Fluidized bed combustion of tyre derived fuel

Fluidized bed combustion of tyre derived fuel

Fabrizio Scala a,*, Riccardo Chirone a, Piero Salatino b

a Istituto di Ricerche sulla Combustione––CNR, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italyb Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, Universit�aa degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy

Received 6 January 2002; received in revised form 17 June 2002; accepted 9 July 2002

Abstract

Mechanistic aspects of the fluidized bed combustion of tyre derived fuel (TDF) have been analyzed both experimentally and

theoretically. The time-resolved rates of carbon fines elutriation during the fluidized bed combustion of TDF have been measured

during batch experiments in a bench scale reactor at 850 �C, under different operating conditions. Experimental results indicated

that both gas superficial velocity and oxygen partial pressure exert influence upon the overall fixed carbon combustion efficiency.

The efficiency increases slightly with the oxygen concentration and significantly if the gas superficial velocity decreases.

Experimental data are further analyzed in the framework of a fluidized bed combustor model especially suited for high-volatile

solid fuels feedings. The model takes into account phenomena that assume particular importance with this kind of fuels, namely fuel

particle fragmentation in the bed and combustibles segregation and postcombustion above the bed. Experimental and model results

indicate that the efficiency of the fluidized bed combustion of TDF is controlled by the competition between combustion and

entrainment of char fines and volatile matter released in the early stage of fuel conversion.

� 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fluidized bed combustion; Tyre derived fuel; Fragmentation

1. Introduction

The use of tyre derived fuel (TDF) from scrap tyres in

combustion processes is very attractive because of itslarge heating value and since conventional disposal of

whole tyres (by landfilling) represents a source of con-

siderable health and fire hazards. In this respect fluidized

bed technology seems to be a natural choice due to its

fuel flexibility and the possibility to achieve an efficient

and clean operation [1,2]. A literature survey on oper-

ating experience of pilot and full scale fluidized bed

combustors fueled with tyres highlights the relevance ofappropriate design and operation criteria in the fluidized

bed combustion of TDF [3–5]. The non-negligible sulfur

content calls for careful consideration of emission issues,

which can be conveniently dealt with by in bed desul-

furization with sorbents. The problems related to metal

wire and low melting point fiberglass contained in tyres

have been underlined by Rasmussen and McFee [6].

Arena et al. [7,8] showed that TDF undergoes ex-

tensive fragmentation upon devolatilization, forming a

number of fine fragments easily elutriated from the bed.

Accordingly the bed carbon loading as coarse particles isnegligible and in practice only fines are present in the

bed. As a consequence, combustion efficiency is strongly

dependent on how the combustion time scale compares

with the residence time of char fines in the bed, which in

turn is related to the elutriation rate. A scheme of the

series-parallel phenomena relevant for the size reduction

of TDF particles in fluidized beds is shown in Fig 1 [8].

As no coarse particle is present at the steady-state in thebed, secondary fragmentation as well as attrition are not

relevant for this fuel.

Another important issue during TDF combustion is

the fate of the combustible volatile matter of the fuel

[9,10]. The large contribution to the overall heat release

coming from homogeneous combustion of volatile

matter emphasizes the importance of mixing/segregation

phenomena with respect to the bed. The location ofvolatiles combustion significantly affects the heat release

profiles throughout the combustor, influencing the de-

sign of heat exchange surfaces, the course of pollutant

Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 27 (2003) 465–471

www.elsevier.com/locate/etfs

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-081-768-2242; fax: +39-081-593-

6936.

E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Scala).

0894-1777/03/$ - see front matter � 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/S0894-1777(02)00249-2

mail to: [email protected]

generation and the internals material degradation. De-

pending on fluidization conditions and on the combus-

tion parameters, a large fraction of volatiles can bypass

the bed, eventually burning in the freeboard, even in thecase of submerged feeding of TDF particles in the bed.

The purpose of this paper is to outline mechanistic

aspects of the fluidized bed combustion of TDF by

means of an experimental and theoretical analysis. In

order to investigate the performance of fluidized bed

combustors fed with TDF, experiments consisting of

batchwise combustion of TDF charges in a bed fluidized

at different superficial velocities, have been carried out.The time-resolved rates of carbon fines elutriation dur-

ing the fluidized bed combustion of TDF have been

measured to determine the fixed carbon combustion

efficiency. Experimental results are then analyzed in the

framework of a fluidized bed combustor model em-

bodying features that are relevant to high-volatile solid

fuels combustion [11,12]. Key aspects relevant to the

efficient combustion of TDF are highlighted.

