Food Aid as Dumping - World Trade Organization

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Vancouver Model

United NationsThe 11th Annual Conference January 2022, 2012

Background GuideWorld Trade Organization


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Vancouver Model United Nations

The 11th Annual Conference January2022, 2012

Dear Delegates,

My name is Livvy Bedord and I will be serving as your Director in the World rade

Organization during the 2012 VMUN conerence. I am currently a Senior at

Inglemoor High School in Kenmore, Washington. I have been involved in Model

United Nations since I started high school and am currently the President o the

MUN club at my school. I strive to maintain an international ocus that looks

beyond the American ramework Ive grown up in and I have had nothing but

wonderul experiences in MUN. I hope that I can help create a positive experience

or everyone in the WO and that youll come away rom this conerence with a

better understanding o the country you represent and the issues well be ocusing

on.

Im very excited to see where the discussion and debate will lead as we explore the

issues Ive selected. I had a wonderul time researching and writing this background

guide and I hope you will al l fnd these issues as interesting as I did. Both topics

address very serious questions about how our increasingly globalized world is

going to solve the problems that arise as we become more connected. Te frst

topic, w hich addresses the negatives o ood aid, is important in understanding how

countries can help each other responsibly and maintain development goals in the

midst o crisis. Te second topic addresses a undamental divide between trade

objectives and human health. In determining a solution delegates must determinethe appropriate boundary between protecting trade and protecting consumers

rom potential dangers.

I hope that youll all keep this question in mind while exploring both topics and

preparing your position papers. I look orward to hearing the ideas that will

inevitably come out o your hard work and I cant wait to meet all o you. I you

have any questions regarding the conerence eel ree to contact me anytime.

Best wishes,

Livvy Bedord

Director, World rade Organization

Hafz Dhanani

Secretary-General

Yeoman LiangDirector-General

Alex LinConerence Director

Zach HauserChie o Sta &

Under-Secretary-GeneralCommittees

Amelia CaseyUnder-Secretary-General

Committees

Stuart WarrenUnder-Secretary-General

Delegate Aairs

David ChoiUnder-Secretary-GeneralInormation echnology

Johnny BrynelsenUnder-Secretary-General

Marketing

Jennier YoonUnder-Secretary-General

Marketing

Azzra MangaljiUnder-Secretary-General

Sponsorship


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Vancouver Model United Nations 2012

World Trade Organization

Topic A: Food Aid as DumpingIntroduction

An estimated eight hundred and orty million people are currently suering rom malnutrition or

starvation. 1 Te public tends to assume that the obvious solution would be more ood aid distributed to

the poorest countries, to eed the hungry rom the developed w orlds surpluses. In actuality, ood aid has

oen done more harm than good. Although ood aid has been used to positive eect, it has also been

exploited by powerul donor countries interested primarily in urthering their own political and

economic goals. Food aid, w hen exploited, has the potential to distort trade not only in the recipient

countries but also in other countries that export ood products to the recipient countries. Such trade

distortions have the potential to interrupt development and to create ood aid dependency. Because ood

aid abuse causes trade distortions, it alls under the purview o the World rade Organization, and it is

crucial or the WO fnd methods o regulating ood aid so that it is used sole ly as a developmental tool,

supporting developing countries rather than supporting the commercial interests o developed nations.

Timeline

1945 First session o Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) is held in Quebec, Canada

1954 rade and Development Assistance Act (Public Law 480) is signed into law in the US, starting

modern ood aid

1963 World Food Program begins

1967 Food Aid Convention (FAC) established in 1967 in connection with the Kennedy Round o GA

trade negotiations

1974 World Food Conerence is held

198693 Uruguay round: agricultural subsidies are a major issue o discussion and eorts to reduce

subsidies are included in the resulting agreements, ood aid is largely excluded rom these agreements2

1994 rade ocials meet in Marrakech, Morocco to fnish the Uruguay Round

1995 Agreement on Agriculture comes into orce, as part o this agreement the WO Committee on

Agriculture is ormed

1999 Food Aid Convention is updated

2000 Te number o people suering rom malnutrition and starvation is reported to be 800 million;

development goals seek to decrease this number by hal by 2015

2001 Doha Round begins: agricultural reorm is one o the main items on the debate agenda

2002 Food aid controversies erupt in connection with the Southern Arican amine, tensions rise

between the US and EU

1 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd2 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profles/2430089.stm


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2004 Te number o starving people in the world rises rom the previously reported 800 million to 840

million people despite global eorts to counter malnutrition

2008 Te Doha round o WO negotiations collapses due to disagreements centred on critical issues

2008 Attempts to create an agreement that will protect developing countries rom import surges alls

apart due to disagreements between India and the US3

Historical Analysis

ypes o Food Aid

Beore looking at the issue in depth, it is important to clariy the dierent types o ood aid currently being

employed. (Some technical terms are expanded upon in the glossary at the end o this guide.) Food aid

alls under three main branches: program, project, and emergency.

