and the Indo-Gangetic Plains, covering much of Pakistan and Bangladesh as well as parts of India, have traditionally been associated with rice cultivation. In Korea, agriculture tends to be small–scale, with commercial family farms averaging around 1 ha. More than half of Korean total agricultural income is derived from rice crops (Sahrawat, 2006).

Whilst rice is the main output of this system, other food and cash crops are grown, and poultry and livestock are reared for domestic purposes. The system requires high input in the form of rain, with 60% of holdings having irrigation schemes. Rice production is very labour intensive and the systems can suffer from human pressure with 5.5 people per hectare of land, thus exerting significant pressures on natural resources.

Table 6. Characteristics of wetland rice cultivation systemsRegions Importance in region Farm Size Crop types and Inputs, kg/ ha Main environmental

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(ha) yields N, P K, other agrochemicals

concerns

South East and East Asia

Predominant in lowland, submerged soils (Korea, Japan, China, coastal Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia). Lowland rice production covers 12% of land area, that is more than 200 million hectares.

Small scale, average 2 ha. Total agricultural populationof 488 million

Key crops – rice, pulses, maize, vegetables.

More than half of Korean total agricultural income is derived from rice crops.

In southeast Asia, there exists 43%of the regions’ bovines; 29% of dairyanimals and 27% of small ruminants. Production is extensive, apart from intensive commercialchicken and pig production and dairying.

In China during the 1990s, rice yields were estimated at 5,949 kg/ha, an increase of almost 100% since the 1960s (FAO, 2000).

Average regional fertilizer use194 kg/ha (FAO 2003)

Fertiliser use in Korea in 2006 was 599 kg * 10^6representing a moderate level of consumption. Fertiliser intensity in 2005- 396.1 kg/ha (WRI, 2009)

Requires high levels of irrigation – 60% of holdings have irrigation schemes;

Source of CH4 – 6% of global total. It is projected that global rice production could increase by 65% between 1990 and 2025;

Labour is intense and the systems can suffer from human pressure with 5.5 people per hectare of land, thus exerting intense pressures on natural resources;

Water table declining alarmingly and soil salinity and sodicity increasing due to unplanned tubewell irrigation.

Use of high level of Urea increases NH3 emissions and is harmful for the fish stock in the region.

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Soil productivity declining

South Asia Covers 5% of the region including southern Bangladesh and West Bengal, the coastal plains of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Sri Lanka. Covers much of Pakistan.

Low-lying land, including valley bottoms and the Indo-Gangetic Plains.

India produces about 93 million tons of rice, one-fifth of world production. India is the second-largest rice producingcountry in the world (Chattopadhyay, 2009)

Over 200 rice varieties are grown on an area of around 45 million hectares, 25% irrigated area. Chattopadhyay (2009)India exports rice valued at about US$1.4 billion,of which Basmati accounts for $420 million and other varieties account for$980 million (Chattopadhyay, 2009)

Large number of small farms (0.3-1.0 ha)Large farms (4-10 ha)

Accounts for22 million ha of cultivated land and an agriculturalpopulation of 130 million people

Rice-wheat covers 19% of total land area; rice system along – 7%

Rice in monsoon, wheat in winter and oilseed, legume and vegetables in same land in spring.

Yield averages2.086 t ha–1 (FAI 2003).The average wheat production in India is in the region of 2,600 kg/ha (Indian News, 2008).

Mainly urea for rice

Average regional fertilizer use 115 kg/ha (FAO 2003)

Wetland rice cultivation is a source of CH4. It is projected that global rice production could increase by 65% between 1990 and 2025 which would lead to an increase of methane emissions from a 92 Tg CH4 y–1 to 131 Tg in 2025 (Bouwman, 1991).

Alongside rice production, rice-fish systems have developed in southeast Asia (Ruddle, 1982). These are regarded as offering ecologically and economically sustainable, subsistence forms of agriculture (Datta et al., 2009). Under such systems CH4 emissions were found to increase while nitrogen dioxide decreased. Taking into account the increased carbon credit payments which would be needed to offset the CH4 emissions, the higher fish and rice yields and profits offered by this system are still of greater economic benefit (Datta et al., 2009).

