Flight Combat Handbook

8/13/2019 Flight Combat Handbook

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FLIGHT

COMBAT

HANDBOOK

CORPORATEHEADQUARTERS |EXILED.INC.|RILAHIV

DD 132133DEFENSEDEPARTMENT TACTICALMANUAL


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TABLEOF CONTENTS Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................ 4

BasicShipManeuveringOverview.......................................................................................................................................... 5

BasicShipManeuveringPrinciples......................................................................................................................................... 6

Specific energy................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Energy management........................................................................................................................................................ 6

Turn performance............................................................................................................................................................ 7

Pursuit curves.................................................................................................................................................................. 8

Lead pursuit.................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Pure pursuit..................................................................................................................................................................... 9

Lag pursuit.................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Out-of-plane maneuvers................................................................................................................................................ 10

Displacement rolls........................................................................................................................................................ 11

Positioning....................................................................................................................................................................

12

Neutral........................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Offensive....................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Defensive...................................................................................................................................................................... 13

BasicShipManeuveringConcepts........................................................................................................................................ 14

Turn circle..................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Overshoots.................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Circle flow.................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Maneuvers............................................................................................................................................................................ 17

Combat Spread.............................................................................................................................................................. 17

Defensive Split.............................................................................................................................................................. 17

Break............................................................................................................................................................................. 17

Barrel Roll Attack......................................................................................................................................................... 18

High-Side Guns Pass..................................................................................................................................................... 18

Immelmann................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Split-S...........................................................................................................................................................................

19

Pitchback....................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Wingover....................................................................................................................................................................... 19

Low Yo-Yo................................................................................................................................................................... 20

High Yo-Yo.................................................................................................................................................................. 21

Lag Displacement Roll.................................................................................................................................................. 22


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High Yo-Yo Defense.................................................................................................................................................... 22

Unloaded Extension...................................................................................................................................................... 22

Scissors......................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Flat Scissors.................................................................................................................................................................. 24

Rolling Scissors............................................................................................................................................................ 25

Guns Defense................................................................................................................................................................ 26

High-G Barrel Roll....................................................................................................................................................... 26

Defensive Spiral............................................................................................................................................................ 27

GlossaryofTerms.................................................................................................................................................................. 28


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INTRODUCTIONSpacecombatmaneuvering(orSCM)istheartofmaneuveringacombatspacecraftinordertoattainapositionfromwhichanattackcanbemadeonanotherspacecraft.Itrelieson

offensiveand

defensive

basic

ship

maneuvering

(BSM)

in

order

to

gain

an

advantage

over

an

opponent.

Basicshipmaneuvers(BSM)aretacticalmovementsperformedbyfighterspacecraftduringSCM,inordertogainapositionaladvantageovertheopponent.BSMcombinesthe

fundamentalsofbothaerodynamicandextraatmosphericflightandthegeometryofpursuit

withthephysicsofmanagingthespacecraft'senergytoweightratio,calleditsspecificenergy.

Maneuversareusedtogainabetterangularpositioninrelationtotheopponent.Theycanbe

offensive,tohelpanattackergetbehindanenemy,ordefensive,tohelpthedefenderevade

anattacker'sweapons.Theycanalsobeneutral,wherebothopponentsstriveforanoffensive

position,ordisengagementmaneuvers,tohelpfacilitateanescape.

Superiorityinadogfightcandependonapilot'sexperienceandskill,andtheagilityofhis

fighterwhenflownatmaximumspaceframespeedsapproachinglossofcontrol(causinga

dangerofmoleculardestabilization);thewinnertypicallyplaystothestrengthsofhisown

spacecraftwhileforcinghisadversarytoflyatadesigndisadvantage.Dogfightsaregenerally

contestsfoughtatlowvelocities,whilemaintainingenoughenergyforviolentacrobatic

maneuvering,as

pilots

attempt

to

remain

within

air

speeds

with

amaximum

turn

rate

and

minimumturnradius:thesocalled"cornerspeed"thatoftendependsonthespacecraft's

design.Thereforeadogfighthasnothingtodowithsuperluminalspeed,butmuchtodowith

theenginepowerthatmakessuperluminalflightpossible.ThesupermaneuverableAegis

DynamicsAvengercanstandonitssteerablethrustersatlessthan100knotsvelocity,yet

quicklymaneuvertobringitsTigerstreikT21tobearonanearbyevasivetarget,whilean

Origin325aismorelikelytouseitsthrusttomaintainitsrelativelyhighcornerspeed,working

tocounterthedragcausedbytightturns.

Manyofthetacticsandstrategiesoutlinedinthishandbookaredesignedtobeappliedinplanetaryspace,wheregravitationalpullofthenearestbodycanbeusedtoyouradvantage


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BASICSHIPMANEUVERINGOVERVIEWBasicshipmaneuvers(onceBasicFighterManeuvers)areactionsthatafighterspacecraft

makesduringaircombatmaneuvering,historicallyknownasdogfighting.