Program Food Aid: When providing program ood aid, donor governments provide in-kinddonations to recipient countries. Usually, the ood is monetisedby the recipient government so asto provide unding or government activities that may have no connection to ood shortages.

Program ood aid is most likely to occur as a government-to-government transaction. Also,

program ood aid is sometimes sold to the recipient country using borrowed money lent at

below-market rates, instead o being oered in grant orm. Tis type o ood aid is highly

concessional and oen includes the use oexport credits, a highly controversial aspect o program

ood aid.4

Project Food Aid: In contrast to program ood aid, this type o aid is directed at specifc programswithin the recipient country with stated development goals. Te provided ood is sometimes

monetised, b ut oen is used as part o the project it is intended or. Project ood aid transactions

occur between governments, or between governments and NGOs working toward development

goals in the recipient country. Examples o projects that utilise this type o ood aid include ood

or work, school eeding programs, and mother-child nutrition centres.5 Emergency or Relie Food Aid: As its name implies, this type o ood aid is provided in response

to natural disasters or man-made catastrophes that create acute ood shortages. Tis orm o aid is

oen short-term, and is the least likely to cause distortions in trade because there is generally no

local production to be undercut at the time.6

Approximately sixty percent o ood aid is given in the orm o in-kind donations that mostly come rom

the US, Canada, Australia, Argentina, and Japan, while the other 40 percent is in the orm ountied

donations that mainly come rom the EU.7

Te Many Problems o Food Aid

In the United States, the introduction o Public Law 480, which authorised the American government todistribute surplus goods to ood-insecure countries, ormalised the use o ood aid as a orm o surplus

3 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profles/2430089.stm4 p://p.ao.org/docrep/ao/004/Y3733E/Y3733E00.pd5 http://www.oxam.org/en/policy/ood-aid-or-hidden-dumping6 p://p.ao.org/docrep/ao/004/Y3733E/Y3733E00.pd7 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd


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disposal.8 Tis underlying goal has pervaded US ood aid policy throughout its history. As the example,

the 2002 amine in Southern Arica demonstrated the non-humanitarian goals that undermine modern

ood aid. Aer the introduction o genetically modifed maize in the United States, the US saw a sharp

reduction in its maize exports to Europe, leaving it with a large surplus o maize. When calls o amine

began to erupt in Southern Arica, the US attempted to dump the genetically modifed maize that it could

not sell to Europe on the starving Arican nations. When the Arican nations reused to accept thegenetically modifed products, which had not been certifed as sae to consume, the US reused to back

down and insisted on providing the controversial product.9 O course, this incident only highlights the

less-than-humanitarian goals that oen pervade ood aid.

Globally, there is a direct correspondence between ood aid and ood surpluses. Unortunately, this

means ood aid is most readily available w hen global ood prices are low and developing countries are

most likely to be capable o providing or their own ood needs. Te corollary is also true: when ood

prices are high, ood aid becomes less available even though ood-insecure countries are most likely to

need aid during these times. Tis correlation highlights the role o ood aid as a donor-centric economic

tool, rather than as a humanitarian eort to provide ood or the worlds starving.10

It is evident that theeconomic interests o donor countries oen supersede the needs o recipient countries. As a result, ood

aid becomes, at best, ineective and inecient.

Abuses o ood aid can also lead totradedistortion in the recipient country, exacerbating the cycle opoverty. Highly industrialized arms in the developed w orld have the capacity to produce ood at costs

astronomically low er than those incurred by armers in the developing world. When these crops reach

the developing world, local armers are undersold and unable to compete. Consequently, local armers

suer a loss o livelihood and are likely to succumb to even greater levels o poverty. Tus, local trade can

be destroyed in avor o crops imported rom wealthy donor nations.11 Such was the case in Cameroon,

where imported rozen chicken sent as ood aid completely wiped out the local chicken market. As aresult, the government was orced to declare a ban on the import o rozen chicken.12

In 2002, it was predicted that Malawi would suer a 600,000 tonne ood defcit. Te global community

responded by sending the 600,000 tonnes predicted to be necessary. However, Malawi also received an

additional 200,000 tonnes rom commercial sources.13 Rather than acing a ood defcit, Malawi was

instead drowned in ood products, leading to large surpluses and extremely low prices. Te estimated loss

to the Malawi economy was $15 million. Such devastating losses point to the need to increase regulations

regarding ood aid, in order to ensure that aid does not become counterproductive and detrimental to

recipient countries economies.