The major future changes in this farming system are expected to be increased intensification and diversification of crop production with little increase in cropped land area. Diversification could include focusing more on small scale livestock production as well as the expansion of small-scale on-farm aquaculture (ponds or rice-fish culture). If average farm sizes increased, in addition to farm mechanization, household incomes may increase thus reducing poverty. However, there are potential environmental implications associated with increasing intensification.

The future of the wetland rice cultivation system is also likely to encounter challenges relating to declining rice prices and increasing labour costs, thus making it less attractive to use high levels of inputs. As a result, this could slow down the current increases in rice productivity. These low prices reflect declining global prices, but may also be as a result of government attempts to keep rice prices low to satisfy urban consumers.

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The system is also likely to be faced with challenges relating to population pressure, climate change and land degradation, particularly in South Asia. With an increasing population to support, natural resources will be under greater pressure. Great variability in rainfall as a result of climate change may put further stress on already arid areas, so better water management and soil conservation is going to be necessary until population growth slows down (Dixon et al., 2001).

1.3.2 Irrigated (intensive)

Irrigated farming systems are found in the arid areas of northern and central Mexico, coastal and inland Peru, Chile and western Argentina, with the largest irrigated areas being in India, China and Pakistan, and important areas in Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Land area under irrigated farming systems totals nearly 200 million ha and this production system is important for national food security and exports in many countries (FAO, 2009). In order to help meet future demands, irrigation systems are likely to require increased performance levels.

Smallholder irrigated farming systems tend to require large-scale irrigation schemes in comparison to the scale of the farming. For example, the Ceyhan Aslantas Project was funded by the Turkish Government in the 1960s and completed in 1985. The aim of the project was to irrigate 97,000 ha of land in the Ceyhan basin, as well as generating power and reducing flooding impacts. The dam provides net irrigation for 84,000 ha of land (95% of the originally planned total). In terms of production, cropping intensity is 34% more than expected. As a result of unexpected cropping patterns, production values are less than predicted. Cotton, wheat and groundnut yields did not reach their predicted values, whilst there were increases in maize and watermelon yields at 200% and 50%, respectively.

Predicted yields resulting from this project were: cotton (4.0 t/ha), wheat (4.0 t/ha), maize (4.0 t/ha), groundnut (3.5 t/ha) and watermelon (2.5 t/ha). Actual yields were cotton (3.0 t/ha), wheat (2.9 t/ha), maize (8000kg/ha), groundnut (2.8 t/ha) and watermelon (3.8 t/ha) (World Commission on Dams, 2000).

Growth in irrigation schemes, as well as a lack of water management and integration of infrastructure have encouraged widespread environmental, economic and social problems. In order to prevent further degradation, irrigation schemes should shift towards being run at the community level on a participatory basis. However, this will involve time and money (Dixon et al., 2001).

Table 7. Characteristics of irrigated production systemsRegions Importance in

regionFarm Size (ha)

Crop types Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals

Main environmental concerns

Latin America

Occurs in northern and central Mexico, as well as coastal and inland Peru, Chile and western Argentina

Land areas total nearly 200 million ha, however only 7.5 million of this is cultivated and all land is irrigated.

Rice, cotton and fruitCattle

Fertiliser use in Mexico in 2006 was 1,652 kg * 10^6 (WRI, 2009).

This is a high level similar to that used in intensive arable, dairy and livestock farming in Canada and UK. However some of this figure will account for fertiliser use in these same production systems in Mexico.

Around 30 million women, men and children farm about 15 million ha of irrigated land, meaning environmental impact is high;

Soil salinity, sodicity rising and gypsum soil (Euphrates);

Susceptibility to drought and water shortages;

Increasing soil infertility as a result of shortened fallow periods (Dixon et al., 2001)

North Africa & Middle-East

Along the banks of Nile, Euphrates and Tigris – Egypt, Syria and Iraq

0.5 – 5 ha – state owned farms divided between tenants

Cotton, Fruits, vegetables

Livestock are insignificant – 1% of regional herd

Average regional fertilizer use 71 kg/ha (FAO 2003), which is less than half of that used in Asia (see below).

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Sub-Saharan Africa

West Africa (fadama) and Sahelian oasis. High potential for agricultural growth. Covers 2.6 million ha of cultivatedland, including 1.9 million ha of irrigated land

1 hectare on informal systems to 22 hectares on Gezira scheme, Sudan.