Basicship

maneuvers

consist

of

tactical

turns,

rolls,

and

other

actions

to

get

behind

or

above

anenemy,beforetheopponentcandothesame.BSMaretypicallyuniversalmaneuvers

whichcanbeperformedinmostanyfighterspacecraft,andareusuallyconsideredtobe

trainingmaneuvers.Trainingusuallybeginswithpilotsflyingthesametypeofspacecraft,

pittingonlytheirskillsagainsteachother.Inadvancedtraining,pilotslearntoflyagainst

opponentsindifferenttypesofspacecraft,sopilotsmustlearntocopewithdifferent

technologicaladvantagesaswell,whichmoreresemblesrealcombat.Inactualspacecombat

maneuvering,variationsofthesebasicmaneuversmaybecomenecessary,dependingonthe

differenttypesofcraftinvolved,theweaponsystemseachsideisusing,andthenumberof

craftinvolved.

BSMareusedinthethreedimensionalarenaofspacecombat,wheremaneuversarenot

limitedbysimpletwodimensionalturns,suchasduringaPTVrace.BFMnotonlyreliesona

spacecraft'sthrusterperformance,butalsoonthepilot'sabilitytomaketradeoffsbetween

velocityandrelativegforce tomaintainanenergylevelthatwillallowthefightertocontinue

maneuveringefficiently,andthepilottosurvivetheharshstrainofzerogmaneuvers.BSM

alsoreliesonthepilot'sunderstandingofthegeometryofpursuitwithinthethree

dimensionalarena,wheredifferentanglesofapproachcancausedifferentratesofclosure.

Thefighter

pilot

uses

these

angles

not

only

to

get

within

arange

where

weapons

can

be

used,

butalsotoavoidovershooting,whichconsistseitherofflyingoutinfrontoftheopponent,

calleda"winglineovershoot",orcrossingtheenemy'sflightvector,calleda"vector

overshoot".

Thefighterpilotwiththemostadvantageouspositionisusuallyaboveorbehindthe

opponent,andiscommonlycalledtheattacker.Conversely,thepilotinthedisadvantageous

positionisusuallyeitherbeloworaheadoftheopponent,andisreferredtoasthedefender.

Mostmaneuversareoffensive,suchasthe"barrelrollattack","highYoYo","lowYoYo",and

"lagroll".

Defensive

maneuvers

more

often

consist

of

turning

or

reverse

thrusting

very

aggressivelytoavoidtheattacker'sguns,withmaneuverslikethe"break"andthe"highYoYo

defense";sometimestighteningtheturn,sometimesrelaxingit,andothertimesreversingthe

turn.Thedefenderwillusuallymaneuvertoforceanovershoot,ortoextendtherange

enoughtodiveawayandescape.However,other"lastditch"maneuversareusedbythe

defenderwhentheattackerachievesafiringsolution,orthedefenderrunsoutofenergy.


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BASICSHIPMANEUVERINGPRINCIPLESSPECIFIC ENERGYEnergyisaprimaryfactorincontrollingandmaneuveringaspacecraft.Ifanattackerhastoo

muchenergy,

it

may

be

easy

to

get

in

range

but

difficult

to

prevent

an

overshoot.

Too

little

energyandtheattackermaynotbeabletogetinrangeatall.Ifthedefenderhasmoreenergy

thantheattacker,anescapemaybepossible,buttoolittleenergyandthedefenderwilllose

maneuverability.

Inaviation,theterm"energy"doesnotrefertothefuelnorthethrustitproduces.Instead,

thrustisreferredtoas"power."Energyisthestateofthefighter'smassatanygiventime,and

istheresultofthepower.Energycomesintwoforms,whicharekineticandpotential.The

combinedpotentialandkineticenergyiscalledthetotalenergy,or"energypackage."

Generally,the

fighter

that

is

able

to

maintain

ahigher

energy

package

will

have

the

advantage

However,ahighenergypackagealonedoesnotimprovemaneuverability,becauseoptimum

turnperformancetypicallyoccurswithinarangenearacertainspeed,calledthe"corner

speed."Also,increasingthemassofthespacecraftwouldincreaseitsenergypackage,

butcentrifugalforcewouldhampermaneuverability,causingtheheavierspacecrafttoturn

widercircles.Instead,thefighter'susefulenergyiscalculatedbydividingitsenergypackageby

itsweight,determiningitsspecificenergy(totalenergyperunitweight).Afighterwithless

masswillgenerallybemoremaneuverablethanafighterwithmoremass,evenifenergy

packagesareequal,becausethelightercrafthasmorespecificenergy."Specificpower,"on

theother

hand,

is

the

thrust

divided

by

weight,

and

the

fighter's

ability

to

generate

excess

specificpoweraidsthecraftinmaintainingitsspecificenergylongerwhenforcedtoturnatan

energydepletingrate.Typically,thefighterwithhigherenergy(energyfighter)willmakean

"energymove"likean"outofplanemaneuver,"tomaintaintheenergyadvantage,whilethe

fighteratanenergydisadvantage(anglesfighter)willmakean"anglesmove"suchasabreak

turn,tryingtousetheopponent'senergytotheirownadvantage.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Incombat,apilotisfacedwithavarietyoflimitingfactors.Somelimitationsareconstant,such

asgravityofanearbybody,structuralintegrity,andthrusttoweightratio.Otherlimitations

varywithspeedanddistancefromabody(DFB),suchasturnradius,turnrate,andthespecific

energyofthecraft.ThefighterpilotusesBSMtoturntheselimitationsintotactical

advantages.Afaster,heaviercraftmaynotbeabletoevadeamoremaneuverablecraftina

turningbattle,butcanoftenchoosetobreakoffthefightandescapebydivingorusingits

thrusttoprovideavelocityadvantage.Alighter,moremaneuverablecraftcannotusually


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choosetoescape,butmustuseitssmallerturningradiusathigherspeedstoevadethe

attacker'sguns,andtotrytocirclearoundbehindtheattacker.