8Ibid.9 http://users.humboldt.edu/nzerbe/research/zerbe_eeding.pd10 http://www.jstor.org/stable/399379511http://www.globalissues.org/article/10/ood-aid-as-dumping12 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd13 http://www.oxam.org/en/policy/ood-aid-or-hidden-dumping


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Food aid has been similarly abused in India. Tough home to almost one third o the worlds starving

people, the Indian government has consistently made attempts to sell its almost ten million tonnes o

surplus grains as o 1999. Rather than distribute these stores amongst the nations poor, the government

decided to export their surpluses in an attempt to generate revenue. However, under the directions o the

World Bank India was orced to buy grain rom US corporations as a condition o its receiving loans. Te

irony is palpable: at the same time as India was exporting its own grain surpluses, it was being orced tobuy the grain surpluses o other countries to eed its own people. Because the inux o oreign grain

destroyed the market or local grain, Indian armers went into debt on arm equipment that they had been

encouraged to buy to stimulate agriculture production and development. Rather than stimulating

development, the aid India received actually worked to create urther poverty in arming communities.14

Te negative eects o ood aid are not limited to the recipient countries. Developing nations trying to

export products to countries receiving ood aid are unable to compete with the ood aid imports. Tis

leaves other developing countries without export markets, making it dicult or developing countries to

generate trade amongst themselves. For example, in the 1990s, Guyanese rice producers believed that they

had ound a market or their rice in Jamaica, which produces little rice domestically. However, intensecompetition rom US ood aid rice orced the Guyanese out o Jamaica and sent them looking or other

markets. Many Guyanese rice producers aced fnancial ruin. In eect, the ood aid that benefted Jamaica

led to increased poverty in Guyana, creating only a alse sense o success.15 rade relationships between

developing countries are especially important to urthering development goals, because most developing

economies are agriculture-centered. Tereore, encouraging agricultural exports rom developing

countries is crucial to the achievement o development goals.

Long-erm Efects

Although the secondary goal o ood aid (beyond the short-term goal o alleviating starvation) is to

encourage development and stimulate developing economies, there is little evidence that ood aid leads to

ood sel-suciency. For example, Ethiopia, which receives the most ood aid o any developing country,is still as dependent on ood aid as it was in 1984, when ood aid shipments in the country boomed in

response to amine.16 Tis shows that ood aid may not actually encourage development but rather causes

stagnation and dependence on ood aid in the developing world. Statistical studies indicate that

developing countries have become more dependent over time, rather than less dependent. Tis is

especially so in Sub-Saharan Arica, where many countries that were once net-ood-exporting countries

have now become net-ood-importing countries17 Tis shows the counterproductive nature o current

ood aid policies, w hich have ailed to produce sustainable change in developing nations.

Even when developing countries do not become dependent on ood aid, they may become dependent on

imports, oen rom the original donor country. Tis dependence is also detrimental to development. Intimes o high prices, develo ping countries may ace balance-o -payments problems or become ood-

insecure. Also, continued reliance on ood imports does not encourage local production. Food aid can

14 http://www.globalissues.org/article/10/ood-aid-as-dumping15 http://www.oxam.org/en/policy/ood-aid-or-hidden-dumping16 http://www.tus.edu/~mmcmilla/papers/FoodAidPoverty.pd17 http://www.tus.edu/~mmcmilla/papers/FoodAidPoverty.pd


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cause development in the agricultural sector o the recipient country to stagnate, increasing rural

poverty.18 Rural populations (which make up approximately 56% o the workorce in developing

countries) are especially susceptible to poverty, and account or almost 80% o impoverished people. 19

Te same is true o impoverished children, o which 75% are ound in rural areas. Families operating

small arms are ound to be the most susceptible to poverty, and at 50% o impoverished people they make

up the largest group o people acing malnourishment and starvation.20 In light o these statistics, it is

evident that the groups most aected by poverty are the ones who suer most under the detrimental eects

o ood aid. Moreover, ood aid may lead to an increase in urban poverty, because impoverished people

rom rural areas may look toward urban areas or jobs. As a result, the populations in urban areas swell

without an accompanying surge in jobs. Rather than fnding desperately needed work, ormer armers

simply transer rom one state o poverty to another. Tus, ood aid as it currently stands can harm the

poorest o the poor: the very people it intends to help.

