Focus Group Discussions, Uganda:

ALTER Analysis Report

Eleanor Penney, Carbon Foundation of East Africa

December 2016

2

Contents Executive summary ................................................................................................................................. 3

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 5

Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 5

Focus Group Theme 1: Soil perception and management ..................................................................... 7

Soil descriptions .................................................................................................................................. 7

Livelihoods ........................................................................................................................................ 10

Community ........................................................................................................................................ 10

Land ................................................................................................................................................... 11

Wetlands ........................................................................................................................................... 12

Focus Group Theme 2: Land use, livelihoods and change .................................................................... 12

Demographic change ........................................................................................................................ 13

Environmental change ...................................................................................................................... 14

Poverty and livelihoods ..................................................................................................................... 15

Services and Infrastructure ............................................................................................................... 16

Weather change ................................................................................................................................ 17

Land, crops and soil ........................................................................................................................... 17

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 18

Annex A. Discussion questions .............................................................................................................. 20

Focus Group Theme 1: Soil perception and management ............................................................... 20

Focus Group Theme 2: Land use, livelihoods and change ................................................................ 23

Annex B. Soil descriptions ..................................................................................................................... 26

Clay soils ............................................................................................................................................ 26

Loam soils .......................................................................................................................................... 27

Clay loamy soils ................................................................................................................................. 28

Sandy soils ......................................................................................................................................... 30

Brown soils ........................................................................................................................................ 31

Annex C. Wetlands. ............................................................................................................................... 33

3

Executive summary

This report presents findings from focus group discussions conducted as part of the ALTER research

project in Uganda with the aim of improving understanding of how people benefit from soils, and

the way soil condition impacts livelihoods and wellbeing. Two themes were explored in separate

discussion groups: land use, livelihoods and ecosystem services; and soil perceptions, degradation

and management. The discussions were held with separate male and female groups in three areas

representing a gradient of wetland degradation across two wetland systems. The village of Kantare

is located in the degraded Kanyabaha-Rushebeya wetland in Kashambya sub county; and the village

of Murutunga is in the intact part of the same wetland system and sub county. Bugunga is located in

the degraded (but with some restoration efforts) Ruhuma wetland in Muko subcounty.

Four main soil types were identified by farmers across the strata. These were: clay, found in

lowlands or swamps; clay loam, found on gentle slopes; loam, found on gentle slopes; and sandy

soils, mostly found in lowlands. The quality and description of these soil types varied between

villages, but reduced fertility was observed in all types. This is attributed in large part to continuous

cultivation of small plots of land without fallow; soil erosion; and land fragmentation. Big changes

have been observed in sandy soils in particular, with many farmers implementing terracing to tackle

the erosion they have observed. No group identified peat soil as a type, despite describing soils

which appear to have peat-like characteristics. Many farmers said that these soils were drained to

allow agriculture, and the soils are described as losing fertility. Key indicators of soil fertility

described across the study villages include darkness of colour, and growth of vegetation. Declining

soil fertility has reduced agricultural yields, resulting in reduced household food security and income.

All groups’ definition of poverty included low income and low asset ownership. Other indicators of

poverty were a lack of livestock, and ownership of poor-quality soils. Poverty was heavily linked to

population growth, with large numbers of dependants and small plots of land cited as a key driver of

poverty. Livelihoods are heavily dependent on agriculture in all areas, but in Bugunga income

sources were more diversified. Bugunga is also characterised by better access to healthcare,

improved housing, and better infrastructure, whereas in Murutunga, the lack of adequate roads and

bridges is felt to be a significant barrier to accessing markets and agricultural inputs.

A further indicator of poverty emergent in all discussions was an inability to invest in soils. Current

soil management techniques employed in the study villages include terracing to counter erosion,

and manure and fertiliser spreading to counter loss of nutrients. Across the studied villages richer

households were considered able to apply these soil management techniques, and as a result of

having larger and greater numbers of plots of land were also able to leave the land to fallow.

However poor farmers lack the capacity to carry out these practices. Terracing is not so highly

carried out by poor households because the poor are commonly occupied with working on the farms

of the richer. Additionally, poor people are characterised by a lack of livestock, and so struggle to get

manure to spread. It was also observed that richer households tended to own the more fertile plots

of land. Further to this, agricultural inputs were considered expensive relative to household income

by all groups.

Population growth is a growing concern amongst communities, and the most significant change to all

of the communities, as well as a prominent cause of poverty. Participants explained that rapid

4

population growth has resulted in land shortages and fragmentation, which limits fallowing and

encourages over-cultivation. This shortage of cultivable land has increased the drive to encroach

onto wetlands and forests.

Groups from all of the areas described increasing swamp degradation. Even in Murutunga, which has

mostly intact wetland, encroachment for the cultivation of Irish potatoes has occurred. Most people

consider the best use of wetlands to be for agriculture due to the direct benefits, and additional

benefits included papyrus harvesting, and sources of materials for other crafts. The Murutunga

group described a wider range of benefits received from the wetland. Lots of groups described

draining the clay soil on the wetlands as necessary to practice agriculture, but the Murutunga group

said that most people were not interested in these types of soils.

Way forward

A number of strategies for the improvement of livelihoods and soils were identified by respondents:

Sensitisation on family planning. There was wide consensus on the need for improved

knowledge around family planning. In Murutunga in particular this is affected by the limited

access to health services including a maternity centre.

Provision of livestock for manure. Participants called for support to poorer farmers who are

unable to access enough manure to treat their soils, via helping them to obtain livestock

(mainly goats). It was noted by female groups that this support should not be via financial

aid, as it would be spent on alcohol.

Enforce the practice of fanya chini. Uptake of fanya chini, trench construction designed to

reduce erosion of soil, has been limited, with poor farmers preferring to labour on rich

farmers’ land, and some farmers unwilling to embrace change. There was widespread

support for making fanya chini a legal requirement.

Improved knowledge extension services. This was a concern of male groups in particular.

One group commented that poor people are less well able to access knowledge about new

farming techniques.

Encourage diversified agroforestry. There is interest in agroforestry as a way to reduce

erosion and loss of top-soils, and according to one group, as a potential income source.

However, farmers described their interest in planting different varieties of trees, and in

particular moving away from eucalyptus as it dries out the soil.

Support saving amongst farmers. A number of groups suggested support should also be

focussed on the establishment of cooperatives or schemes to encourage saving.

While beyond the scope of this study, the FGDs revealed a demand for better agricultural extension

services to improved understanding of pest management responses, and improved seed types.

5

Introduction

Focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out as part of a three year research project, ALTER

(Alternative Carbon Investments in Ecosystems for Poverty Alleviation), based in Ethiopia and

Uganda. ALTER aims to demonstrate the benefits which can be achieved for poverty alleviation,

particularly for the rural poor, by tackling soil degradation. The project aims to improve

understanding of how people benefit from soils, and the way soil condition impacts livelihoods.

In Uganda, the ALTER project is focused on improving management of wetland soils. Wetlands in

Uganda have suffered widespread drainage, which as well as releasing large volumes of CO2 into the

atmosphere, reduces the nutrient retention of the soil, reduces water availability, and reduces

access to the goods and services wetlands provide.

These focus group discussions were conducted with participants from areas on a gradient of wetland

degradation in south-western Uganda (see Figure 1), with the aim of improving understanding of the

links between rural livelihoods and soils, with a particular focus on wetlands. Drivers of land-use

change and of poverty were discussed amongst representatives of the communities, summary of the

key discussion points and suggestions of interventions are presented.

Methodology Site description

Three villages were targeted for focus group discussions from the ALTER project sites in Muko and

Kashambya sub counties, capturing a gradient of wetland degradation across two wetland systems.

The village of Kantare is located in the degraded part of Kanyabaha-Rushebeya wetland in

Kashambya sub county; and the village of Murutunga is located upstream of Kantare in an intact

part of the same wetland complex and sub county. Bugunga village is located in the degraded

Ruhumma wetland in Muko sub county, where there were been some efforts at restoration by a

local conservation NGO and supported by the Government of Uganda in 2007-20101. Muko sub

county has a higher population than Kashambya, and a greater population density (273ppkm-2

versus 196ppkm-2).

Kashambya sub county is characterised by low altitude, high temperature, and fairly short erratic

rains of around 1,000mm with sandy to loam soil. It features big round-topped hills with soils, and

scanty grass vegetation cover2. Kantare sits close to the degraded and drained Rushoma wetland. It

has 140 households, with an average household size of 4.5. Murutunga is located in the Kanyabaha

intact wetland. It is a small village of 41 households, with an average household size of 43, less than

the sub county average of 4.74.