2. Experimental

Experiments have been carried out with a market

available TDF, whose properties are given in Table 1.

The fuel was chopped in the size range 3.35–4.5 mm with

Sauter mean diameter of 4.1 mm.Fig. 2 shows the laboratory scale stainless steel 40

mm ID fluidized bed combustor. It is equipped with a

two-exit head ending with sintered brass filters for the

time-resolved collection of elutriated fines. Details of

apparatus and techniques are given elsewhere [11,13].

The bed consisted of 180 g of silica sand, having a size

range of 0.3–0.4 mm, whose properties are reported in

Table 1.Two different sets of batch experiments have been

carried out, namely tests under integral and differential

conditions with respect to oxygen. In experiments under

integral conditions TDF particles were injected into the

bed kept at 850 �C in batches corresponding to a con-

stant fixed carbon content of 2.0 g. This large amount of

TDF was charged in the bed at the beginning of the test

in order to get reproducible values of the carbon elu-

triation rate. The bed was initially kept at the minimum

fluidization velocity in inert atmosphere until devolatil-

ization was over. Afterwards, superficial gas velocity

was raised to its final value and the inlet gases were

switched from nitrogen to nitrogen–oxygen mixtures atpreset values of oxygen concentration. Fines escaping

the combustor during the experiments were collected by

Table 1

Properties of the fuel and of bed material

Fuel TDF

Proximate analysis, % (as received)

Moisture 1.9

Ash 4.3

Volatile Matter 63.4

Fixed Carbon 30.4

Ultimate analysis, % (dry basis)

Carbon 83.8

Hydrogen 6.9

Nitrogen 0.6

Sulfur 2.0

Ash 4.4

Oxygen 2.3

Particle Sauter mean diameter, mm 4.1

Particle density, kg/m3 1450

Bed material Silica sand

Particle size range, mm 0.3–0.4

Particle Sauter mean diameter, mm 0.356

Particle density, kg/m3 2540

Fig. 2. Experimental apparatus: (1) gas preheating section; (2) elec-

trical furnaces; (3) ceramic insulator; (4) gas distributor; (5) thermo-

couple; (6) fluidization column; (7) head with three-way valve; (8)

sintered brass filters; (9) hopper; (10) SO2 scrubber; (11) stack; (12)

cellulose filter; (13) membrane pump; (14) gas analyzers; (15) personal

computer; (16) manometer; (17) digital mass flowmeters; (18) air

dehumidifier (silica gel).

Fig. 1. Comminution behavior of TDF in fluidized bed [8].

466 F. Scala et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 27 (2003) 465–471

means of sintered brass filters and then analyzed to de-

termine their fixed carbon content. This procedure al-

lowed the evaluation of the instantaneous rates of fixed

carbon elutriation. In experiments under differential

conditions TDF batches corresponding to a fixed car-bon content of 0.2 g were injected into the bed. The

experimental procedure was similar to that of integral

tests. Due to the low amount of fixed carbon fed, the

elutriated fines were collected for each run in a single

filter, so that time-resolved elutriation rate profiles could

not be obtained.

3. Results

Figs. 3–6 show time-resolved carbon elutriation rates

Ec measured during the batch fluidized bed combustion

of TDF in integral experiments. Fluidizing gas was either

nitrogen or nitrogen–oxygen mixtures having an oxygen

content of 1.5%, 3.0% and 4.5% at fluidizing gas super-

ficial velocities of 0.4 and 0.8 m/s. The elutriation rates

were normalized by the amount of fixed carbon charged

into the bed WC;0 ¼ 2:0 g. No significant difference in the

order of magnitude of elutriation rate is observed when

passing from inert to oxidizing conditions and when in-creasing oxygen concentration. Integration of curves

obtained in oxidizing conditions over the time interval

from 0 to complete burn-off provides the values of the

overall fixed carbon combustion efficiency:

g ¼ 1�Z sbo

0

Ec

WC;0

dt0 ð1Þ

t, min

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Ec,

bed/

WC

,bed

,0,m

in-1

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.8 m/s0.4 m/s

Superficial velocity

Fig. 3. TDF fixed carbon elutriation rate as a function of time in in-

tegral batchwise experiments at different fluidization velocities.