Past Actions

Food Aid ConventionTe ood aid convention (FAC) was ratifed in 1967, in connection with the Kennedy Round o GA

negotiations. Te purpose o the FAC was to implement a minimum donation or donor countries to

ensure adequate amounts o ood aid would be available to developing countries. FAC membership

originally comprised all wheat-exporting countries and many cereal-exporting countries. Te

responsibility or providing ood aid was spread between these countries, based on production and

consumption o cereals. Te FAC has been criticised because the relatively low minimum contribution

allow s or a lot o variability in the amount o aid provided. Tough the FAC minimum contributions are

not related to surpluses, contributions made above the minimum level are oen surplus-driven.21 Also,

no sanctions are placed on those who do not comply and the FAC lacks a orum or discussing issues in

ood aid. Furthermore, the guidelines only apply to ood aid w ithin the minimum requirement; any ood

aid in excess o this requirement is unregulated.22

Agreement on Agriculture (WO)

Te Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), adopted in 1995, was brought up or revision during the Doha

Round o WO negotiations. Tough the AoA does not oer specifc rules regarding ood aid, Article 10

does encourage members not to use ood aid or export credits to get around guidelines or reducing

export subsidies. Article 10 o the AoA also encourages donors to provide ood aid in grant orm, so that it

does not become trade distorting, and to comply with FAO rules regarding surplus dumping. Despite the

eorts made by the AoA, little progress had been made because these suggestions are weakened by a lack

o enorcement power. No means o bringing complaints to light nor a judicial body to handle supposed

abuses o ood aid accompanies these stipulations.23

18 http://www.oxam.org/en/policy/ood-aid-or-hidden-dumping19 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd20Ibid.21 http://www.oodgrainsbank.ca/uploads/a_convention.pd22 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd23 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3993795


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FAO Principles o Surplus Disposal

Te FAO Principles o Surplus Disposal and the Consultative Sub-Committee on Surplus Disposal (CSSD)

were ormed in 1954, when ood aid as a orm o surplus disposal was ormalised. Tese principles were

meant to serve as a non-binding set o guidelines or donor countries and were intended to ensure that

ood aid is additional to the recipient country market and does not lead to trade distortion. Te principles

tend to ocus on the role o the donor country in ood aid transactions, but have recently began to take into

account the needs o the recipient countries as well .24

Bloc Positions

Donor Countries

Donor countries tend to all under one o two branches: those who solely use grant orms o ood aid and

those that employ other, more controversial orms o ood aid. Countries that typically oer in-kind

ood aid are the US, Canada, Japan, Australia, and Argentina. Te EU typically oers grant-based ood aid

rather than concessional or in-kind donations.25

United States: Te United States has received the most criticism or its ood aid policies in pastyears. Te US ormalised ood aid as a means o surplus disposal with Public Law 480, and has

continued to use ood aid in this way since. Te US is also one o the only countries to provide

ood aid in-kind and oen uses export credits in its ood aid programs.26 Further, the US

received strong criticism or its involvement in the GMO ood debate that occurred during the

2002 amine in Sub-Saharan Arica, and critics point to surplus disposal as the defning reason

behind US reluctance to remove GMO ood products.27 Te United States continues to deend its

ood programs as being development ocused; however, the US has agreed to revise its policies

during negotiations on the issue.

European Union: Te European Union has a history o using ood aid as a means o surplusdisposal; however, in the past two decades the EU has appeared to have reormed its ood aid

policies and has become a major advocate o grant-only ood aid. 28 Te EU has also been a

pioneer in local buying and triangular transactions, bo th o which are viewed as better options or

development. Recently, the EU has beco me especially critical o US ood policies. Te EU has

particularly targeted export credits, which it claims are trade distorting and thereore detrimental

to ree trade. Nevertheless, it is important to note that though the EU as a whole has argued against

export credits, some EU member countries do employ export credits in their ood aid policies.29

Recipient (Developing) Countries

Developing countries have begun to speak up regarding their needs and desires in ood aid reorms. Many

have called or an end to all export subsidies, including export credits. Tese developing countries are

becoming aware o the negative dumping eect o ood aid abuses and are advocating reorms that will