BSMareaconstantseriesoftradeoffsbetweentheselimitationstoconservethespecific

energystateofthespacecraft.Evenifthereisnogreatdifferencebetweentheenergystates

ofcombatingspacecraft,therewillbeassoonastheattackeracceleratestocatchupwiththe

defender.However,potentialenergycaneasilybetradedforkineticenergy,soaspacecraft

with

a

DFB

advantage

can

easily

turn

the

potential

energy

into

speed,

by

using

gravity

as

a

slingshot.Insteadofapplyingthrust,apilotmayusegravitytoprovideasuddenincreasein

speed,bydiving,atacostinthepotentialenergythatwasstoredintheformofhisDFB.

Similarly,byclimbingthepilotcanusegravitytoprovideadecreaseinspeed,conservingthe

spacecraft'skineticenergybychangingitintoDFB.Thiscanhelpanattackertoprevent

anovershoot,whilekeepingtheenergyavailableincaseonedoesoccur.

TURN PERFORMANCEBoth

turn

rate,

(degrees

per

second),

and

turn

radius,

(diameter

of

the

turn),

increase

with

speed,untilthe"cornerspeed"isreached.Atthispoint,thegrowingturnradiusbeginsto

decreasetheturnrate,sothespacecraftwillreachitsbestturnperformanceatitsparticular

cornerspeed.Cornerspeedisdefinedastheminimumspeedatwhichthemaximum

sustainablegforceloadcanbegenerated(theloadatwhichpowerequalsdrag),andvaries

withthefighter'sstructuraldesign,weight(includingaddedweightfrommissiles,cargo,etc...),

andthrustcapabilities.Itoftenfallsintheareaof22504000kn(25894603mph;4166

7407km/h).Themaximumsustainableloadthespacecraftcangeneratealsovaries,butis

typicallybetween5to8g's.Atthecornerspeed,thefightercanattainitsmaximumturnrate,

flyingthe

craft

just

at

the

edge

of

the

tolerance

of

the

pilot

and

his

compression

suit

can

handle.Belowthisspeed,thespacecraftwillbelimitedtoflyingatlowerg's,resultingina

decreaseinturnrate.Ifthepilotattemptsto"pull"moreg's,thespaceframemayhandlethe

force,butthepilotmaybegintoexperiencemoleculardestabilization.Ontheotherhand,if

thefighterisflownaboveitscornerspeeditwillbeabletopullhigherg's,butdoingsomay

causethethrustercomtrolsystemtobecomeconfused,andresultinanuncontrolledspin.

ThisistheThrusterOverloadSpeed(TOS).Turningabovecornerspeedwhileatthemaximum

sustainableloadwillresultinanincreaseinturnradiuswhich,respectively,willcausea

decreaseinturnrate.

"Instantaneousturnrate"describesturnswhichareabovethemaximumsustainableload.

Theseturnscanbeashighas9g'sbeforethepilotbeginstoloseconsciousness(GLOC).These

turnscanhaveaverysmallturnradius,butcausealossinenergy,eitherintheformofspeed

orDFB.Therefore,theseturnsareunsustainable,causingthefightertoexceedthecapability

ofitsthrusters,sometimesreachingTOSspeedinaslittleasaquarterturn.Tosomedegree

theenergylossmaybecompensatedforbyincreasingthrust,knownasapplying"excess

specificpower,"butthiscannotfullymakeupforthelosses.Thisusuallyoccursduringhard


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turnsorevenharder"breaks."Onlybyturningthespacecraftatitsbest"sustainedturnrate"

canthespacecraftmaintainitsspecificenergy.However,situationsincombatmayrequirea

changeinenergy,andenergymayalsobeincreasedbypullinglessthanthemaximum

sustainedgforceload.

PURSUIT CURVESSuccessfulBSMrequiresgeometryasmuchasitdoesskillandstamina.Pilotsmustknowtheir

craft'scornerspeed,aswellasoptimumanglesofbank(AOB)andanglesofattack(AOA),

withoutconsciously

thinkingaboutthem.Atthe

sametime,pilotsmust

remainconsciousofthe

anglebetweenthe

opponent'svelocity

vectorandtheirown,called

thetrackcrossingangle

(TCA),whichisimportant

whenaligningoravoidinga

firingsolution.Most

importantly,thepilotmust

remainawareoftheangle

offtail(AOT),whichisthe

anglebetween

flight

vectors.AhighAOTcauses

ahighrateofclosure,butmakesachievingasuitablegunssolutionnearlyimpossible.