Muko sub county is an area of higher altitude, cold temperatures, and high rainfall (1,780mm), with

steep hills and V-shaped valleys. There is little development aside from a wolfram mine, and the

Kabale-Kisoro road. The wetland has been affected by drainage for cultivation, and silting. Bugunga 1 Farmer, J. (2014) Kabale wetlands site description. ALTER

2 Production and Marketing Office (2008), in Langan, C. & Farmer, J (2014) Profile of Kabale District, Uganda. ALTER.

3 ALTER field research, in Farmer, J. (2014) Kabale wetlands site description. ALTER

4 District Planning Unit (2008), in Langan, C. & Farmer, J (2014) Profile of Kabale District, Uganda. ALTER.

6

village sits in the Nyarurambi parish, and counts 239 households5. The average household size is 5

people, consistent with the average for the sub county.

Map to show locations of the three study villages

Figure 1. Map of Kabale District showing key ecosystems types, forests (dark green), intact wetlands (lt green) and degraded wetlands (brown). Villages where Focus group discussions were held are shown (red star).

Focus groups

Two themes were explored in separate focus groups, one covering issues of land use, livelihoods and

ecosystem services and changes, and the other one covering issues of soil perceptions, degradation

and management were carried out in all three wetland strata. Each focus group was conducted with

men and women separately, making a total of twelve focus groups (i.e. four focus groups per

village). A maximum of eight participants per focus group were selected at random using lists

obtained during the ALTER household survey. Participants in the “Land use, livelihoods and change”

focus groups were randomly selected from a sub-set of households with a member who had lived in

the area for over thirty years, to be able to describe long term changes. Thirty years was selected as

the historical time period as it this coincides with length of time the current Government had been

in power. The questions framing the focus groups are included as an annex to this report.

The FGDs were conducted by a CAFEA researcher together with two research assistants. Each focus

group session discussed the important aspects of their topic through a dynamic exchange of ideas

among all the participants, managed by the research assistants in the roles of moderator and note-

taker.

Analysis

This report is divided into two parts, each reviewing the findings of the two focus group topics. The

analysis was conducted following Krueger and Casey’s (2014) framework6. Following familiarisation

5 ALTER field research, in Farmer, J. (2014) Kabale wetlands site description. ALTER

7

with the FGD field reports, recurrent themes were identified with which were used to classify the

discussions. Comments were indexed according to these themes, then sorted and shifted into the

framework. Emergent subthemes within each grouping were reviewed, and the main thematic titles

adjusted where necessary to reflect these. Finally, these were interpreted in terms of concerns and

suggestions, and compared between categories, i.e. i) between men and women in the same

stratum (location)); ii) between strata, and iii) between the themes of FGD. Cross-thematic trends

and observations are discussed in the conclusion.

Focus Group Theme 1: Soil perception and management

The aim of this theme was to understand people’s perceptions of soils and different options for soil

management in wetlands and on slopes, and to consider the advantages/disadvantages and barriers

to using different soil management options. Questions framing the discussion can be found at Annex

A. Participants for separate male and female groups were selected from randomly chosen

households, based on their active participation in farming, and to represent a range of ages. The soil

types recognised are presented here, followed by the ideas, concerns, and suggestions of

participants, and arranged by code of soil description, livelihoods, community, land and wetlands.

Soil descriptions In all villages, farmers identified four main soil types. These were: clay, found in lowlands or swamps;

clay loam, found on gentle slopes; loam, found on gentle slopes; and sandy soils, mostly found in

lowlands. There was a large degree of variability in the way soils were described by participants, and

an apparent lack of agreement on what different soils are called.

Clay soils

Of those groups which identified ‘clay’ as a soil type, two groups Kantare and Murutunga,

representing degraded and intact parts of the Kanyabaha-Rushebeya wetland respectively,

described lighter soils, which they used to make pots or bricks, and which are not considered

productive for crop-growing. The Murutunga men’s group said that this soil was compacted because

of drought, and that most people are not interested in cultivating on these soils; whereas the

Kantare women’s group, who also described lighter soil used for brick-making, said that the soils

were waterlogged, and the part that lies in the swamps should be drained. In contrast, the men from

Bugunga, located near degraded wetland in Muko subcounty, describe making bricks from ‘brown

soil’, saying that it has low water retention, and is used for growing trees, millet, and sweet

potatoes.

Peat soils

The different descriptions and names given for soil types makes it particularly difficult to identify

perceptions, uses, changes, and challenges relating to peat soils found in wetlands, the focus of this

6 Krueger, R.A. and Casey, M.A., 2014. Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage publications.

8

study. Peat soil was not identified by any focus group as a soil type, and the descriptions that do

appear to relate to peaty soils are given different names. The soil described by the other two groups

who identified ‘clay’ soils, the men’s group from Kantare, as well as the men from Bugunga, is

described as black in colour, sticky, highly fertile, and waterlogged. Both groups also observed big

changes in terms of soil quality as a result of the soil’s drainage for agriculture. Despite this, both

groups explained that key management activities for these soils were focussed on drainage to allow

for cultivation. ’Brown soils’ described by Bugunga groups could refer to drained peat soils now used

for cultivation.

Loam soils

There is slightly more uniformity observed in the descriptions of ‘loam soils’, identified by all but one

group and commonly described as found in lowlands, dark, and with high fertility. This is where all

five groups of the groups which identified loam soils mention that Irish potato cultivation takes

place. Found on the lowland slopes, and dark brown in colour, this soil description could refer to

peat soils. All groups said that loam soils have lost fertility, with causes varying between erosion and

siltation, and overutilization. Trenches are used in all strata to tackle these problems, and in

Bugunga fallow and manure are also used.

Clay loamy soils

The only soil type to be identified by all six groups was the clay loamy soil, or ‘enombe’, found on

gentle slopes and lowlands. While physical description of the soil is relatively uniform across groups

(dark brown, smooth, and easy to till) there is variation within strata as to the degree of change, the

nature of change, and the causes of it. All groups mention famine as a result of lowered fertility of

these soils. Bugunga groups explained that lower yields were due to erosion or over cultivation; both

Kantare groups blamed over cultivation as a result of population pressure; and Murutunga groups

said that lack of agricultural inputs, soil erosion, and overutilization of soils had negatively impacted

the soil.

Sandy soils

The description of ‘sandy’ soils, was also more uniform between groups. Both Bugunga and

Murutunga identified erosion as a common problem arising from sandy soils. Sandy soils are

described as moderately productive by Murutunga groups, but as having low productivity in

Bugunga and Kantare. Two groups identified ‘brown’ soil type (Bugunga men (above), and the

women’s group from Murutunga) who primarily identify this soil as resilient from pests.

All soil types are described as changing, but big changes have been observed in those soils described

as sandy, where there is a consensus of greater change in soil quality. The responses according to

group are summarised in Annex B according to the name given them, with bold indicating

discrepancies. A summary is given here in Table 1.

Table 1: Soil types described in focus groups.

Soil type Where is this soil

found?

Uses, changes, and management

Clay loamy soils

Identified by all 6 focus

Found on gentle slopes

and lowlands. All groups

except Murutunga

Crops grown on these soils are Irish potatoes (all

groups), beans, maize, banana and sorghum.

9

groups. Commonly

described as

“enombe”.

described the soil as dark

brown, moderately sticky,

and easy to till, but

Murutunga groups

described the colour as

lighter.

Productivity was described

as high in Kantare and

Murutunga, and moderate

in Bugunga.

The soils are described as having changed recently. In

Kantare, the chief concern is population pressure

leading to famine because of loss of fertility in these

soils.

Murutunga and Bugunga groups manage these soils

with manure or fertiliser application; but Kantare

groups mentioned use of soil and water conservation

structures.

Clay

This soil type was

identified by all the

male groups, as well as

the female group from

Kantare.

Described by most groups

as the soil found in

swamps, this soil was

generally described as

dark in colour, highly

fertile, and waterlogged.

The soil had been traditionally used by both Kantare

and Murutunga villages for activities such as pot-

making and brick-making.

The main crops grown are sweet potatoes, cabbages

and maize, by Bugunga and Kantare; no crops grown

in Murutunga, with the comment that most people

aren’t interested in using such soils.

Bugunga and Kantare groups suggested management

of clay soils include drainage to allow crop growth,

although the Kantare women suggest a range of other

activities including leaving land to fallow, and addition

of manure. Both groups describing the colour as

lighter also described the addition of organic manure.

Sandy soils

Sandy soils are

identified by all except

Bugunga men,

generally described as

“orushenyi”.

In Kantare these are the

soils on the tops of hills; in

Bugunga they are also

found in the valleys. The

fertility and productivity

was described as

moderate to low. In

Bugunga and Kantare the

soils become harder to till

during dry seasons, but

Murutunga groups

described high water

content as making it easy

to till.