24 p://p.ao.org/docrep/ao/004/Y3733E/Y3733E00.pd25 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd26 http://www.oxam.org/en/policy/ood-aid-or-hidden-dumping27 http://www.opendemocracy.net/content/articles/PDF/1876.pd28 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd29 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3993795


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help to curb the detrimental eect ood aid can have. Develo ping countries have expressed a desire to

limit ood aid to grant-only orms and to take specifc measures to ensure that ood aid does not disrupt

local production. Tese countries also ask that the needs o undeveloped and net-ood-importing

countries be taken into account and that the needs o these countries are not subjugated to reorms to ood

aid.30 O course, delegates will need to perorm urther research into the stances o specifc developing

countries, as this backgrounder only provides a general overview o their varied positions.

Possible Solutions

In general, stronger regulations and methods o addressing ood aid abuses are viewed as necessary to

ensure the proper usage o ood aid in the uture. In order to oster development, donor countries need to

reevaluate current ood aid polic ies and determine the most ecient and eective methods or

administering aid. Also, it may be benefcial to reevaluate the minimum contributions determined under

the FAC or to extend the rules governing the FAC to include ood aid that exceeds the minimum

contribution. Tere are also less controversial orms o ood aid that provide aid without becoming

detrimental to development. Encouraging local transactionsand triangular transactionsrather than in-kind donations or export credits may help to create better ood aid programs that encourage, rather thaninhibit, development. Currently several solutions have been oered in trade orums such as:

Shiing towards grant only and cash b ased aid rather than export credits. Relying on local and triangular transactions rather than in-kind aid, except or cases o

emergency ood shortages.

Promoting stronger regulation o ood aid, along with stronger guidelines or ood aid andmethods or dealing with apparent ood aid abuses.

Forming a more recipient-centric rather than donor-centric view o ood aid when evaluatingnew ood aid policies.

Removing the link between commercial interests and ood aid and instead promotingdevelopment goals through ood aid programs.

Replacing the monetisation o ood with cash donations, to limit the trade-distorting eectsmonetisation can produce.

Revising the guidelines or deciding to send ood aid to a country to ensure that countries onlyreceive ood aid they actually need. Food aid is not always the most eective response. In many

cases, there are more appropriate orms o aid that can be provided.

Monitoring donations o ood aid by international groups, so that ood aid abuses can be dealtwith.

Also, taking steps to ensure that net-ood importing countries receive support that will enablethem to continue importing ood without trade-distorting mechanisms such as export subsidies

or export credits. Steps can also be taken to encourage domestic agriculture in countries that

currently rely on imports and ood aid.

It is also important that the voices o developing countries are included in the dialogue regarding ood aid.

Historically, developing and undeveloped countries have lacked a voice in trade discussions. Reversing

this trend is a critical step toward true development.

30Ibid.


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Discussion Questions

1. What are the most eective and ecient orms o ood aid?2. How can ood aid be implemented in such a way that it encourages developing countries to

achieve ood independence rather than dependence?

3. How can ood aid dependency be avoided, especially in undeveloped and net-ood importingcountries?

4. What regulations are necessary to ensure that ood aid is not abused by donor countries and isbenefcial to recipient countries?

5. Who should monitor ood aid? How should ood aid be monitored?6. How should eligibility or ood aid be determined? What conditions make ood aid the most

eective orm o ood aid?

7. How can export credits be removed without harming net-ood importing countries? Or, shouldexport credits be removed at all?

Glossary

Here is a list o a ew o the terms that you will probably encounter in your research and will hopeully aid

you in the deciphering o the resources you fnd while developing your position papers.

Export credits A orm o ood aid in which donor countries provide secured loans to developing

countries to purchase ood aid at below-market interest rates. Tese loans oen include extremely long

periods o repayment, and the donor government guarantees repayment in the event o a deault by the

recipient country.31 Export credits are sometimes criticized as a hidden orm o export subsidies.

In-kind ood aid Aid given in the orm o actual ood products that are produced and shipped in the

donor country. In-kind ood aid is seen as very inecient because ood must be shipped rom the donor

country to the recipient country, resulting in high costs and lost time. Also, ood aid money ends up in thehands o rich armers in the developed w orld rather than with developing world armers. Most US ood

programs ft into this category o ood aid, and have received heavy international criticism.