AcquiringalowAOT,(gettingontheenemiestail),candecreaseorevenreverseclosurerate,

andisusuallytheprimarygoalbeforeanovershootoccurs.However,anuncooperative

defendermaytrytotakeadvantageofthehighclosureratebyturningtoincreaseAOT,

forcinganovershoot.Notethesepursuitcurves(Figure1)

TheAOTisoftenestimatedbythepositionoftheattackingship'snoseinrelationtothe

defender.AOT

are

generally

grouped

into

three

categories,

called

"pursuit

curves".

"Lead

pursuit"occurswhenthenoseoftheattackerpointsaheadofthedefender,while"pure

pursuit"happenswhentheattacker'snosepointsdirectlyatthedefender.Iftheattacker's

nosepointsbehindthedefender,theconditionisknownas"lagpursuit".

Figure1


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LEAD PURSUITTheprimarypurposeforleadpursuitistoprovideclosure,evenwhenchasingafaster

opponent.ThehighAOTpresentedduringleadpursuitallowstheattackertoquicklydecrease

theforward,lateral,andverticalseparationbetweenspacecraft,simplybytravelingashorter

path.However,

lead

pursuit

causes

the

AOT

to

increase

at

arapid

rate.

This

causes

the

closure

ratetoincreaseaswell,and,inanattempttopreventanovershoot,theattackerwillhaveto

pullanincreasinglytighterturnuponnearingthedefender.

Anattackerinleadpursuitiswellwithinthedefender'srearview.Unlessthedefenderhas

enoughofaspeedadvantagetoescapebyrelaxingtheturnanddroppingintoashallowdive,

thedefenderwilllikelyturnsharplyinanefforttoincreasetheAOT,forcingtheattackerto

turnevenharder,toovershoot,ortoperformamaneuveroutofthehorizontalplaneto

compensate.

Leadpursuit

is

used

during

gun

attacks,

because

the

fast

motion

of

combat

requires

that

the

spacecraft'scannons/lasersbeaimedatapointinspaceaheadofthedefender,wherethe

enemywillbewhentheboltsarrive.Thisiscalled"leadingthetarget".Leadpursuitpresents

theattackerwithdifficultyinmaintainingsightoftheopponent,asthenoseoftheattacking

craftbecomesanobstructiontothepilot'sview.Leaddistancemustbemodifiedbasedonthe

typeofcannonyouhaveequippedonyourship.Differenttypesofordinancetravelat

differentrates,thereforechangingtheangleofattackrequiredforasuccessfultargetlead.

NOTE: Lead pursuit is an extremely important concept to understand when manning a turret, unless it is fitted

with automated deflection sights.

PURE PURSUITLikeleadpursuit,purepursuitisusedtoprovideclosure.However,closureisnotasrapid,nor

istherateofincreaseinAOT.Thisisnotaseffectiveagainstafastermovingopponent,sothe

attackermayneedtoacceleratetomaintainpurepursuit.Purepursuitisusedwhenacquiring

amissile

lock.

It

both

places

the

attacker

further

aft

of

the

defender

and

presents

the

defender

withthesmallestamountofsurfaceareatosee.Thiscomplicatesevasiveaction,sinceonly

thefrontoftheattackingspacecraftisinview.


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LAG PURSUITLagpursuitisusedtostoporreverse

closurerateandtodecreaseAOT,

whileallowingtheattackerto

maintainorincreaseforward

separation(alsocallednose/tail

separation,ornosetotail).Following

outsidethedefender'sturnradius,

theattackercanmaintainorincrease

energywhile

forcing

the

defender

to

turnatanenergydepletingrate.

"Hotside"lagoccurswhenthereisa

largeamountofforwardseparation

betweenspacecraft,showingthetopsideofthedefendingfighter.(Figure2)Thisputsthe

attackerinthedefender'srearview,andthecommondefenseistotightentheturn."Cold

side"lagoccurswhenthereislittlenosetotailseparation,leavingthebellyofthedefending

fighterinview.Thisputstheattackerinthedefender'sblindspot,andthecommondefenseis

toreversetheturn.Unlessthedefenderismarkedlymoremaneuverable,andlateral

separationis

just

right,

lag

pursuit

cannot

be

maintained

for

long,

causing

the

AOT

to

decrease

untilasuitablefiringsolutionispresented.

OUT-OF-PLANE MANEUVERSManeuversarerarelyperformedinthestrictlyverticalorhorizontalplanes.Mostturns

containsomedegreeof"pitch"or"slice."Duringaturninanobliqueplane,apitchturnoccurs

whenthespacecraft'snosepointsawayfromthenearestbody,causinganincreaseinDFB.A

sliceturnhappenswhenthenosepointstowardthenearestbody,causingadecreaseinDFB.

Thepurposeisnotonlytomakethespacecraftharderforanenemytotrack,butalsoto

increaseordecreasespeedwhilemaintainingenergy.Anoutofplanemaneuverenhances

Figure2


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thiseffect,bydivertingthefighterintoanewplaneof

travel.Increasingthepitchorslicecanquicklyprovide

achangeinspeed,whichcanjustasquicklybe

reversedbyreturningtotheoriginalplaneoftravel.