Rice, vegetables, livestock, tree crops (oil and rubber), maize

0.9 million tonnes N in

2005. Only 35% of crop growth was achieved through the use of fertilisers, which is 5 kg/ha on an average. There is therefore potential for yield growth through increase in fertiliser in Africa.

Asia Central Asia and northwest Pakistan, Punjab, Hayana, central, southern and western India. 16% of land is irrigated (Dixon and Gulliver, 2001).

See also wetland rice cultivation

Dominated by medium and large farms - 61% share in worldwide total of over 1,230 million tonnes fruit and vegetables in the highland region of India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bhutan

Banana, mango, orange, apple, flowers

Wheat, barley, vegetables and fodderin cool north;maize,sorghum, finger millet, vegetables, cotton, chickpea,pigeon pea, groundnuts in warmer climates

Chickens and pigs, cows and sheep

Fertiliser input is highest in Haryana, India – increasing from 3 to 130 kg /ha in the last 30 years. Fertiliser use for rice and wheat is 160 and 170 kg/ha per year, respectively. Overall use in 2006 was 19,257 kg * 10^6 (WRI, 2009) which is very high.

The use of K is low inthis region.

Nitrates are exceeding ambient levels in waters (Singh, 2000).

1.4 Extensive production systems

1.4.1 Smallholder rain-fed humid

This production system is based on smallholder cultivation of root crops, cereals or tree crops often alongside livestock production. Globally, these systems support an agricultural population of approximately 400 million people. Little irrigation is required due to the abundant rainfall. Pressure on land is low with an average of 2.5 persons per cultivated hectare (FAO, 2009).

In Latin America, arable land increased by over 200 million ha (from 919 million to 1,200 million) between 1965 and 1994, and irrigated lands have more than doubled (FAO, 1998). As a result of this increase in land use, food production in this region almost doubled in the period between 1965 and 1994, although this increase is smaller on a per capita basis. This highlights a continuing shortage of food in this region, and perhaps unfair distribution/access to food.

The main increases in productivity in Latin America were to be seen in wheat, maize and rice, which grew by 2.65%, 2.59% and 1.97% respectively between 1979 and 1994. Wheat and rice production managed to grow despite a reduction in land area. In contrast, growth of sweet potatoes fell by 1.01%, in line with a 1.72% reduction in land area (FAO, 1998).

Savannah and wooded areas dominate in extensive mixed systems such as the Cerrados and Llanos which cover much of central and western Brazil, Eastern Columbia, Guyana and Venezuela. Irrigation schemes are absent. Typical crops produced include quinoa, castor beans, pearl millet and pigeon pea.

Another example of smallholder rainfed systems is the pearl millet-cowpea-livestock system predominant in West Africa from northern Nigeria to southern Mali. Estimated crop yield is 7,176 million kg dry matter of useable crop residues each year. This supports the livestock present in this system (Fernandez-Revira et al, 2004).

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Future challenges for smallholder rain-fed humid farming systems are likely to include greater emphasis on sustainable management of natural resources in order to reverse and avoid further environmental degradation. In addition, greater means of accessing agricultural inputs are likely to be needed, as well as technological capital and information provision and education. Finally, increased capacity to react to globalisation and market development will be necessary in order for produce to be integrated (Dixon et al., 2001).

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Table 8. Characteristics of smallholder rainfed humid production systemsRegions Importance in region Farm Size (ha) Crop types and annual yields Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other

agrochemicalsMain environmental concerns

East Asia S and N Korea, Coastal Vietnam, Myanmar, Eastern China

Less than 1 ha Rice, sugarcane, cotton, pulse, sweet potato, vegetables

Poultry, pig, buffalo, cowsHigh use of organic and non-organic fertilizer;

Pressure on land is generally low with an average of 2.5 persons per cultivated hectare;

Little irrigation is required as climates have abundant rainfall;

Continual cultivation of cassava and land use changes mean soil has less time to recover and fertility declines; accounts for between 50% and 90% of nutrient loss (Fermont et al, 2008);

In pearl millet-cowpea-livestock subsystem, high human population densities puts pressure on sandy soils, thus the integration of crops and livestock is being introduced as a means of maintaining soil fertility (Fernandez-Revira et al, 2004);

Soil suitability is a constraint in the Llanos (Dixon et al., 2001)

As a result of damage to vines by weevils and lower soil chemical properties, sweet potato yields are declining under constant cultivation. A study by Hartemink et al (2000) suggests that the humid lowlands are not ideal for cultivation of sweet potato.