Generally the crops grown on these soils are sweet

potatoes and millet, alongside various combinations of

beans, ground nuts and banana trees.

The problem of erosion of these soils was clearly

identified by Bugunga and Kantare groups, with

fertile-rich top-soils washed away. They manage this

with the use of terracing and manure spreading.

During heavy rains, the area becomes unproductive

and degraded, with crop failure and increased risk of

diseases such as diarrhoea. In Kantare in particular, a

big change has been observed in recent years as a

result of overcultivation, a problem also noted by

Murutunga groups, alongside a rise in the prevalence

of soil-borne diseases.

Loam

Described by groups in

all areas, commonly as

“Eitaka” or “Orutaka”.

Generally found on gentle

slopes or lowlands. Soils

described as dark in

colour, and having high

productivity and fertility.

The crops grown were mainly Irish potatoes, sorghum

and beans.

All groups agreed that this soil type was losing fertility

as a result of overutilization, resulting in decreasing

yields. The Murutuga women’s group also noted a

higher prevalence of pests in these soils in recent

10

years.

Land management techniques varied, with both

Murutunga and Kantare groups, and Bugunga women

describing terracing and of water conservation; and

the Bugunga men focussing on addition of manure

from livestock.

Brown soils

“Brown soils” were

only recognised by

Bugunga men and

Murutunga women.

In Bugunga, these were soils that had recently been overused for brick-making,

causing degradation and resulting in reduced household food and income. The crops

grown include millet, peas, sweet potatoes and eucalyptus trees.

In Murutunga, the brown soils described were on gentle sloping land. Recent

changes include soil degradation and erosion, reducing the quality of water

resources. These soils are managed by addition of manure.

Livelihoods

Food security

Food security wasn’t mentioned by Kantare groups, but both Murutunga and Bugunga groups

observed that an additional benefit to improving soils, particularly the wetland soils, was the

opportunity to grow vegetables and improve nutritional standards.

Income

Income for all the groups was primarily agricultural, although Bugunga groups noted that some of

the richer members of the community have businesses which bring in additional income. All groups

said that being poor meant not having enough income. One of the reasons for having a low income

was a lack of capacity to invest in the productivity of soils, particularly through buying fertiliser, in

turn making people poorer. The men from Bugunga described the potential to grow crops which

could be sold in markets on clay and loam soils as a source of income and food security.

Community

Land ownership

Lack of land was another indicator of poverty recognised by all groups. This was most prominent in

Bugunga, where both groups described poor people as having too few, or too small plots of land,

leading to overcultivation. Groups across all strata also noted that poorer people tended to have

poorer land, with a consensus between groups that the rich had good-quality soils - the clay loam

soils, according to the Kantare women’s groups. In Kantare, it was described that the poor tend to

own sandy soils, and the FGD participants felt that learning to improve sandy soils was particularly

important for this reason. Land fragmentation was a challenge described by all groups except

Murutunga women.

Working

A notable difference between wealth groups within the communities was labour. This is a much

more prominent a theme across the women’s focus groups, who all observed that the poor sell their

labour to work on the land of the rich, and as a result did not have time to work on construction of

11

soil and water conservation measures on their own land. The Kantare women’s group had the

perception that ‘working is a curse to most families’. The women’s groups from Kantare and

Bugunga commented that men drink alcohol while the women work; and one respondent said that

in terms of government support, it would not be a good idea to give financial aid because the men

would just spend it. In terms of decision-making around land use, Bugunga was the only area where

groups described the family as making land-use decisions all together. In both other areas, it

depended on the type of soil.

Land

Both Bugunga and Murutunga groups described the loss of fertility in soils as a cause of poverty. The

Bugunga men in particular dwelt on the loss of soil fertility and poor yields when discussing soil

problems and challenges. Crop diseases were mentioned by all groups, but most frequently by

Murutunga groups.

Over cultivation

There was consensus among all groups that over cultivation was a leading cause of poverty. In

Bugunga and Murutunga, over cultivation was described as a particular behaviour of poor

households, although Murutunga men noted that the rich do continuously use their soils as well.

However, most groups agreed that richer farmers were able to allow fallowing of the land, and crop

rotation.

Erosion

Erosion is a clear problem for all groups, with soil washed away by heavy rainfall. The groups from

Kantare also described loose top-soils blown away by wind, saying that the steepness of the area

poses specific challenges. Management of erosion via construction of fanya chini terraces and

trashlines was described by all groups. In Murutunga, both rich and poor households construct

conservation structures, whereas in Bugunga, poor people commonly spend their time labouring on

rich people’s farms, and do not have time to build conservation structures. Both Bugunga groups,

and the Kantare women describe low adoption of conservation structures and suggest

encouragement and enforcement of terracing, particularly on loam and sandy soil.

Agricultural inputs

Lack of agricultural inputs such as fertiliser was cited as a further cause of poverty. Most groups

characterised poor households as not having enough manure, because they don’t own livestock,

contributing to lower productivity, whereas rich households own livestock and carry out manure

spreading. In Kantare and Murutunga, the rich also buy manure from the middle class, and Bugunga

groups said the rich were able to purchase the best organic fertilisers. Both Bugunga groups

emphasised that farmers should be given support to acquire livestock, whether financial or directly

distributing animals. The Murutunga groups wanted help with obtaining sprayers and fertilisers,

particularly for treating clay loam and sandy loam soil. As well as addition of fertiliser and manure,

other methods used to improve the nutrient content of the soils, mentioned by Murutunga groups,

included planting sweet potatoes and allowing them to decompose, and dumping of decomposed

plant material on soil.

Forestry

Afforestation was not a prominent theme in the discussions, but was mentioned by four groups

covering all strata as a soil management activity, to reduce erosion. The men’s group from Kantare

12

called for the promotion and encouragement of agroforestry improve soils, explaining that

afforestation on steep slopes would control erosion.

Wetlands

Benefits/disbenefits of the wetland

Use of the swamp for agriculture was practiced in all the areas including Murutunga, particularly for

commercial farming of Irish potatoes. All groups said that the best use of swamps was for

agriculture, but while Bugunga groups specified farming of Irish potatoes, Murutunga and Kantare

groups were more general, though Kantare women emphasised the benefit of growing food to

improve nutritional standards. The women from Murutunga were the only group to mention fishing

for food in the swamp.

Other benefits of the swamp included climate modification, mentioned by all but one group, and

provision of papyrus for fuel. In Kantare, papyrus is also sold. Groups from Bugunga and Murutunga

described the benefit of swamps in settling run-off from heavy rains to control floods. Interestingly,

all the men’s groups, but only the women from Murutunga, described fishing, craft, and thatching

amongst the other benefits gained from the swamp, with the Bugunga men saying that craft making

provided employment to the women in the community. Only women mentioned dis benefits, which

included mosquitoes, or in Kantare, the escape of apes from reserve areas which destroyed

plantations. The women from Bugunga mentioned aesthetic values of the wetland, as did Kantare

women, though they said it was not the focus of most farmers.

Decision-making

In Bugunga, decisions about the part of the swamp under agricultural use are made by a

management committee of landowners and tenants, whereas in Kantare such decisions are made

communally by farmers. Both Bugunga and Kantare areas said that National Environment

Management Agency (NEMA) make decisions about the reserved part of their swamps. The

Murutunga groups both said that swamp usage is governed by communal bye-laws, and the men

said that farmers make decisions about communally owned parts.

Drainage

All men’s groups, described drainage as an important soil improvement strategy, particularly

drainage of clay wetland soils to reduce waterlogging. Drainage of wetland soils was also mentioned

as an activity by one women’s group, from Kantare, who list it alongside other strategies, and who

noted that “due to low decomposition rates, the soils remain infertile [despite drainage] with their

light colour”, and that crops grown in these soils are weak nonetheless. A summary of the responses

relating to swamps can be found at Annex C.

Focus Group Theme 2: Land use, livelihoods and change

These FGDs were designed to find out more about past and present land uses, ecosystem services,

and changes. FGDs were conducted with separate male and female focus groups from each of the

three villages. Selection of participants was based on their period of stay in the study area, selecting

13

only men and women that have lived in the study area since 1985, when the current government

came to power. Men and women from both poor and wealthy households were included in the

selection. The questions introduced during the course of the discussion can be found at Annex A.

Emergent themes were demographic change; environmental change; poverty and livelihoods;

services and infrastructure; weather change; land, crops and soil.