(Figure3)Outofplanemaneuversarenotonlyused

toprovideareductioninturnradius,butalsocauses

the

fighter

to

fly

a

longer

path

in

relation

to

the

directionoftravel.AmaneuversuchasahighYoYois

usedtoslowclosureandtobringthefighterintolag

pursuit,whilealowYoYoisusedtoincreaseclosure

andtobringthefighterintoleadpursuit.

Duringanoutofplanemaneuver,theattacker'snose

nolongerpointsatthedefender.Instead,thecraftis

rolleduntilitsliftvector,(animaginarylinerunning

vertically

from

the

center

of

the

spacecraft,

perpendiculartoitswings),isalignedeitheraheadof,

directlyat,orbehindthedefender,usingrollrateinsteadofturnratetosettheproperpursuit

curve.Thecraft'svelocityvector,(animaginarylineinthedirectionofmotion)willbepulledin

thedirectionoftheliftvector.

DISPLACEMENT ROLLSAusefultypeofoutof

planemaneuveremployed

todecreaseAOTare

variousbarrelrollscalled

displacementrolls,inorder

toshift

the

spacecraft

laterallyfromitsprojected

flightpathontoanewflight

path.(Figure4)By

controllingtherollratethe

pilotcancontrolthedegree

ofdisplacement.An

Figure3

Figure4


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attackerfollowingamoremaneuverableopponentmaybecomestuckinlagpursuit,(outside

thedefender'sturnradius),unabletoachieveafiringsolution.Bydisplacingtheturn,thetwo

spacecraft'sflightpathswilleventuallycross.TheAOTwillthendecreaseuntilthenoseofthe

attacker'sspacecraftpointsmomentarilyatthedefender,andthenaheadofthedefender.A

displacementrollisagoodtacticwheneverareductioninturnradiusisneeded,buta

decreaseinturnrateisallowed.

POSITIONINGTherearethreebasicsituationsinaircombatmaneuveringrequiringBSMtoconverttoa

favorableresult,whichareneutral,offensive,anddefensive.Mostrelativemaneuverscanbe

groupedintooneofthesethreecategories.

NEUTRALNeutralpositionsgenerallyoccurwhenbothopponentsspoteachotheratthesametime.

Neitherthepilotnortheopponenthavetheadvantageofsurprise.Neitherhastheabilityto

pointthenoseoftheirspacecraftattheopponentwithsufficientrangetoemployforward

firingordnance(missiles/guns/lasers)priortotheopponentpresentingathreatofasimilar

manner.Each

is

focused

on

converting

to

an

offensive

situation

while

forcing

their

opponent

intoadefensive.

OFFENSIVEAnoffensivepositiongenerallyoccurswhenthepilotgetssightoftheopponentfirst.Withthe

advantageofsurprise,thepilotcanmaneuverintoabetterpositiontoattacktheopponent,

makingitmoredifficultfortheenemytoevadetheattack.Commontacticsincludeincreasing

DFBandattemptingtoplacethefighterdirectlybetweenthesunandtheopponent.Thishelps

putthepilotinadominantposition,primarilyconcernedwithprosecutingtheiradvantagefor

akill.

Anoffensivepositionisgenerallydefinedastheabilitytogetaboveorbehindtheenemy.The

pilotisabletocreateanenergyadvantage,providingtheabilitytoswoopdownonthe

opponentandspraytheareawithordinancewhileusingthespeedtoclimbbacktoasafe


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DFB.Theattackeralsohasanorientationrelatedadvantage,beingabletopresstheattack

whileavoidingtheenemy'sweapons.

DEFENSIVE

Adefensivepositionusuallyoccurswhenthepilotspotstheattackerlate.Usuallybelowor

aheadoftheopponent,thepilotisinaweakposition,primarilyconcernedwithdenyingashot

totheopponentandconvertingtoaneutralposition.Thesecondarygoaliseithertoescapeor

toachieveadominantposition.Iftheattackerisatanenergydisadvantage,thedefenderwill

likelyusethespeedtodisengage,but,iftheattackerismovingmuchfaster,thedefenderwill

usuallymaneuverinordertoforceadangerousovershoot.Adangerousovershoothappens

whenanattackerfliesoutinfrontofthedefender,causingtheirrolestobereversed.

NOTE:

In the unlikely event of being engaged by another fighter in deep (intersystem) space, your best bet is generally

to make the jump to subluminal speed, as many of the tactics outlined in this handbook do not apply in deep

space.


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BASICSHIPMANEUVERINGCONCEPTSOnceanattackergetsbehindadefender,therearethreeproblemstosolveinorderto

prosecutethekill.Theattackermustbeabletogetintothesamegeometricplaneasthe

defender,getinrangewithoutovershooting,andbeabletoleadthetarget.Thedefenderwill

usuallyturn

aggressively

to

spoil

the

attacker's

solution.