South East Asia

Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia

Less than 1 ha for rice and other crops but larger 2-3 ha farms for plantation crops

Rice, coconut, oil palm, spices, vegetables. Rubber

Poultry, pig, buffalo, cows

In Thailand, fertiliser use in 2006 was 1.797 t * 10^6 (WRI, 2009) with an intensity of 96.9 kg/ha.

Latin America

Savannah and wooded areas dominate in extensive mixed systems such as the Cerrados (190 million ha) and Llanos, Venezuela, Columbia (40 million ha),

Arable and coffee farms – 10 to 100 ha;Cattle ranches – only 10% of all agricultural holdings but ranches over 500 ha

Cerrados - wheat, maize (21%) and rice (21%); sweet potatoes; quinoa, irrigated beans (20%) pearl millet and pigeon pea. Soya (34%)

In Venezuela, fertiliser use was 372.6 kg * 10^6 in 2006. This represents a low level of fertiliser use. Intensity of use was 127.2 kg/ha (WRI, 2009)

Sub-Saharan Africa

Mid-altitude East Africa

In west Africa, pearl millet-cowpea-livestock is the predominant subsystem, reaching from Nigeria to Niger, Burkino Faso and Mali (Fernandez-Revira et al, 2004).

Ranges from 1.5 ha in Kenya to 7.0 ha in Uganda.

Cultivated area is 25.2% of total area covered.

Western Kenya – cassava in far away fields and maize and groundnuts in fields closer (Fermont et al, 2008). Pearl millet, cotton, sugarcane, bananas have emerged into cassava/maize.

Used for subsistence, cash and residues for livestock feed (Fernandez-Revira et al, 2004).

Cattle range from 2 to 7 heads at Ugandan farms (Fermont et al, 2008; Manyong, 2002).

Fertiliser use ranges from 0 kg per year in Ugandan farms to 101 kg per year in Kenyan farms

Ruminant livestock population in pearl millet-cowpea system of 11.8 million tropical livestock units for 3.2 months each year. Used for manure, food, cash and traction (Fernandez-Revira et al, 2004)

Oceania Papua New Guinea Sweet potato is staple crop

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1.4.2 Smallholder rain-fed highland

This system, which globally supports an agricultural population of over 500 million people, is typically located in steep, highland areas . Systems tend to be diversified with mixed crops and livestock, and are traditionally oriented to subsistence farming involving sustainable resource management. However, they tend to be characterised by intense population and resource pressure as well as poverty. An average of 3.5 persons per cultivated hectare is aggravated by intense grazing pressure on the four-fifths of uncultivated land. Given the poor infrastructure, produce is rarely integrated into the market (FAO, 2009).

The intensive highlands mixed system is an example of a production system under this heading. This system is found in the Northern Andes, for example, and produce includes vegetables, maize, coffee and potatoes (FAO, 1998).

The system is also found in the Loess Plateau, Gansu Province, China. Main crops produced are subsistence winter wheat in areas of higher rainfall, and subsistence spring wheat in lower rainfall areas. Farm size tends to be around 1 ha, allowing farmers to feed their families and sell some produce to provide income. Livestock production is poorly developed with potatoes, peas and oilseeds being the most popular crops grown. Other crops include wheat, soybean and forage crops (Nolan et al, 2008). Inputs to this system include fertilisers, both organic and inorganic, seeds and pesticides. Winter wheat has a seeding rate of 171 kg/ha and 162 kg/hectare N input. This is just less than four times greater than the N input for spring wheat and may indicate some inefficiency in N fertiliser application (Nolan et al, 2008).

The system extends to livestock production, at a subsistence level. In the Gansu Province, farmers tend to have an average of 1.7 pigs per household. Donkeys are used for transportation of produce and labour purposes, and sheep, goats and cattle are also kept. Rough grazing includes roadsides, stubbles and crop residues following harvest and in a few cases, grazing of pastures and forage shallower sloping land (Nolan et al, 2008).

Climate change may be a serious threat to food security and the livelihoods of poor farmers in the Tropics. In Latin America and Africa, the projected impacts of climate change on maize yields in 50 years time have been mapped. The results show that smallholder crop and livestock farmers – many of whom rely on rainfed maize production to provide food for their families and animals – are likely to see changes in yields.