Demographic change

Population

Increased population was the most notable demographic change as cited by all groups and across all

areas. Population concerns appeared slightly more frequently in the Bugunga and Kantare group

discussions when compared with the Murutunga groups, with words such as ‘scary’, and ‘alarming’

appearing in the transcriptions. Population increase was cited by all groups as a barrier to improving

livelihoods, through limited cultivable land, over cutivation of soils, and land fragmentation. The

expectation of all groups was that this trend would continue.

The Bugunga women’s group stated that the combination of increasing population and decreasing

soil fertility limited people’s ability to improve their wellbeing, despite efforts to increase

productivity. Fragmentation of land, as an effect of increasing population, was a more prominent

complaint among the men’s discussion groups. A positive effect of population change noted by one

group was a larger market for their produce.

Population was linked by all groups to environmental degradation, particularly forest clearance, and

encroachment on virgin lands including wetlands. Both Bugunga groups in particular noted fears of

increasing encroachment on natural resources as a result of population rise. Reasons for the

population rise were focussed on family planning. Groups in all strata commented on poor

awareness of contraceptive methods. In particular, the limited adoption of birth control was

attributed by Bugunga women to conservative attitudes associating birth control with ‘western

lifestyle’, and perception that it causes cancer. They said that this was especially true of poorer

people. The Bugunga men’s group also mentioned negative perceptions of family planning products.

Both women and men also linked the population rise to early marriages, resulting from school

dropout and lack of access to higher education, particularly among girls, as well as a lack of jobs in

the area.

The groups suggested that action should focus on sensitisation campaigns to increase use of

contraception, and the Bugunga women suggested family planning be enforced. Both Bugunga

groups also suggested a government policy of resettlement – “Farmers have hope that if the

population pressure in the area is reduced by resettlement of people to areas like Kibale (Western

Central Uganda) then people will use the environment in a sustainable way”. In the 1970s, the

government had resettled people away from the Kantare area to reduce land pressure. The Kantare

groups suggested a focus on building health facilities, complaining that health centres were very far

from the area.

Culture

Discussing cultural changes, groups from all three strata commented that cultural practices had

reduced. Women tended to see this as a result of western influence – framed by one group

(Bugunga) as ‘moral degeneration’. However, men’s groups (Bugunga and Kantare) said that cultural

practices had faded as a result of improved access to education. In Kantare, women’s comments

14

suggest that there has been a reduction in community cohesion. Culturally driven talks,

“Amahurire”, used to discuss issues affecting the community, are no longer organised, and people

are no longer hospitable with their food and land because of famine caused by high population.

Environmental change

Wetland conversion

Concerns of wetland encroachment were a feature of all group discussions, and swamp conversion

was the most frequently repeated response to the question around important time periods for

people, livelihoods and the environment. Swamp conversion near Bugunga began in the 1980s with

government-supported construction of drainage channels, then a period of widespread conversion

for farming of Irish potatoes in the 1990s, both in Bugunga and Kantare. The Bugunga wetland is

now mainly converted into arable land.

Although the wetland near Murutunga is protected, the groups voiced concerns that encroachment

is now increasing, because of the rising population. They explained that the wetland has remained

largely intact because the eviction of people by government bodies such as NEMA in 1989 meant

that people were afraid of imprisonment. Barriers to change in this area included population

pressure, and a cited lack of awareness or appreciation for of wetland resources. The Bugunga

women for example commented mentioned a need to increase ‘a ‘lack of awareness’ of the

aesthetic values and benefits of temperature regulation when compared to farming benefits.

Forest cover

All groups said that the quality of forest resources had been reduced in the long term, and also that

vegetation cover has reduced steadily year on year, as a result of agricultural expansion. However,

there have been recent efforts at reforestation according to all groups, particularly the planting of

eucalyptus trees. Reforestation was cited as a way to reduce erosion and rehabilitate soils, acting as

a wind barrier as well as helping rainfall formation and climate modification. The Kantare men’s

group also expressed a hope that the community become highly engaged in planting trees on steep

slopes to reduce the problem of erosion.

When discussing hopes and expectations for the future, female groups tended to place more of an

emphasis on reforestation, expressing hopes for increased planting of pine and Eucalyptus, and for

forestry to remain a priority for farmers. They particularly suggest planting fast-growing trees on

steep slopes which have lost fertility. The women’s group from Bugunga commented that they

wanted increased variety of tree types, and specified that more pinus patula should be planted. The

women from Kantare suggested that the government established nursery beds, saying that forestry

could be of economic benefit to the community. Both Kantare and Murutunga groups complained of

pests, with Kantare men and women explaining that many of the eucalyptus trees have been

attacked by “enda” lice, with negative consequences for timber, and firewood production, and

income from their sales. Other reasons for the loss of forest resources were illegal burning of forests

to clear land for agriculture, the Murutunga women explicitly citing increased mono-cropping,

leading to lower soil fertility forcing people to encroach.

Water

There was consensus among the Bugunga groups that water quality reduced during the rainy

season, because of erosion from steep slopes. Bugunga women said that the eucalyptus planted on

15

slopes had reduced the water table in the swamps, reducing water availability. Murutunga’s women

also described reduced water quality in rainy seasons because of floods. They said that the amount

of water available had decreased during the dry season because of forest destruction and over

cultivation. The men agreed that there was now less water, saying it was a lower quality due to

encroachment on wetland resources because of overpopulation. Both Kantare groups and the

Murutunga men noted increased water in rivers but decreased water in springs.

Wildlife

Wildlife and biodiversity has reduced dramatically according to all groups, with widespread

consensus that wild animals were no longer present because of encroachment on their habitat,

particularly the wetland. The Bugunga women noted that some birds remained on the conserved

part of the swamp.

Poverty and livelihoods

Poverty

All households commented in some way on household income being low, and high poverty levels in

the community. However, the male group from Murutunga said that most people in the community

fell into the middle class, with moderate wealth in the community. Women’s focus groups tended to

be more concerned with income, whereas the men generally associated poverty with poor

agricultural returns and lack of sufficient land.

Income

As with focus theme 1, all groups identified agriculture as the primary source of income. Those living

in Bugunga had more diversified income streams, with small business activity and mining practiced

alongside farming. However, most families’ income sources were still limited. Cash for work in the

mines near Bugunga was seen to be insufficient and inconsistent, and the women said that people

could not invest in education for their children or soil management.

In terms of agricultural income, efforts to increase soil productivity were a prominent topic. The

increased seasonal income because of Irish potato cultivation in the wetland was said to have a

particular impact because these are primarily grown for cash, whereas other crops are grown for

home consumption. Destruction of Irish potatoes by drought or flooding was felt to contribute to

acute periods of crisis.

While discussion of poverty did not focus on food security, periods of famine were remembered by

all groups. Hopes for improved food production through better agricultural practices was noted by

all men’s groups but no female. Two of the women’s groups (Kantare and Murutunga) suggested

forestry as a source of income.

Women in general supported diversification of activities, with Kantare women suggesting training in

economic activities to practice in the wetland, and the introduction of forestry as an economic

activity.

16

Services and Infrastructure Bugunga groups were the most positive regarding infrastructure and services changes, describing

improvements in housing, education, access to healthcare, and access to markets. However, the

men’s group did note a need for improved government capacity to provide universal access to

essential goods and services, affordable food, primary health care, education and other social

services.

Education

Education access and expenditure was raised by many of the groups, and commonly considered the

best way to improve livelihoods and wellbeing. Bugunga and Kantare groups described increased

educational enrolment as a result of Universal Primary Education, and Bugunga groups said schools

had been built in the area. However, both men’s groups from these areas complained that lack of

school fees limited enrolment in higher education in the area, subsequently limiting opportunities

for economic advancement. In contrast, Murutunga groups complained of low school enrolment,

blaming a shortage of schools alongside difficulties with paying the fees. The women in particular

expressed hopes for enrolment to increase in the future.

Health

Women from Bugunga said that health centres had been set up, but the Kantare groups complained

of low health standards and insufficient health centres. The Murutunga women’s group complained

that the lack of a maternity ward in the area had led to loss of lives.

Physical infrastructure

Bugunga groups said that housing had improved in recent years, and that alongside local

government inputs, people had been helped to set up permanent houses through the high prices

fetched by agricultural produce. Road construction around Bugunga, including the Kabale-Kisoro

tarmacked road, has brought custom to the village, making it easier for buyers to visit and collect

Irish potatoes and other produce, and making trading centres and suppliers of agricultural inputs

more accessible.

In the other two areas, physical infrastructure was seen as more problematic. The Kantare men

complained that poor quality roads hindered the transportation of agricultural products to market

centres. Both Murutunga groups also complained that problems with roads and bridges limited

access to markets, and suggested a government focus on infrastructure development in the area.