TURN CIRCLESpacecraftturnincircularmotions,followingacircumferencearoundacentralpoint.The

circumferenceisoftenreferredtoasthe"bubble,"whilethecentralpointisoftencalledthe

"post."Anychangeinthegforceloadonthecraftcausesachangeinthebubble'ssizeaswell

asachangeinturnradius,movingthepostinrelationtothefighter.Becauseaspacecraft

turningatitsmaximumloadcannotturnanytighter,anyspacecraftlocatedbetweensucha

fighteranditspostismomentarilysafefromattack.Itisinthisareawhereanattackingfighter

willusually

try

to

position

itself.

Onceinsidethedefender'sbubble,theattackerwillbeinleadpursuitandmayhavean

opportunityforalucky"snapshot"hit.Iftheattackercanmaneuverontothedefender'sflight

pathbeforeanovershootoccurs,theattackerwillbeabletostoporreverseclosurerate.The

mostdesirablepositionis,followingthedefender'sflightpath,adistanceequaltooneturn

radiusbehindtheopponent.Thisposition,fromwhichtheattackerwillbeabletosafely

maintaincommandofthefight,istermedthe"controlpoint."Thecontrolpointliesinthe

heartofanimaginary,coneshapedarea,calledthe"controlzone,"anditiswithinthiszone

thatthe

attacker

will

have

both

sufficient

time

and

range

to

react

to

the

defender's

countermeasures.

OVERSHOOTSDuringadogfight,theterm"overshoot"referstosituationsinwhichtheattackereither

crossestheenemy'sflightvectororpassesthedefender,endingupinfront.

Passingthedefenderisreferredtoasa"winglineovershoot".Alsocalleda"39line

overshoot"ora"dangerousovershoot,"thisoccurswhenanattackingspacecraftapproachestoofastandaccidentallycrossesthedefender'swingline,(animaginarylinepassingthrough

thecenterofthespacecraftatthe3oclockand9oclockpositions).Awinglineovershootis

usuallyreferredtoas"flyingoutinfront"andcauses"rolereversal,"puttingtheattackerin

rangeofthedefender'sweapons,andtheattackersuddenlybecomesthedefender.


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Whentheattackercrossesthedefender'sflightpath,thesituationiscalleda"flightpath

overshoot."Thishappenswhenanattackerfailstocontrolclosureandcrossesthedefender's

flightpathfrombehind.Althoughnotnecessarilydangerous,itispossibleforaflightpath

overshoottocausetheattackertoflyoutinfrontofthedefender.Moreoften,however,it

greatlyreducestheattacker'sangularadvantageoverthedefender.Flightpathovershootsare

dividedintotwocategories,called"controlzoneovershoots"and"incloseovershoots."

A

"control

zone

overshoot"

occurs

when

the

attacker

crosses

the

defender's

flightpath

from

behindthefrontedgeofthecontrolzone.Afteracontrolzoneovershoot,thedefenderwill

continueturninginthesamedirectiontoretaintheacquiredangularadvantage,tryingto

preventtheattackerfromgettingagoodaim.

An'"incloseovershoot"happenswhentheattackerovershootsthedefender'sflightpath

aheadofthecontrolzone.Thisgivesthedefendertheopportunitytoreversetheturnand

possiblytocauseawinglineovershoot,allowingthedefendertomoveinbehindtheattacker

andreversetheirroles.

CIRCLE FLOWSpacecraftcanturneithertowardsorawayfromeachother.Howtheopponentturnsin

relationtotheotherdeterminestheflowofthefight.Iftwofightersmeetheadon,theywill

usuallymakeaveryclose,neutralpass,calleda"merge".Afterthepass,bothfightersmay

turntoengage.Ifthetwofightersturninthesamedirection,(i.e.:bothturntothenorth),

theywillbetravelingtowardeachotheralongthesameturncircle.Thistypeofengagementis

known

as

"one

circle

flow".

If

the

spacecraft

turn

in

opposite

directions,

(i.e.:

one

turns

sunwardbuttheotherturnsshadeward),theywillmoveawayfromeachother,flyingaround

toengageeachotheronseparateturncircles.Thisiscalled"twocircleflow."

Onecircleflowwillresultinanothermerge,unlessanangularadvantagecanbeobtained.

Duringonecircleflow,thefighterwiththesmallerturnradiuswillhavetheadvantage.Pilots

willoftenpitchupoutofplanewhileincreasingthrust,tohelpminimizeturnradius.Because

itdoesnotreallymatterwherethetwofightersmeetinthecircle,turnrateisoflittle

importanceduringonecircleflow.Therefore,itisoftencalledaradiusfight.Anoutofplane

maneuver,suchasadisplacementroll,isaviableoptionforreducingturnradius.

Twocircle

flow

will

also

result

in

another

merge.

In

two

circle

flow,

turn

radius

is

of

little

importance,becausewhatmattersiswhichfightercangetbacktothemergingplacefirst.

Twocircleflowisaturnratefight,andtheangularadvantageusuallygoestothecraftwith

thehigherturnrateatitscornerspeed.Pilotswilloftensliceturninordertomaximizetheir

turnrate.

Athirdoptioniscalledverticalflow,inwhichoneorbothfightersturntowardthevertical

plane.Ifbothfightersgoupordown,thefightbecomesonecircleflow.Ifonefightergoesup


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16

ordown,whiletheotherturnshorizontally,itisreallyamodifiedversionofonecircleflow.