In the Ethiopian Highlands, maize yields may double. However, eastern Brazil may see a reduction of up to 25% in maize yields; thus adaptation of current farming practices to cope with future climate is needed urgently (ILRI, 2009).

Over the next 30 years, terraces in this system could be restored and revived, water management could be improved and maintained by communities and crop and livestock could be better integrated (Dixon et al, 2001).

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Table 9. Characteristics of smallholder rainfed highland systemsRegions Importance in region Farm Size

(ha)Crop types and annual yields

Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals

Main environmental concerns

East Asia Dominant, e.g. Loess Plateau, Gansu Province, China (Nolan et al, 2008)

Around 1 hectare

Subsistence winter wheat in areas of higher rainfall, and subsistence spring wheat in lower rainfall areas Potatoes, peas and oilseeds. Wheat, soybean and forage

Poorly developed. Where found, pigs, donkeys (for transport). Sheep, goats and cattle. Rough grazing. Maize and sorghum feed cattle, as well as pastures and forage

Winter wheat: 162 kg N/ha input – four times greater for subsistence spring wheat.

Other inputs include organic and inorganic fertilisers ranging from 40 kg N per hectare for field peas in Dingxi, Gansu, to 182 kg N per hectare for maize in Qingyang

Soils (sandy loams and high silt content) have a low clay content and are compacted by farming methods, leading to an inability to retain organic matter. This leads to soil instability and erosion as well as poor fertility for crop cultivation (Nolan et al, 2008)

A rise in subsistence arable farming and overgrazing stresses soils which causes erosion as farms cultivate the land then move on (Dixon et al., 2001)

South East Asia Philippines and Indonesia

Upland rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, bovines

Fertiliser use is likely to be low due to the extensive nature of this farming system, its poorly developed infrastructure and lack of machinery for application

Latin America Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Columbia.

High Altitude Mixed Farming System found in central Andes (northern Peru, Bolivia, Argentina) covering 110 million ha from NorthernPeru to Bolivia into Northern Chile andArgentina, as well as 40% of Peru and Bolivia.

Subsistence based - vegetables, maize, coffee and potatoes

Potatoes, nativeAndean grains, maize, barley and lima beans. Sheepare important in the Peruvian Sierra, while llama andalpaca dominate further south. Maize yields tend not to exceed 1 tonnes/ha

Sheep in Peruvian Sierra, Llama andAlpaca prevalent further south

Fertiliser use will be low.

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1.4.3 Smallholder dry and cold This farming system, typical of areas of limited agricultural potential due to lack of rain or low night or winter temperatures, covers a vast land area, around 3.5 billion ha including north and west Africa, particularly much of India, China and Indonesia. Yet it supports only a relatively modest agricultural population of around 500 million. Such systems are based on mixed farming systems or pastoral activities, merging eventually into sparse and often dispersed systems with low productivity due to environmental constraints including nutrient poor soils, low temperatures and lack of rainfall (FAO, 2003).

The pastoral farming system found at the southern boundary of the Pampas in Patagonia is an example of a rain fed dry/cold system. Sheep and cattle ranching is the main farming activity as the lack of rainfall prevents the growth of crops (FAO, 1998).

Another example of this system is in western Kenya. The Teso, Vihiga and Kakamega districts of Kenya are areas with high potential for agriculture. Farm sizes range from 0.5 to 2.0 hectares on average, ranging from subsistence to cash crop farms. The main crops grown are maize, beans, sorghum and cassava. Fertiliser use ranges from nil in the Nakasongol district of Uganda, to 101 kg/ha per year in the Busia district of Kenya (Fermont et al, 2008). In a study by Tittonell et al (2008), soils have been categorised as fertile (22%), average (40%) and poor (38%) based on a sample of 60 farms in the region. The study concludes that soils considered as poor by farmers were given very little input. This is typical of farming across western Kenya (Tittonell et al, 2008).

The future of the smallholder dry and cold system is likely to continue to be affected by environmental degradation such as soil infertility, poor water quality and monocropping, which make ecosystems less resilient to stress than more diverse agricultural systems (FAO, 2008).

Changes in this farming system have been felt by local farmers themselves. In Zimbabwe for example, local farmers have seen changes in rainfall patterns and yields. Weather is becoming less predictable, making it difficult to know when to plant crops. In addition, local farmers suggest that soils have become less fertile and as a result harvests have fallen.