Regarding markets, two female groups (Bugunga and Kantare) commented on a desire to reduce

exploitation by middle men, suggesting formation of cooperative groups to enhance bargaining

power, or NGO intervention to link farmers. Kantare women said that the government should

develop market infrastructure through setting standard process for agricultural products.

Credit facilities

The need for improved access to credit facilities was raised by Kantare groups in particular, and

touched on in others. The female group from Kantare highlighted the lack of savings as a key barrier

to improving livelihoods, and that lack of access to credit facilities and loans contributed to the

increased poverty levels in the community. They also said that this limited participation in business

activities. The men suggested formation of cooperatives as a way to support loan acquisition,

particularly for the purchase of agricultural inputs.

17

Weather change

Wind

All groups described increased wind, although the time of year when high winds were reported

varied within groups. The Bugunga women’s group noted that increased wind was a result of the

reduced vegetation cover to act as wind breaks.

Rainfall

All groups observed increased rainfall, though the distribution varied, with Kantare groups reporting

even distribution whereas the others described rainfall as uneven and unreliable. The increase in

destructive rains was described by the women in Bugunga as the most concerning environmental

change.

Land, crops and soil

Crop diseases

All areas had suffered as a result of crop disease. The persistence of infection of eucalyptus trees

was identified in particular by the Kantare groups, and the women’s group called for the government

to provide chemical control. The women from Bugunga also suggested that further research into the

causes of diseases, and development of effective fungicides, pesticides and herbicides, would be

beneficial. A banana bacteria infection in 2011 had caused widespread famine through loss of

banana crops in Murutunga and Kantare. This was reported as a devastating event by these groups,

and both were concerned with ensuring that crops were protected from disease.

Soil fertility

All groups reported that soils have lost condition, cited as a major change to livelihoods in the

community. Four groups, representing all strata, described crops as doing less well, or producing

reduced yields, as linked to this. Half of the groups described the loss of black colour in soils as a key

indicator of loss of fertility. All groups expected fertility to continue to decline.

Land management approaches and challenges

A key challenge for all communities was land shortages because of population growth, with all

groups commenting on the inadequate land for grazing and cultivation. Also linked was the theme of

land fragmentation, which was reinforced particularly by male groups.

Across all groups, access to knowledge and education on management of soils was described as

inadequate, with the exceptions of the women’s groups from Bugunga and Murutunga. However

they felt that this support should now focus on modernising the agricultural sector. The women

commented on the challenge of conservativeness amongst farmers, with some unwilling to embrace

changes, and suggested that these constructions be legally enforced.

There was a common complaint that inputs were expensive for many farmers, or that there was

inadequate access to necessary inputs. However, the Bugunga male group commented that they had

increased access to inputs in recent years.

18

Conclusion

This report has reviewed the findings of focus groups directed at two key themes: soil perception

and management; and land use, livelihoods, and change.

Across both FGDs, a prominent concern was the growing population. Population pressure is seen as

a leading cause of poverty, reducing available cultivable land and forcing over cultivation. In turn,

over-cultivation was described by many farmers as a key cause of loss of soil quality, particularly

with once-fertile loam soils. This declining soil fertility has reduced agricultural yields, resulting in

reduced household food security and income. Soils are widely perceived to have lost fertility over

time, at an increasing rate. This was especially true of loam soils, which have been over-cultivated.

Sandy soils were affected by erosion, which also causes silting and reduction in water quality.

In addition to this, the lack of available land and large numbers of dependents has forced people to

encroach on wetland and forest resources. Swamp degradation was described across the groups,

including in Murutunga, which abuts an intact wetland, where encroachment for the cultivation of

Irish potatoes has also occurred.

Although benefits of wetlands recognised by participants included papyrus harvesting, climate

modification, and a source of craft materials, agriculture was widely considered the best use of

wetlands by all groups in the soil perception and management theme. Wetland encroachment has

occurred in all areas including Murutunga, and all the groups said that forest resources have

decreased, and that wildlife has decreased as a result of encroachment on wetland habitats.

Poverty was closely related to an inability to invest in soils. Current soil management techniques

employed in the study villages include terracing to counter erosion, and manure and fertiliser

spreading to counter loss of nutrients. Across the study villages, rich households were considered

able to apply these soil management techniques, and as a result of having larger, and more, plots of

land, were able to leave the land to fallow. However, poor farmers lack the capacity to carry out

these practices. Terracing is not a common practice of poor households because they are typically

occupied with working on the farms of the rich. Additionally, poor people are characterised by a lack

of livestock, and so struggle to get manure to spread. It was also observed that rich households

tended to own the more fertile plots of land. Further to this, agricultural inputs were considered

expensive relative to household income by all groups. In addition to this, poor households were

often characterised as having small, and poor quality, plots of land, with one participant noting that

improvement of sandy soils is important because that is what the poor tend to own. Linked to this is

a call for improved knowledge and understanding of soil management techniques, improved access

to crop and tree varieties, and improved access to markets.

In all the study villages, livelihoods are heavily dependent on agriculture, but in Bugunga, income

sources are more diversified. Bugunga is also characterised by better access to healthcare, improved

housing, and better infrastructure, whereas in Murutunga, the lack of adequate roads and bridges is

felt to be a significant barrier to accessing markets and agricultural inputs.

19

Going forward

As illustrated, the spiral of poverty and land degradation can appear self-perpetuating, and it can be

challenging to identify where resources should be focussed in the most cost-effective way in order to

disrupt this cycle.

A number of strategies were identified by respondents for improvement of livelihoods and soils.

These relate mostly to actions they believe local leadership should take, but many require some

form of community involvement. It was noted by female groups that support should not be via

financial aid, as it would be spent on alcohol.

In order to respond to the growth in population, there was wide consensus on the need for

improved knowledge around family planning. Murutunga in particular is affected by the limited

access to health services including a maternity centre. Groups in Kantare and Murutunga described a

need for improved infrastructure and access to essential services, with Murutunga groups in

particular noting their limited market access because of inadequate roads and bridges. There was

also a call for establishment of credit facilities or savings groups to help farmers, and better access to

loans.

In terms of agricultural practices, the communities called for increased practice of manure spreading

to improve soil nutrient content, and fanya chini to reduce erosion. They called for support to

farmers in accessing manure, via provision of livestock to poorer farmers, and the enforcement of

fanya chini practice through making it a legal requirement. In addition to this, male groups in

particular described a need for improved extension support to disseminate knowledge about the

best farming techniques. Further to this, there is interest among households for encouraging

agroforestry as a way to reduce erosion and loss of top-soils, as well as being a potential income

source. Farmers described their interest in planting different varieties of trees, and in particular

moving away from eucalyptus as it dries out the soil.

During the process of this analysis, a number of points were touched on which would be useful

questions for future research. Many of the groups called for better understanding of ways to combat

plant pests, and access to improved pesticides. What are barriers to access of certain treatments,

and how could new pesticides or disease prevention strategies could be developed?

20

Annex A. Discussion questions

Focus Group Theme 1: Soil perception and management

Date of FGD: Sex of FGD: Number of participants:

Topic of Discussion: Soil perception and management

Wetland system and Village:

1 a & b): Soil types, characteristics and distribution

Types of soil Characteristics of different soil types

Colour Texture Workability Productivity Fertility

1 c & d) Specific names of soils and their distribution across the land scape

Types of soil Specific names/local

language

Meaning of specific

names

Any proverbs or stories related to soil

types

2 a & b) Suitability of different types of soils in relation to crop production

Types of

soil

Best crops

grown

Best management

practices applied

Factors influencing soil use

2 c) Suitability and capacity different types of soils

Types of

soil

How suitability and capacity is determined?

21

2 d). Influencing factors for soil use

Types of crops and activities Influencing factors for soil use

3. Relationship between soil quality and poverty a) How is poverty defined and characterised by households in this community?

b) What are the key reasons and causes of poverty in the community?

c) In which ways is poverty related to soil in this area?

d) Differences in soil quality between the poor and rich households

Poor households Rich households

4. Soil management a) What are the different ways in which soils are managed and why? .

b & c) Differences in soil quality between the poor and rich households

Types of soils Who makes decision about use?

d) Differences in how poor and rich households manage soils

Poor households Rich households

e) How does the wealth status of a household influence its ability to manage soils? f) How, with a help of example explain if soil management has impact on the betterment of livelihood? 5 a) Changes in Soil conditions

Types of

soil

Changes over the years

2 years 5 years 10 years

22

b, c & d) Causes and consequences of changing soil conditions

Types of

soil

Causes of changing

conditions

Consequences to the area including old, rich, young,

etc

e) What types of soil problems do you observe in the area? f) How is soil degradation identified? Which are the best indicators? 6 a) Opportunities to improve soils

Types of soil How soils improve Changes in soil characteristics

b & c) Benefits of improving soils

Types of soil What is being done to

improve soils

Benefits of improved soils to livelihood

1.Brown soils

2.Clay loamy soils

3.Sandy loam soils

4.Loam soils

d) What are the challenges to improving soils?

e) What might be the best solution to help people/communities to improve their soils?

f) How can people be helped to improve soils- knowledge, education, financial support, and

technical support?