However,ifonefightergoesupwhiletheothergoesdown,itbecomestwocircleflow.

Inbothtypesofflow,theclosestpossiblemergeisdesirabletokeeptheenemyatanangular

disadvantage.Althoughcircleflowisoftendescribedusingneutralmerges,theconcept

appliesanytimetwospacecraftmaneuverinrelationtoeachotherandthenearestbody.For

instance,the"flatscissors"isanexampleofonecircleflow,whilethe"rollingscissors"isan

example

of

two

circle

flow.

Figure5


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17

MANEUVERS

COMBAT SPREADThe combat spread is the most basic of maneuvers used prior to engagement. A pairof attacking spacecraft will separate, often by a distance of one mile on the x-axis by1500 feet on the y-axis. The fighter with the lower DFB becomes the defender, whilethe wingman flies above in "the perch" position. The defender will then attempt to luretheir opponents into a good position to be attacked by the wingman.

DEFENSIVE SPLITA pair of fighters encountering one or two attackers will often use a defensive split. Themaneuver consists of both defenders making turns in opposite directions, forcing theattackers to follow only one spacecraft. This allows the other defender to circle around,and maneuver behind the attackers.

BREAK

Spottinganattackerapproachingfrombehind,thedefenderwillusuallybreak.Themaneuver

consistsofturningsharplyacrosstheattacker'sflightpath,toincreaseAOT(angleofftail).The

defender

is

exposed

to

the

attacker's

guns

for

only

a

brief

instant

(snapshot).

The

maneuver

workswellbecausetheslowermovingdefenderhasasmallerturnradiusandbiggerangular

velocity,andatargetwithahighcrossingspeed(wherethebearingtothetargetischanging

rapidly)isverydifficulttoshoot.Thiscanalsohelptoforcetheattackertoovershoot,which

maynotbetruehadtheturnbeenmadeawayfromtheattacker'sflightpath.


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18

BARREL ROLL ATTACKThecountertoabreakisoftenadisplacementrollcalledabarrelrollattack.(Figure6)Abarrel

rollconsistsofperformingarollandaloop,completingbothatthesametime.Theresultisa

helical

roll

around

a

straight

flight

path.

The

barrel

roll

attack

uses

a

much

tighter

loop

than

theroll,completingafullloopwhileonlyexecuting3/4ofaroll.

Theresultisavirtual90degreeturn,usingallthreedimensions,inthedirectionoppositeof

theroll.Rollingawayfromthedefender'sbreak,theattackercompletestherollwiththe

spacecraft'snosepointedinthedirectionofthedefender'stravel.

HIGH-SIDE GUNS PASSIftheattackerhasasignificantDFBadvantage,ahighsidegunspassisusuallyprudent.

Sometimescalleda"swoop",plusavarietyofothernames,itconsistsofapowereddive

towardtherearquarterofalowerflyingopponent.Shootingwiththecannonsinasingle,

highspeedpass,theattackerusesexcesskineticenergytodisengagefromthefightinazoom

climb

back

to

a

safe

DFB,

restoring

the

potential

energy.

This

allows

the

attacker

to

set

up

anotherattackanddiveagain.Surpriseisoftenakeyelementinthistypeofattack,andthe

attackerswilloftenhideinthesunorasteroidbelt,stalkingtheiropponentsuntilagood

opportunityispresented.Ahighsidegunspassisaveryeffectivetacticagainstamore

maneuverableopponent,wheretheturningbattleofadogfightisbestavoided.

Figure6


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19

IMMELMANNAn Immelmann trades velocity for DFB during a 180 degree change in direction. Thespacecraft performs the first half of a loop, and when completely inverted, rolls to theupright position. The Immelmann is a good offensive maneuver for setting up a high-

side guns pass against a lower DFB, slow moving opponent, going in an oppositedirection. However, an Immelmann is a poor defensive maneuver, turning the defenderinto a slow moving target.

SPLIT-SThe opposite of an Immelmann is the Split-S. This maneuver consists of rollinginverted and pulling back on the stick, diving the spacecraft into a half loop, whichchanges the spacecraft's direction 180 degrees. The split-s is rarely a viable option in

combat as it depletes kinetic energy in a turn and potential energy in a dive. It is mostoften used to set up a high-side guns pass against a lower but fast moving opponentthat is traveling in the opposite direction. Also, the split-s is sometimes used as adisengagement tactic.

PITCHBACKA pitchback, also called a Chandelle, is an Immelmann that is executed in some planeother than the vertical. Basically just a pitch turn, the fighter will be at some angle of

bank before performing the half loop and roll. Unlike the Immelmann, a pitchbackdepletes less kinetic energy and is harder for an adversary to track.

WINGOVERA wingover is a maneuver used to provide a fast, 180 degree turn with a very smallturn radius. It consists of a quarter loop into a vertical climb, letting the speed fall asDFB increases, and then a flat-turn over the top, diving to complete a quarter loop atthe original DFB, but going in the opposite direction. The wingover is similar to a stall

turn, but the fighter does not actually stall, which makes the wingover more difficult foran enemy to track. Unlike an Immelmann or a split-s, the wingover also managesenergy by conserving both velocity and DFB.