Monetised In the process o monetization, in-kind ood aid is sold on the do mestic market o the

recipient country. Te goal may be to stabilise ood prices or to encourage new market enterprises;

however, the ulterior goal is oen to generate revenue or the government through ood sales. 32 Tis

practice is one the most criticised aspects o ood aid, and is considered to be highly trade distorting.

rade distortion Caused by policy that alters the amount o trade occurring; the distortion can be either

positive or negative.

Untied ood aid Foo d aid that does not require recipient countries or organizations to make ood

purchases rom donor country companies. Tis type o ood aid is seen as less trade distorting, and

reduces many o the ineciencies o ood aid like high shipping costs and response delays.

31 http://www.jstor.org/stable/399379532 http://www.wto.org/english/orums_e/ngo_e/posp47_dumping_ood_aid_e.pd


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Additional Resources

http://ww w.oodaidconvention.org/en/Deault.aspx

Gives a good o verview o the history and intentions o the FAC

http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/agric_e/agric_e.htm

Tis is the WO gateway to the AoA and provides inormation regarding agriculture.

www.wto.org

Tis site provides access to current WO inormation including summaries and ull text versions

o all agreements. Also provides inormation on current issues that all under the WO including

dumping.

http://www.globalissues.org/article/748/ood-aid

Tis article provides some basic inormation about ood aid and outlines some o the

controversial aspects o ood aid.

https://www .cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-actbook/geos/xx.html

Tis is a good place to start your country specifc research and get a good idea o the economic

and political state that your country is in.

Sources

About FAO. FAO: FAO Home. Food and Agriculture Organization o the United Nations, 10 Aug. 2011.

Web. 16 Aug. 2011. .

Barett, Christopher B. Food Aid And Commercial International Food rade. Working paper no. 2002-39.

Cornell University Department o Applied Economics and Management, Mar. 2002. Web.

.

Barett, Kirwan, and Margaret McMillan. Food Aid And Poverty. Issue brie. us University. Web.

. BBC News - imeline: World rade Organization. BBC News - Home. British Broadcasting

Corporation. Web. 16 Aug. 2011..

Benson, Charlotte, Te Food Aid Convention: An Eective Saety Net?, pp 102-113, in Food

Aid and Human Security, Clay and Stokke eds, Frank Cass, London 2000

Clapp, Jennfer.Agricultural rade Battles and Food Aid. Rep. aylor & Francis, Ltd. Web.

.

Clark, Stuart C. Briefng on the Food Aid Convention. Publication. Canadian Food Grains Bank, Apr. 2002.

Web. .FAO Papers on Selected Issues Relating to the WO Negotiations on Agriculture . Publication. FOOD AND

AGRICULURE ORGANIZAION OF HE UNIED NAIONS, 2002. Web.

.Friedmna, Harriet. Te Political Economy o Food:A Global Crisis. Issue brie. Web.

.

Hanrahan, Charles E.Agricultural Export and Food Aid Programs. Rep. no. RL33553. US Congress, 27

Apr. 2007. Web. .


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Levinsohn, James, and Margaret McMillan. Does Food Aid Harm the Poor? Household Evidence. Issue

brie. Chicago: University o Chicago, 2007. Glo balization and Poverty. Does Food Aid Harm the

Poor? Household Evidence. Mar. 2007. Web. .

Oxam International | Working ogether to Find Lasting Solutions to Poverty and Injustice. Issue brie no.

71. Oxam International, 11 Apr. 2005. Web. 15 Aug. 2011. .Patrick, Mulvany. Te Dumping-ground: Arica and GM Food Aid. Issue brie. Open Democracy Free

Tinking For the World, 29 Apr. 2004. Web.

.

Shah, Anup. Food Aid as Dumping Global Issues. Global Issues : Social, Political, Economic and

Environmental Issues Tat Aect Us All Global Issues . 31 Oct. 2005. Web. 15 Aug. 2011.

.

Sheldon, ony, ed. Dumping Food Aid: rade or Aid?Issue brie no. 1101/2. Wemons Foundation, Apr.

2005. Web. .

Watkins, Kevin. Northern Agricultural Policies and World Poverty. Issue brie. Oxam International. W eb.

.

Zerbe, Noah. Feeding the Famine? American Food Aid and the GMO debate in Southern Arica. Issue

brie no. Food Policy 29 (2004) 593-608. Elsevier Food Policy, 17 Nov. 2004. Web.

.

Documents

Food Aid as Dumping - World Trade Organization