Meterological Office statistics for Zimbabwe indicate that annual mean temperature increased by around 0.4 degrees Celsius between 1900 and 2000 (African Agriculture, 2009).. As well as this, by 2080 annual rainfall will average 5-18% below the 1961-1990 average of 634.8 mm.

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Table 10. Characteristics of smallholder dry and cold production systemsRegions Importance in region Farm Size (ha) Crop types Livestock types Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other

agrochemicalsMain environmental concerns

Latin America

Parts of NE Brazil (20%) and Argentina, southern boundary of the Pampas in Patagonia; Yucatan peninsula of Mexico (17 m hectares)

Larger farms produce maize

Cassava, maize, rainfed rice, beans on a subsistence basis

Sheep and goats in NE Brazil; cattle ranching.

Lack of rainfall soil infertility, poor water quality and monocropping, which make ecosystems less resilient to stress than diverse agricultural systems

N Africa & Middle-East

Predominant – Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Yemen; covers much of middle east including Kazakhstan, Kyrgiz Republic, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan

1-3 ha Wheat and barley; roots and tubers, pulses

Small stocks of sheep and few cattle (88 million head in 2000), pigs (78 million heads in 2000), poultry (1111 millions head in 2000).

In Saudi Arabia, fertiliser consumption in 2006 was 340 kg * 10^6. This is a low level of fertiliser use.

In Morrocco, this same figure was 451kg * 10^6 (WRI, 2009)

Sub-Saharan Africa

Covers Namibia, Botswana, Angola and Zambia.Western Kenya, Africa. The Teso, Vihiga and Kakamega districts of Kenya

In west Africa, the system covers much of Mali, Niger and Mauritania, where farming is minimal

0.5 to 2.0 ha on average Maize, beans, sorghum and cassava.

In Mali, Niger and Mauritania, there are less than 90 plant growing days per year so crop farming is minimal – mean cultivation is only 4.5%

Pastoral farming is the main activity based on grassland-arid and semi-arid systems of Mali, Niger and Mauritania. Livestock include cattle, sheep, goats

0 kg per year in the Nakasongol district of Uganda, to 101 kg per year in the Busia district of Kenya

In Zambia, fertiliser consumption in 2006 was 73 kg * 10^6, representing a very low level of fertiliser use.

South Asia Covers much of India - the NW Himalayan region and the western deserts of India

Pastoral nomads without farms;

Cooperative dairy farming with average of 2-5 cows per farm

70 million households produce milk

Cereals,

Dairy cows and buffaloes

Sheep, camel, mountain goats

East Asia China Pig, poultry, sheep, cattle, buffalo, goat

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1.4.4 Dualistic mixed

This farming system is one of contrasts; large commercial farms are found alongside smallholdings. such systems are found in parts of Russia, Eastern Europe and Latin America. Globally, an agricultural population of nearly 200 million is supported by this type of system, which is found in over 400 million ha of cultivated land. It has diverse production patterns, with systems prevalent in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Latin America, but also in Africa. Most of these systems are rain-fed, with the exception being the irrigated farming systems of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, dominated by medium and large farms (FAO, 2006).

Typically, ruminant livestock are found as part of mixed farming systems in developing countries. An estimate in 1996 put such systems responsible for producing over 65% of beef, 69% of mutton and 92% of cow milk in developing countries (FAO, 1996). Such a combination of crops and livestock production provides a symbiotic relationship. Crops and their residues provide feed for livestock, while livestock provide manure which fertilises land, food, diversity and therefore reduces risk.

Although short-cycle species, such as chickens and pigs, are important to ensure domestic food security and a source of income for families, it is cows and sheep which convert fibrous material and forages into valuable products. To illustrate, around 250 million work animals provide draft power for the cultivation of around half the total cropland in developing countries (FAO, 2003).

Table 1.11: Characteristics of dualistic mixed production systemsRegions Importance in

regionFarm Size (ha)

Livestock Type

Inputs, kg/ ha N, P K, other agrochemicals

Regions

Countries in transition

Covers much of Russia and Eastern Europe – irrigated farming system

Large and medium farms

In Russia, fertiliser use in 2006 was 1.517 t * 10^9 (WRI, 2009). This is a high level of use (on a par with UK and Canada’s intensive farming systems)

Increasing cost of inputs has lead to a decline in fertiliser and pesticide use. As a result, soil fertility is declining and yields are reducing. Low organic matter content and high soil acidity;

Limited resource base, including poor drinking/irrigation water quality in southern and eastern Asia;

Overgrazing in Asia leads to poor soil structure and increases water run-off;

Lack of livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa meaning there is less manure available and less power to work the land (Dixon and Gulliver, 2001).