O2 ¼ 0%.

t, min

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Ec,

bed/

WC

,bed

,0,m

in-1

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20


0.8 m/s0.4 m/s

Fig. 4. TDF fixed carbon elutriation rate as a function of time in in-

tegral batchwise experiments at different fluidization velocities.

O2 ¼ 1:5%.

t, min

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Ec,

bed/W

C,b

ed,0

,min

-1

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.8 m/s0.4 m/s


Fig. 5. TDF fixed carbon elutriation rate as a function of time in

integral batchwise experiments at different fluidization velocities.

O2 ¼ 3%.

t, min

0 5 10 15 20

Ec,

bed/W

C,b

ed,0

,min

-1

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.8 m/s0.4 m/s


Fig. 6. TDF fixed carbon elutriation rate as a function of time in

integral batchwise experiments at different fluidization velocities.

O2 ¼ 4:5%.

F. Scala et al. / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 27 (2003) 465–471 467

where sbo is the burn-out time. It can be clearly appre-

ciated how strongly both the time scale for carbon elu-

triation and the area below the curves are affected by the

value of the gas superficial velocity. This finding is

consistent with previous observations of Rasmussen andMcFee [6]. In analyzing the data, it must be considered

that, due to the amount of TDF charged in the bed at

the beginning of the test, selected so as to get repro-

ducible values of the carbon elutriation rate, the

combustor did not behave as a differential reactor with

respect to oxygen. In particular, oxygen concentration

dropped to nearly zero at the beginning of the test,

whatever the oxygen concentration in inlet gases.Smaller elutriation rates and larger efficiencies could be

expected, for any given inlet oxygen concentration, un-

der differential reactor operating conditions. Fig. 7

summarizes results obtained in all the batch combustion

experiments. Overall fixed carbon combustion efficiency

g is reported as a function of oxygen concentration in

the feed gas for the two superficial fluidization velocities

(0.4 and 0.8 m/s) investigated. It can be observed thatefficiency increases as oxygen concentration increases.

This trend is more pronounced at the velocity of 0.4 m/s

than at 0.8 m/s. For a given oxygen concentration in the

fluidizing gas, an increase of the gas superficial velocity

results in a significant decrease of the fixed carbon

combustion efficiency, as a consequence of the lower

fines residence time in the combustor.

Experiments were repeated under conditions thatmade the reactor differential with respect to oxygen.

This was accomplished by feeding batches of TDF

corresponding to WC;0 ¼ 0:2 g. Fig. 8 summarizes fixed

carbon combustion efficiencies as a function of oxygen

concentration for this series of experiments at the two

superficial fluidization velocities (0.4 and 0.8 m/s) in-

vestigated. Comparison of Fig. 8 with Fig. 7 shows that,

as expected, the combustion efficiency is larger in all

conditions for the differential experiments, but the

overall trends are the same.The low sensitivity of the fixed carbon combustion

efficiency on the inlet oxygen concentration under both

integral and differential conditions was somewhat

unexpected. One possible explanation relies on the

mechanism of particles segregation during the early

devolatilization stage highlighted by Fiorentino et al.

[9,10]. The authors showed that, whatever the feeding

procedure, TDF particles tend to rapidly rise to the bedsurface upon devolatilization, and remain segregated

thereon as far as gas-emission associated with pyrolysis

is extensive. As devolatilization rate declines, particles

can be re-entrained into the bed. On the other hand

Arena et al. [7,8] demonstrated that devolatilization of

TDF particles is associated with extensive release of

elutriable carbon fines. Altogether, these findings sug-

gest that a large quantity of combustibles (volatilematter and carbon fines) are released directly into the

freeboard, completely bypassing the bed. Incremental

conversion of the bypassed fuel in the freeboard is ruled

by oxygen macromixing, combustibles being mostly lo-

cated within reducing regions. On the whole, combina-

tion of fuel bypass and afterburning make combustion

efficiency more strongly related to gas superficial ve-

locity, affecting bed hydrodynamics and particle segre-gation, and less dependent on oxygen concentration.