23

7. Uses of swamps a) What are the ways in which swamps are used?

Does this change throughout the year? Has this changed over the last 2,5,10 years? b) How do the different uses of swamps benefit people in different ways (incomes, health,

employment (farm labourer etc.?)

c) How do the different uses of swamps dis benefit people in different ways?

d) In which ways are benefits from swamps changing over time? (Lower crop yields, less water,

polluted water?)

e) Who is benefiting from different uses of swamps? (i.e. do poor benefit from intact wetlands?)

f) How are benefits from swamps shared?

g) What is the best use of swamp areas?

h) Who makes decision about the management of the swamps?

Extra non focus group discussion questions

Why are potatoes not grown in the wetlands between Decembers to April in the dry

season?

Who plants the maize and other crops during the Dec- April dry season?

Which soils are most affected by pest- nematodes, etc?

Which soils are most affected by disease- wilt, etc?

Focus Group Theme 2: Land use, livelihoods and change

Date of FGD: Sex of FGD: Number of participants:

Topic of Discussion: LAND USE, LIVELIHOOD AND CHANGE

Wetland system and Village:

Historical time periods

1. What significant events within the community over the last 30 years?

2. What are the significant periods for the region that were particularly important for people

livelihoods and environment over the last 30 years?

Changes to the community

3. What have been the most important social changes to the communities?

Component Changes Causes and drivers

Demographics (population, migration)

24

Household dynamics

Community dynamics

Culture practices

Livelihoods

Wellbeing, health and education

Changes to livelihoods

6. What have been the most important livelihood changes to the community?

Component Changes Causes and drivers

Sources of income- farm /non-farm

Farm incomes and expenditures

Access to markets and agricultural inputs

Poverty and wealth

Changes to the environment

7. What have been the most important environmental changes in the community?

Component Changes Causes and drivers

Rainfall (amount, pattern, reliability,

distribution)

Temperature (how warm or cool it

was)

Weather related events (fire, wind

etc)

Soil condition (fertility, tillage,

physical condition, etc )

Amount of water resources (river,

springs, etc)

Quality of water resources (river,

springs, etc)

Wildlife and biodiversity

Quality of forest resources

Changes to land use

8. What have been the most important changes in land uses?

25

Component Changes Causes and drivers

Forest cover/vegetation cover

Agricultural land cover: grazing and

cultivation

Wetland cover

Land management practices,

Agricultural inputs

Knowledge and information

Protected areas- environmental conservation/ restoration

Future Changes

9. If current situation and trends continue, what future will you expect in regard to

Community? Livelihoods? Environment? Land use?

10. What kinds of land uses & livelihoods would people like to see in this area in the future in regard to (Farmers’ wishes/aspirations?)

Community? Livelihoods? Environment? Land use?

11. What are the main barriers people see might prevent attainment of desired changes?

12. What can be done to outcome the barriers people see?

26

Annex B. Soil descriptions

Clay soils - Described by most groups as the soil found in swamps, this soil was generally described as dark in colour, highly fertile, and waterlogged.

- This soil type was identified by all the male groups, as well as the female group from Kantare.

- The soil had been traditionally used by both Kantare and Murutunga villages for activities such as pot-making and brick-making.

- All groups’ suggested management of clay soils included drainage to allow crop growth; however the two groups describing the colour as lighter

also described the addition of organic manure.

Bugunga (M) Kantare (M) Kantare (F) Murutunga (M)

Description Black in colour, sticky, hard,

compact and difficult for tillage.

High fertility; high water-holding

capacity limits growth of most crops.

Crops grown are maize, cabbage,

and Irish potatoes.

Black in colour, sticky, hard and

compact, difficult for tillage.

Moderate fertility; compaction limits

root penetration, so can’t grow

crops like passion fruit.

Crops grown are yams, cabbage,

Irish potatoes.

Light brown in colour, smooth

texture. Hard to till because of low

retention capacity.

Not productive; sweet potatoes and

cabbages can do well; brick-making.

White in colour, hard to till due to

compaction.

Not productive in terms of crop

production, due to poor drainage.

No crops grown; but pot-making.

Changes Big changes in last 2 years, due to

drainage for agriculture, leading to

loss of crop yield and malaria

occurrence.

Big changes in last 2 years –

drainage for agriculture, leading to

reduced quality of river water.

Soils have been put under

production in last 2 years, using

manure. Land has become bare and

famine has hit the area.

The drought has caused the

compaction which inhibits root

growth.

Management Water holding capacity too high

Drainage

High water holding capacity

“drainage is being carried out for

Soils are waterlogged and don’t

have organic matter Drainage in

“Most people do not have interest

in using such soils”

27

crop growing” the swamps; leaving land to fallow

an addition of organic manure.

Addition of organic manure

Loam soils - Described by groups in all areas, commonly as “Eitaka” or “Orutaka”.

- Generally found on gentle slopes or lowlands. Soils described as dark in colour, and having high productivity and fertility. The crops grown were

mainly Irish potatoes, sorghum and beans.

- All groups agreed that this soil type was losing fertility as a result of overutilization, resulting in decreasing yields. The Murutuga women’s group

also noted a higher prevalence of pests in these soils in recent years.

- Land management techniques varied, with both Murutunga and Kantare groups, and Bugunga women describing terracing and of water

conservation; and the Bugunga men focussing on addition of manure from livestock.

-

Bugunga (M) Bugunga (F) Kantare (M) Murutunga (M) Murutunga (F)

Description Loam soils, found in

lowlands. Dark in colour,

fine, and easier to till.

Productivity is high for all

crop types.

Loam soils, found on

gentle slopes.

Dark in colour, moderately

fine, and easy to work

with.

High productivity for

certain crops (maize,

beans, sorghum, Irish

potatoes.

Loam soils found on gentle

slopes. Dark in colour,

fine, and easier to till.

High productivity and

fertility.

Loam soils. Dark in colour,

fine, and easier to till.

High productivity and

fertility, especially for

crops like beans and Irish

potatoes.

Loam soils found in

lowlands. Dark in colour,

fine, and easier to till.

High productivity and

fertility.

Changes Losing fertility due to

overutilization, since

Losing fertility due to

overutilization, and mono-

Fertility has reduced in

past 5 years due to

Fertility has reduced due

to overcultivation and loss

Products are produced for

market, especially Irish

28

1990s; and erosion,

resulting in low crop

reduction and famine.

cropping (especially by the

poor households) since

1990s. This has led to

decreasing yields season-

on-season, resulting in

food shortages and loss of

income.

overcultivation. There has

also been siltation because

of erosion from the steep

slopes, covering the fertile

soils.

of soil fertility. potatoes.

There has been a higher

prevalence of pests in

recent years.

Management Introduction of livestock

onto the soils to provide

manure.

Land fallowing; retention

trenches.

Construction of soil nad

water management; crop

rotation.

Terracing through the use

of trash lines.

Construction of soil and

water conservation

structures.

Clay loamy soils - Identified by all 6 focus groups. Commonly described as “enombe”.

- Found on gentle slopes and lowlands. All groups except Murutunga described the soil as dark brown, moderately sticky, and easy to till, but

Murutunga groups described the colour as lighter.

- Productivity was described as high in Kantare and Murutunga, and moderate in Bugunga.

- Crops grown on these soils are Irish potatoes (all groups), beans, maize, banana and sorghum.

- The soils are described as having changed recently. In Kantare, the chief concern is population pressure leading to famine because of loss of fertility

in these soils.

- Murutunga and Bugunga groups manage these soils with manure or fertiliser application; but Kantare groups mentioned use of soil and water

conservation structures.

Bugunga (M) Bugunga (F) Kantare (M) Kantare (F) Murutunga (M) Murutunga (F)

Description Gentle slopes.

Dark brown,

moderately sticky. Easy

Lowlands.

Dark brown,

moderately sticky. Easy

Gentle slopes.

Dark brown,

Gentle slopes.

Dark brown, smooth

Light brown colour,

fine texture. Easier to

Moderately dark

brown colour, easy to

29

to till, but hard during

dry spells.

High productivity,

moderate fertility.

Crops grown are Irish,

beans, maize,

soeghum.

to till, but hard during

dry spells.

Moderately productive

and fertile.