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South and South East Asia

Irrigated farming system - Central Asia and northwest Pakistan, Punjab, Hayana, central, southern and western India. 16% of land is irrigated (Dixon et al., 2001)

Dominated by medium and large farms

Shrimp farming for export, coastal artisanal fishing, Goat and poultry. Coconut, cashew, trees, rice

Fertiliser input is highest in Haryana, India – increasing from 3 to 130 kg/ha in the last 30 years. Fertiliser use for rice and wheat is 160 and 170 kg per hectare per year, respectively. The use of K is low in this region.

Nitrates are exceeding ambient levels in waters (Singh, 2000).

Sub-Saharan Africa

Covers much of South Africa and Botswana.

The maize mixed farming system is predominant in East and South Africa and highlands of west Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria. Coastal artisanal system along western coast of Madagascar. Covers only 2% of land area

Average 2 ha.

Maize, tobacco, coffee, cotton, pulses, sunflowers

Cattle for ploughing, breeding, milk, farm manure,savings and sale if needed

Latin America

Predominant - Guyana, Venezuela and Equador, Panama, Nicuragua

Extensive grazing is a feature of this production system -Cattle ranching

14) Fishing and aquaculture

Aquaculture

Aquaculture involves the farming of aquatic species in controlled conditions. The EU is not a big player in this type of production although farms producing mussels, oysters, salmon and trout can all be found in the region.

Since the 1950s, the number of species produced under aquaculture has grown from traditional production of oysters, mussels, carp and shrimps, due to the ease of obtaining an abundance of other artificially reared species for production. Carp is the main fish cultured worldwide, accounting for 70% in 1999, but in general it is not a significantly traded commodity (Dixon et al., 2001).

Current aquaculture productions levels are beyond 1995 projections, with an increasing proportion of this being used for consumption (rising from 19% in 1990 to 34% in 1999). Key producers are in Asia, particularly China, where, 1n 1999, 89% of all aquaculture production was found (Dixon et al, 2001).

Capture Fisheries

Between 1970 and 1999, total annual fish production almost doubled from 65 million tons to 125 million tons (FAO, 2003; Our Task, 2008). Global marine fisheries produced around 80-85 million tonnes of fish in the 1990s and production in inland fisheries increased from 6.4 million tons in 1990 to almost 8.3 million tons in 1999.

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Some trends in marine fisheries include a decline in high value, large species of fish, which are substituted with smaller, short-lived species. This change is caused by over-fishing of predator species, making the cost of tuna, cod and mackerel very high.

Marine aquaculture involves the culture of fish in ponds; net cages in open waters or raceways (Wu, 1995). The table below outlines predominant fishing types across the world. The growth in marine fish farming presents a number of environmental concerns as well as conflicts of interest between countries and users of the high seas. See chapter 2 for further discussion on the environmental impact associated with fishing and aquaculture.

Offshore fishing

Offshore fishing involves the use of small vessels which are likely to return to port every night while deep sea fishing uses larger vessels which travel to international waters and stay at sea for a week or two, for instance traditional UK trawlers. The former Soviet long-distance fleet with factory ships would stay at sea for a couple of months. Shellfish is the main target of offshore fishing today.

In 2006, Spain and the Netherlands landed the largest quantities of fish for consumption by humans, at around ¾ million tonnes. The volume of fish caught in varying regions highlights consumer preferences; for instance, Italy landed the most European anchovies, the Netherlands and Denmark the most Atlantic herring, Spain and Portugal the most European pilchards, and the United Kingdom the most Atlantic mackerel (European Commission, 2008).

Marine fishing

Latin American countries are major exporters of fish products and comprise 11% of worldwide exports. Chile is the predominant net exporter, particularly of shrimp and fishmeal (FAO, 1998). Other prime species include Ecuadorian shrimps, Peruvian Anchoveta, Chilean horse mackerel and mackerel, squid and hake, followed by basses and conger from the South West Atlantic (FAO, 1998). In Korea in 1995, a fish catch of almost 3 million metric tons was seventh largest in the world (Agribusiness, 2009). Whilst there is a lack of data available on inland fisheries and the range of services inland waters provide, initial findings suggest it may be more profitable to use Brazilian floodplains for fisheries than for cattle grazing (Dixon et al., 2001).