4. Theoretical analysis

A stationary atmospheric bubbling fluidized bed

combustor model, suitable for high-volatile fuels, has

been developed [11,12]. The fluidized bed combustor is

O2, %

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.00.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.4 m/s0.8 m/s


Fig. 7. TDF fixed carbon combustion efficiency as a function of inlet

oxygen concentration in integral batchwise experiments at different

fluidization velocities.

O2, %

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.00.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.4 m/s0.8 m/s


Fig. 8. TDF fixed carbon combustion efficiency as a function of inlet

oxygen concentration in differential batchwise experiments at different

fluidization velocities.


modeled as a series of three reaction zones: the dense

fluidized bed, the splashing region, and the freeboard.

The model takes into account phenomena that assume

particular importance with this kind of fuels, namely

fuel particle fragmentation and attrition in the bed,volatile matter segregation and turbulent postcombus-

tion above the bed as well as thermal feedback from the

splashing region to the bed.

The model has been slightly modified for application

to the prediction of the fluidized bed combustion of

TDF. In particular bypass of fines into the splashing

region during devolatilization was considered. The as-

sumption was made that the fraction of fines burning in

the bed was equal to the fractional volatile matter

burned in this zone, the remainder bypassing the bed

directly into the splashing region. Input parameters wereselected with reference to geometrical and operating

parameters typical of large-scale bubbling atmospheric

combustors with under-bed feeding. Char combustion

kinetics was expressed following Masi et al. [14]. Values

of base case operating variables and model results are

shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Operating variables and results of model computations

Operating variables

Combustor cross-sectional area, m2 1.0

Unexpanded bed height, m 1.0

Combustor height (from the distributor), m 5.0

Bed temperature, K 1123

Freeboard temperature, K 973

Pressure, kPa 101

Superficial gas velocity, m/s 1.0

Excess air factor, – 1.2

Fuel feed mean particle size, mm 10.0

Bed solids mean particle size, mm 0.6

Model results

Expanded bed height, m 1.6

Splashing zone height, m 0.3

Fuel feed rate, kg/s 0.022

Fraction of volatiles and fines burned in the bed, % 19.3

Fixed carbon loading, kg Coarses in: Bed –

Fines in: Bed 0.56e)2Splashing zone 1.4e)2Freeboard 4.7e)2

Oxygen mole fraction, –

Bed 0.18

Splashing zone 0.086

Freeboard 0.068

Fixed carbon combustion efficiency in the bed, % 19.1

Total combustion efficiency in the bed, % 19.3

Total combustion efficiency of the combustor, % 81.2

Splashing zone temperature, K 1175

Heat generation rate, kW Bed: Coarse char –

Fine char 49

Volatiles 98

Splashing zone: Fine char 47

Volatiles 346

Freeboard: Fine char 15

Volatiles 63

Splashing zone-to-bed heat fluxes (% of heat release) Convective 81.2

Radiative 1.6

Total 82.8

Splashing zone-to-freeboard heat fluxes (% of heat release) Convective 5.6

Radiative 11.6

Total 17.2


Calculations show that, as a consequence of the fact

that TDF undergoes complete comminution to elutri-

able fines upon devolatilization (primary fragmenta-

tion), the carbon loading as coarse particles in the bed is

equal to zero and only fines are present in the bed. Alarge part of the fines is released directly in the splashing

region. It follows immediately that fixed carbon com-

bustion efficiency depends on the competition between

parallel fines combustion and elutriation/entrainment

processes, as indicated by the experimental results. TDF

has an intrinsic reactivity with a value intermediate be-

tween those of a bituminous coal and of a biomass. As a

consequence the fixed carbon loading as fines in the bedis smaller than that typically found for a coal but larger

than that relative to a biomass. A very low combustion

efficiency in the bed is calculated, as a consequence of

the extensive volatiles and fines bypassing.

Calculated heat generation rates are reported in Ta-

ble 2. The bed and splashing region sections represent

the main location of fixed carbon conversion, due to

fines combustion. Extensive volatile matter segregationoccurs, bringing a significant portion (about 70%) of the

heat release from volatiles combustion into the splashing

region. On the basis of the above considerations, one

can estimate that about 24% of the total heat release

takes place within the bed during combustion of TDF

under the simulated conditions, the remainder being

released mostly (64%) in the splashing region, mainly

because of extensive volatile matter postcombustion.Only 12% of the heat release takes place in the upper

freeboard region.