Crops grown are beans,

Irish potatoes, maize,

sorghum.

moderately sticky.

Easier to till.

High productivity and

fertility (high organic

matter).

Crops grown: maize,

Irish potatoes, beans.

and soft.

Easier to till.

High productivity and

fertility varies between

hills.

Crops grown: maize,

Irish potatoes, beans,

bananas.

till.

High productivity,

moderate fertility.

Crops grown are Irish

potatoes and banana..

till.

High productivity &

fertility.

Changes Big change recently,

with soil erosion as a

result of over-

utilisation and poor

family practices,

leading to reduced crop

yield, and subsequent

loss of income and

food.

Soils began to change

when the area was hit

by drought in the 80s.

Overcultivation has

also reduced the

fertility of the land, and

low yields have

affected everyone.

The soil was more

productive 8-10 years

back.

Overcultivation

because of population

pressure has led to

some degradation, and

famine in most

households in the

community. High

drainage of wetlands

for agricultural

purposes, as a result of

overpopulation.

The soil was more

productive 8-10 years

back.

Overcultivation

because of population

pressure has led to

some degradation, and

famine in most

households in the

community.

Here are not enough

agricultural inputs

(chemicals); poor

households’

overutilization.

Soil erosion has led to

famine and a loss of

income. There has

been high siltation

recently from up-slope

eroded soils.

Management Fertiliser application. Fertiliser/manure

application; land

Water and soil

conservation

Fertiliser/manure

application; land

Manure application. Manure application.

30

fallowing. structures to control

runoff speed.

fallowing. Water

retention structures.

Sandy soils - Sandy soils are identified by all except Bugunga men, generally described as “orushenyi”.

- In Kantare these are the soils on the tops of hills; in Bugunga they are also found in the valleys. The fertility and productivity was described as

moderate to low. In Bugunga and Kantare the soils become harder to till during dry seasons, but Murutunga groups described high water content as

making it easy to till.

- Generally the crops grown on these soils are sweet potatoes and millet, alongside various combinations of beans, ground nuts and banana trees.

- The problem of erosion of these soils was clearly identified by Bugunga and Kantare groups, with fertile-rich topsoils washed away. They manage

this with the use of terracing and manure spreading. During heavy rains, the area becomes unproductive and degraded, with crop failure and

increased risk of diseases such as diarrhoea. In Kantare in particular, a big change has been observed in recent years as a result of overcultivation, a

problem also noted by Murutunga groups, alongside a rise in the prevalence of soil-borne diseases.

Bugunga (F) Kantare (M) Kantare (F) Murutunga (M) Murutunga (F)

Description Sandy soils – in valleys and

on top of hills.

Brown in colour, and rough.

Easier to till, but dusty in dry

seasons.

Low fertility when compared

to clay loam.

Sandy soils on tops of hills.

Light brown, dry and rough.

Easy to till in rainy season

but hard during dry seasons.

Low productivity; fair

Sandy loam on tops of hills.

Brown and rough.

Easy to dig during dry season

– high water retention

capacity.

Low productivity; moderate

fertility.

Sandy loam soils.

Brown in colour.

Easy to till because of high

water.

Moderate productivity and

Sandy loam soils.

Brown in colour.

Easy to till because of high

water.

Moderate productivity and

31

Crops grown are beans,

sweet potatoes.

fertility.

Crops grown are peas, sweet

potatoes, millet, Gnuts.

Crops grown are sweet

potatoes, millet, banana,

trees.

fertility.

Crops grown are millet,

sweet potatoes, onions,

Gnuts.

fertility.

Crops grown are millet,

sweet potatoes.

Changes Erosion hazard in 1992

caused a strong decline in

soil fertility. Since then,

erosion has steadily

decreased the fertility of the

soils, with fertile top-soils

washed away.

Continuous cultivation and

climatic changes e.g. heavy

rain have also contributed to

lower crop yields, famine,

and disease.

Big changes because of

drought, erosion, and

overpopulation. Erosion has

caused soil degradation and

loss of soil fertility, leading

to crop failure.

Big change in the past 2

years. Soil erosion from

steep slopes, because of

overcultivation and

overgrazing. In heavy rains,

this erosion leaves the

whole area unproductive

and degraded, with crop

failure and diseases like

diarrhoea.

Bigger change happened a

longer time ago,

Overcultivation has occurred

as a result of a lack of land,

leading to a loss of income.

Big changes because of soil-

borne diseases;

overcultivation leading to

loss of soil fertility.

Management Retention trenches are

used, as well as manure

spreading.

Manure spreading. Trash lines and water

retention trenches; use of

inorganic fertilisers (by rich

households).

Use of terraces and manure. Manure.

Brown soils - “Brown soils” were only recognised by Bugunga men and Murutunga women.

- In Bugunga, these were soils that had recently been overused for brick-making, causing degradation and resulting in reduced household food and

income. The crops grown include millet, peas, sweet potatoes and eucalyptus trees.

32

- In Murutunga, the brown soils described were on gentle sloping land. Recent changes include soil degradation and erosion, reducing the quality of

water resources. These soils are managed by addition of manure.

Bugunga (M) Murutunga (F)

Description Brown soils on steep slope, fine, easier to till but low water retention.

Low productivity & fertility.

Crops grown are millet, peas, sweet potatoes, and eucalyptus trees.

Named “Eitaka”

Brown soils on gentle sloping land

Soft to touch, hard to till

Low fertility & productivity.

Crops grown: sweet potatoes, millet (because shallow).

Named “Orucucu”

Changes Soil erosion and brick-making.

The recent overuse for brick-making has caused degradation.

Soils no longer good, reducing family food and income.

Soil erosion and degradation.

Production of sweet potatoes has reduced a lot in past 2 years.

Erosion affects the quality of water resources.

Management Manure; crop rotation.

Addition of manure.

These soils are not easily attacked by pests and diseases.

33

Annex C. Wetlands. Bugunga (M) Bugunga (F) Kantare (M) Kantare (F) Murutunga (M) Murutunga (F)

What are the ways in which swamps are used?

Source of fish, craft

materials and thatching

materials.

Helps in climatic

modification.

Increases agricultural land

for farming by reclaiming it

for agricultural purposes.

Source of medical herbs for

meeting different diseases

in the community.

Farming most especially

Irish potatoes production as

the main source of

livelihood.

The conserved part of the

swamp provides aesthetic

values to the area such as

climate modification as

rainfall formation. During

dry season some of

papyruses reeds dry up and

is collected as fuel to the

surrounding community.

Source of craft materials

which have enabled people

to earn income through

selling of items like mats,

baskets etc.

Source of food to the

surrounding communities of

Kantare and this has

enabled most people in the

area to improve on their

nutrition standards.

Harvesting of materials like

papyrus reeds has increased

income in the community.

Helps in rainfall formation

which supports agriculture

The swamps are used for

Irish potato growing.

People around it fetch water

from that area.

It is also used as grazing area

during the period when it is

on rest out of farming.

Agriculture is being

practiced on swamps by

growing crops such as Irish,

maize

Fishing is also practiced

Source of craft materials for

mat making provides

income.

Supports agriculture mainly

cultivation of Irish potatoes,

craft making industries and

provision of food for

example mud fish, wild

fruits

Climatic stabilisation by

helping in rainfall formation.

Control of natural hazards

for example floods.

Purification of water, which

endures the supply of clean

water in the community

Does this change throughout the year?

Swamps are commonly used

during the dry spells of May-

September when there is

little water in the swamps

During the periods where

the area is receiving too

much rainfall the people in

the community cannot grow

crops for example from the

month of August to

September due to

waterlogging.

There is no big changes in

terms of loss of fertility but

only when it rains a lot

waterlogging affects most

crops

It is seasonal especially in

the month of May-August.

Has this changed over the last 2,5,10 years?

34

Last 2 years because a lack

of devastating storms,

increase in crop yield and

production is still being

observed from wetlands

The change in production of

the swamp has changed

overtime by a reduction as

evidenced in the late 1990s

and 2004 by reduction in

both quality and quantity.

In 2000 to 2006 the

converted swamp to

farming was still fresh with a

lot of high quality organic

matter content and hence

very fertile and the produce

would be much while with

time it had to reduce season

after season up to present

but the current changes

cannot be predicted

because there are seasons

which do not experience

heavy rains and the produce

is much while those seasons

with heavy rains in August

and September cause silting

and deposition of eroded

mass from the hill slopes

hence causing damping and

related consequences for

instance reduction in Irish

potatoes produce

A reduction in biodiversity

as a result of encroachment

on such wetland resources.

The changes of the swamp

have become realised slowly

year after year in its

productivity and vegetation

cover reduction.