The coastal artisanal farming systems (areas shown in pink in figure 1, e.g. western coast of Madagascar) are important for domestic food security, with inshore fishing providing a livelihood for many. A rapid growth in aquaculture in this system has been seen, for one because crop yields have a tendency to be low due to poor soil nutrient content. Those areas which do have fertile soil are susceptible to storms and floods, for instance around the Bay of Bengal. Tree crop production also occurs, for instance coconut and cashew, and some livestock are bred, particularly goat and poultry (FAO, 2006).

It is thought that catches from inland fisheries are underestimated, due to the extensive characteristics of many fisheries. As well as this, fish caught inland for instance through the coastal artisanal system, tend to be sold locally and do not therefore enter the economy. As an estimate, it is suggested that in Brazil, Ghana and South East Asia, productivity might be twice to six times higher than reported (Dixon et al, 2001).

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AquacultureRegions Importance in region Main fish Inputs Environmental concernsNAFTA Not a major source of fish Mainly salmonids Artificial feeds are used

Pollution of inshore waters and lakes

Loss of mangroves as a result of land take for shrimp and fish farming (FAO, 2008)

EU Not a major source of fish Mainly salmonids, also mussels and oysters. Artificial feeds are usedCountries in transition

Insignificant Little information

East Asia Coastal Vietnam and Eastern China;

China has become the world’s largest fish producer (Dixon et al, 2001)

Shrimp farming and small scale artisanal fishing;

In Asian-Pacific waters, groupers, sea bream, sea bass, snappers and yellow tails are cultured, being fed with trash fish.

In Japan, Korea and Hong Kong seas, non salmonid species are cultured

Oceania Insignificant Little informationLatin America Little information Shrimp farming in EcuadorSub-Saharan Africa

Recently aquaculture production has expanded rapidly in Africa, but it is essentially Egypt that has accounted for the expansion. In 1999 Egypt accounted for 80% of total African production, estimated at 284,000 t.

Production in Egypt consisted of tilapia (46%), carp (33%) and mullet(19%). Conceivably, tilapia and carp could be sold in the rest of Africa, but this is not likely to happen for two reasons. Egypt depends on imports to keep up fish consumption and the average consumer is wealthier than most of the potential importers in the rest of Africa.

South and South East Asia

India and Bangladesh delta region in the Bay of Bengal in north-eastern Indian Ocean, Indonesia

Shrimp farming for export, coastal artisanal fishing, Goat and poultry. Coconut, cashew, trees, rice

Capture fisheriesRegions Importance in region Farm Size (ha) Inputs Environmental concerns

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NAFTA North America fish catches have declined Large tunas and tuna-like species, with skipjack, yellowfin and bigeye tuna - 89% of declared tuna catches in the Eastern Central Atlantic (FAO, 2004)

Deep sea fishing in the high seas can threaten other vulnerable marine species including delicate cold water corals and sponges; sea-bottom seep and vent habitats that contain unique species, and features like underwater seamounts which support sensitive species (FAO, 2008a).

Conflicts of interest between European, Asian, North American and Australian users (Wu, 1995);

EU Still an important activity in some countries such as Spain

Italy landed the most European anchovies, Netherlands and Denmark the most Atlantic herring, Spain and Portugal the most European pilchards, and the UK the most Atlantic mackerel

Countries in transition

Less important than in the Soviet era Little information

East Asia A major source of protein in this regionOceaniaLatin America Major exporters of fish products and comprise

11% of worldwide exports. Chile is the predominant net exporter, particularly of shrimp and fishmeal.

Ecuadorian shrimps, Peruvian Anchoveta, Chilean horse mackerel and mackerel, squid and hake, followed by basses and conger from the South West Atlantic

Sub-Saharan Africa

Africa’s per capita fish consumption is low at 6.8 kg in 1999 (Dixon et al, 2001)

Large tunas and tuna-like species, with skipjack, yellowfin and bigeye tuna together accounting for around 89% of declared tuna catches in the Eastern Central Atlantic (FAO, 2004)

South and South East Asia

An important source of protein in this region

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