It is interesting to assess, at this point, the magnitude

of thermal fluxes that are established at steady state

between the different sections of the combustor. The

main scope is that of determining the extent to which

heat released in the splashing region is fed back to the

bed (where heat recovery is more efficient) and the re-lated temperature of the splashing region. Results of

computations are summarized in Table 2. The large

importance of volatile matter and fines postcombustion

gives rise to a pronounced overheating of the splashing

region (about 52 �C). However large thermal feedback

to the bed prevents overheating from being even larger.

About 83% of the heat released in the splashing zone is

fed back to the bed. The contribution from solids con-vection associated to particles ejection/fall-back is by far

dominant. Heat transfer between gas and ejected solids

in the splashing region takes place along parallel path-

ways associated with convection (about 94% of the heat

flux) and radiation (about 6%).

Fluidization velocity, bed material size and the total

excess air factor have been varied in order to assess their

influence on the combustion performance of TDF. Figs.9–11 show the splashing region temperature and the

total combustion efficiency as a function of the different

operating variables considered. The splashing regiontemperature is influenced both by superficial velocity

and bed particle size. Higher superficial velocities lead to

Fluidization velocity, m/s

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Spl

ashi

ngre

gion

tem

pera

ture

,˚C

850

900

950

1000

1050

1100

1150

1200

Tot

alco

mbu

stio

nef

ficie

ncy,

-

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

Splashing region temperatureTotal combustion efficiency

Fig. 9. Splashing region temperature and total combustion efficiency as

a function of fluidization velocity.

Bed particle size, mm

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Spl

ashi

ngre

gion

tem

pera

ture

,˚C

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

Tot

alco

mbu

stio

nef

ficie

ncy,

-

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00


Fig. 10. Splashing region temperature and total combustion efficiency

as a function of bed particle size.

Theoretical excess air factor, -

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Spl

ashi

ngre

gion

tem

pera

ture

,˚C

850

875

900

925

950

Tot

alco

mbu

stio

nef

ficie

ncy

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00


Fig. 11. Splashing region temperature and total combustion efficiency

as a function of theoretical excess air factor.


higher inert bed particle ejection velocities and longer

residence times in the splashing region, enhancing the

thermal feedback mechanism to the bed. The larger the

particle size, the smaller the particle ejection rate and

residence time in the splashing region, the smaller thethermal feedback to the bed. At low fluidization veloc-

ities and/or large bed particle sizes the splashing region

temperature can reach very high peak values, leading to

critical conditions above the bed. On the other hand Fig.

11 shows that the splashing zone temperature is not

influenced significantly by the excess air factor.

Superficial velocity has a strong influence on com-

bustion efficiency (Fig. 9), influencing the competitionbetween fines combustion and entrainment, while the

influence of bed particle size (Fig. 10) is more limited.

Interestingly, Figs. 9 and 10 show a non-monotonic

trend of combustion efficiency. The humps in the curves

are the consequence of non-negligible volatiles post-

combustion in the upper freeboard region for superfi-

cial velocities and bed particle sizes values in the range

0.6–1.3 m/s and 0.5–0.8 mm, respectively. Larger oxy-gen concentration establish in the splashing region

under these conditions and this is reflected by enhanced

combustion efficiency. As regards the effect of the the-

oretical excess air factor, while at low values the com-

bustion efficiency is barely influenced by this variable,

at large values the combustion efficiency significantly

increases.

5. Conclusions

Mechanistic aspects of the fluidized bed combustion

of TDF have been investigated by means of batchwise

combustion experiments and theoretical calculations

based on a recently proposed fluidized bed combustor

model. Experimental and model results indicate that theefficiency of TDF fluidized bed combustion is deter-

mined on the one hand by the competition between

combustion and entrainment of char fines generated by

primary fragmentation in the early stage of fuel con-

version, on the other hand by the propensity of volatiles

to bypass the bed and burn in the freeboard region.

High peak temperatures above the bed surface can be

reached as a consequence of extensive fuel bypassing,possibly leading to troublesome operation. On the basis

of experimental and model results, proposed strategies

for the efficient and environmentally acceptable com-

bustion of TDF in bubbling fluidized beds such as the

staging of combustion air into a primary and secondary

stream [15], or the use of fluidized bed reactors with

internal solids circulation [16] can be explained.

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Fluidized bed combustion of tyre derived fuel