The change seem to be

severe with in the last of five

years but previously the

changes were not realised

by the community around

because the vegetation

cover would regenerate

quickly and water table was

still near the above ground

Uncontrolled agricultural

practices are being carried

on wetlands that have

started to encroach on

conserved wetland to grow

crops as land in the area is

over stretched.

How do the different uses of swamps benefit people in different ways

35

Swamps provide fish which

are sold locally to raise

income for improve

livelihood in the community.

Swamps provide craft

materials which provide

employment to most

women in the community

for example in making mats,

baskets.

Swamps helps in climatic

modification by help in

rainfall formation which

supports agriculture that

provides food for improved

health.

Swamps provides local

medical herbs which helps in

treating different diseases

hence improves on health of

people in the community.

Swamps benefit people in

various ways as income and

employment because the

area converted into farm

land farmers get yield and

sell their produce especially

those who have plots in

swamps – while those

without plots of land in the

swamp go to the swamps to

provide their labour during

land preparation and

harvesting such that they

can earn a living

Excess run off from heavy

rains also settles in swamps

Source of craft materials for

basket and mat making has

enabled many people to

earn income.

It is a source of food inform

of vegetables which has

enabled most people to

improve on their nutritional

health.

It helps in rainfall formation

through climatic

modification which supports

agriculture and which is the

main source of income in

the community.

Source of building materials

which has enabled many

people to improve on their

housing facilities.

People around the area

have benefited with high

incomes because the whole

focus of the people is on the

agricultural farm than other

aesthetic valves of the

swamp farmers use the

swamp for agriculture

during the period of May to

September while those who

don't have plots to farm in

the swamp are employed

during cultivation period

and harvesting of Irish

potatoes and are considered

to be poor.

Source of food to the

surrounding community

which boosts communal

development.

Helps in climatic

modification by encouraging

on rainfall formation

Support agriculture which is

a source of food and income

to the surrounding

community

Source of thatching

materials for improving on

housing facilities to the

poor.

Source of craft materials

encourages employment to

women’s in the community

Help in climatic modification

for example in rainfall

formation which helps in

growing of crops and

keeping of animals hence

boosts income in the

community

Provides food and income

through selling fish, which

provides income to improve

on their live hood.

Its supports agriculture

through growing of crops

like Irish potatoes and thus

has boosted food

production in the area

hence ensuring food

security especially in the

months of August in the

area.

How do the different uses of swamps dis benefit people in different ways?

36

There is no way swamps dis

benefit the people since

most of them use it for

agriculture of which most

people depends on as a

source of income and food.

In the swamp both

conserved and the

cultivated there are many

mosquitoes which cause

Malaria and the case usually

worsens during the period

of April to August when

most of parts of the swamps

are cleared for agriculture.

There is no dis benefit of a

swamp to the community

due to ecological values that

serves in the community for

example in water

purification.

There are apes living in the

conserved part of the

swamp always escape from

there and go to destroy the

plantations in the areas

around the swamp.

The poor household are

though harvesting of

papyrus reeds fishing of

mudfish.

The poor households don’t

perceive any dis benefits

from wetlands. They actually

take the opportunity to use

a wetland in order to get

enough food to improve on

the health and therefore

swampy areas are not dis

benefiting people in any way

In which ways are benefits from swamps changing over time?

No change in crop yield up

to the current years

The benefits form the

swamp are getting lower in

the case of agriculture

produce because there is

also mono-cropping every

year. Irish potatoes are the

only one specie doing better

in the swamp and now the

produce is getting lower

than the previous

The water quality has also

reduced all time because

during season of land

preparation the water

quality is disturbed by

continuous turning of soil

and throwing the

underground soils and

decomposed humus into the

water even with chemical

fungicides during spraying of

potatoes.

Reduces crop yield due to

water logging which leads to

leaching of nutrients and

this affects crops like

cabbages, potatoes which

are commonly grown in such

areas.

Polluted water due to high

prevalent of erosion in the

area such as a result of

heavy rainfall commonly

known as “Gongo”

Less water due to prolonged

drought condition which are

occurring in the area from

month of June – August.

The crop yields are reducing

in quantity and quality for

instance the Irish potatoes

that used to yield in the

previous 5years back have

reduced in quality.

“ Mrs Bamukwesa said that

she has a plot she used to

get 8 sacks of Irish potatoes

in previous seasons up to

2008 but now days reduced

to 2 sacks and 3 sacks of

harvest” hence a great

variance.

Even water reduced in

quality and quality for

instance in previous years

water was over flowing on

the swamp and was clean

but now have reduced and

always not clear.

There is no big change in

terms of crop yield.

There is no a big change in

crop yield except during the

October to December when

there is too much rainfall in

the area which negatively

affects crop yield due to

water logging.

There is a moderate change

in water levels in rainy

season and less water

during dry spells of May to

August.

Water, rivers and swamps

becomes highly polluted

during rainy season due to

erosion mostly in the month

of April and September.

37

Who is benefiting from different uses of swamps?

The poor benefit a lot

because they harvest a

number of materials such as

craft materials thatching

materials and medicinal

herbs which has enabled

them to benefit a lot from

In Bugunga all the people

are benefiting from the

swamps because most of

the people around have

plots in the swamps use

them for Irish potato

farming while those who do

not have plots there are

either employed during

planting season or

harvesting.

On the conserved part of

swamps the poor people are

the ones benefiting a lot as

they usually use the swamp

to collect/fetch firewood

(dry papyruses) because

they do not own tree

plantations where they

would get alternative

sources of fuel neither they

have money to buy charcoal

or install biogas

Yes the poor benefit

because they carry out

fishing of mudfish which has

enabled to earn income.

All the people around the

area benefit from swamps

as most people whether rich

or poor have plots owned in

the swamps where they

usually plant Irish potatoes

for those who do not have

own plots, work for those

who have or own plots in

swamp.

On the part of the intact

wetland, people usually

collect clean water, they

harvest papyruses from it

for craftwork, some go to

get mud fish from it while

others have bee keeping. All

farmers contributed to this.

The poor benefits a lot. The poor benefit a lot by

taking agriculture as the

best income generating

activity and a source of

food, harvesting papyrus

reeds.

How are benefits from swamps shared?

Both people in the

community since they all

have a right to use a swamp

either to get thatching

materials, mulches without

any restriction from the

community.

There are no accurate

information about how

benefits from swamps are

shared but the rich always

get more benefits from the

swamp because they have

enough funds to purchase

large and many plots and

Both the poor households

and the rich house benefits

from the swamp.

There is uneven distribution

of the benefits but on the

swamps converted, the rich

households benefit a lot

because they own many and

large plots of, land while the

poor households over

exploit the intact part of the

Both the cultivating and

poor households benefits

from the use of swamps but

the poor benefits a lot

because they get papyrus

needs for commercial

purposes and other crafting

materials for making basket

Both poor households and

rich households benefit

since they all practice

agriculture in swamp areas.

38

farm these plots compared

to poor farmers.

swamp in terms of papyrus

harvesting and even hurting

wild animals which live in

the swamp not leaving out

fishing.

making materials for

livelihood improvements.

What is the best use of swamp areas?

Agriculture since most

families in the area depend

on agriculture as a source of

food and money for

improved livelihood

The swamp around has

proved to be productive in

Irish potatoes farming.

Agriculture, since most

people depends on

agriculture as a source of

food and income to improve

on their livelihood

Other than conservation

purposes the swamp can be

used for Irish potato farming

because it is the only activity

that can do better than

other activities.

Agriculture since it supports

communal development as

source of food and income.

Agriculture to provide food

and income.

Fishing to provide food and

income.

Source of crafting materials.

Source of papyrus reeds.

Who makes decisions about the management of the swamps?

The landowners and tenants

on parts of swamps which

are owned by the people,

and the government on the

part of swamp which is

conserved under National

Environmental Management

Authority.

The management

committee decides when to

start farming in the swamp.

The government and

organisation as NEMA and

Nature Uganda have been in

control of the reserved part

of the swamp.

Farmers make decision on

use of wetlands which are

communally owned and the

government authorities like

National Environmental

Management Authority

many the part of wetland

which is under conservation.

The management of the

intact swamps is made by

the government whereas

the decision about

management if the

degraded swamp is made at

household level as a

negotiation between the

husband and wives on what

variety of the potatoes to

grow and the date to do

farming while husband are

key drivers on opening the

drainage channels and other

practices such as monitoring

and spraying

Communal wetland

management plans since the

wetland is managed by the

community and therefor

communal bylaws are

instituted to restrict some

people from accessing the

use of wetlands.

The land owners and the

government, like national

environmental management

Authority on to areas, which

is under conservation.