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20

LOW YO-YOThe low Yo-Yo is one of the most useful maneuvers, which sacrifices DFB for aninstantaneous increase in speed.(Figure 7) This maneuver is accomplished by rolling

with the nose low into the turn, and dropping into a steeper slice turn. By utilizing someenergy thatwas stored inthe verticalplane, theattacker canquicklydecreaserange andimprove theangle of theattack, literallycutting thecorner on theopponent'sturn. The pilotthen pulls

back on thestick, climbing

back to thedefender's height. This helps slow the spacecraft and prevents an overshoot, whileplacing the energy back into DFB. A defender spotting this maneuver may try to takeadvantage of the increase in AOT by tightening the turn in order to force anovershoot. The low Yo-Yo is often followed by a high Yo-Yo, to help prevent anovershoot, or several small low Yo-Yos can be used instead of one large maneuver.

LowYoYo

Figure7


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HIGH YO-YOThe high Yo-Yois a veryeffectivemaneuver, andvery difficult tocounter.(Figure8) Themaneuver isused to slow theapproach of afast movingattacker whileconserving thevelocity energy.The maneuver isperformed byreducing theangle at whichthe spacecraft is banking during a turn, and pulling back on the stick, bringing the

fighter up into a new plane of travel. The attacker then rolls into a steeper pitch turn,climbing above the defender. The trade-off between velocity and DFB provides thefighter with a burst of increased maneuverability. This allows the attacker to make asmaller turn, correcting an overshoot, and to pull in behind the defender. Then, byreturning to the defenders plane, the attacker restores the lost speed while maintainingenergy.

Figure8


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22

LAG DISPLACEMENT ROLLAlagdisplacementroll,also

calleda"lagroll",isamaneuver

usedtoreducetheangleofftail

bybringingtheattackerfrom

leadpursuittopure,orevenlag

pursuit.(Figure9)Themaneuver

isperformedbyrollingupand

awayfromtheturn,then,when

thespacecraft'sliftvectoris

alignedwiththedefender,

pullingback

on

the

stick,

bringingthefighterbackinto

theturn.Thismaneuverhelps

preventanovershootcausedbythehighAOTofleadpursuit,andcanalsobeusedtoincrease

thedistancebetweenspacecraft.

HIGH YO-YO DEFENSETo prevent an overshoot, an attacker in lead pursuit may need to correct with an out-of-plane maneuver. If the lateral separation is excessively high, the attacker will

probably use a displacement roll. However, if the lateral separation is low enough, theattacker will likely use a high Yo-Yo. The high Yo-Yo defense can be a good tactic inthese situations. The maneuver is performed when the attacker rolls away from theturn to begin the correction. The defender will begin to relax the turn by easing off ofthe stick, called "unloading", which causes both turn radius and speed to increase,restoring the fighter's lost energy. If the defender maintains the same angle of bank,the subtle maneuver will be very difficult for the attacker to spot. When the attackercompletes the out-of-plane maneuver, the defending fighter has regained some of itsenergy. This allows the defender to, once again, turn harder into the attack, regaining

an angular advantage over the higher energy attacker. If the attacker is surprised bythe maneuver, a high Yo-Yo defense might even cause an overshoot.

UNLOADED EXTENSIONAn unloaded extension is a disengagement (bug out) maneuver often used by the pilotwhenever there is enough energy and separation. The maneuver consists of slippinginto a steep, straight dive and applying full thrust. Removing all g-force load from the

Figure9


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23

spacecraft, and allowing it to be caught in the nearest bodys gravitational field causesit to accelerate at a very high rate, allowing the pilot to vastly increase range, or"extend", and possibly to escape. If a defender breaks suddenly, causing the attackerto overshoot, the defender may reverse the turn and move in behind the attacker. Anunloaded extension is usually the attacker's best option, using the energy advantage toescape the slower moving defender. An unloaded extension is usually notrecommended against a higher energy opponent. However, in many circumstances,

such as when an attacker performs a high Yo-Yo too steeply, an unloaded extension isa viable option for the defender.

SCISSORSThescissorsareaseriesofturnreversalsandflightpathovershootsintendedtoslowthe

relativeforwardmotion(downrangetravel)ofthespacecraftinanattempttoeitherforcea

dangerousovershoot,onthepartofthedefender,orpreventadangerousovershootonthe

attacker'spart.Thedefender'sgoalistostayoutofphasewiththeattacker,tryingtoprevent

aguns

solution,

while

the

attacker

tries

to

get

in

phase

with

the

defender.

The

advantage

usuallygoestothemoremaneuverablespacecraft.Therearetwotypesofscissormaneuvers,

calledflatscissorsandrollingscissors.


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FLAT SCISSORS

Figure10

Flat scissors, also called horizontal scissors, usually occur after a low speed overshoot

in a horizontal direction.(Figure 10) The defender reverses the turn, attempting to forcethe attacker to fly out in front and to spoil aim. The attacker then reverses, trying toremain behind the defender, and the two spacecraft begin a weaving flight pattern.


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ROLLING SCISSORS

Figure11

Rollingscissors,

also

called

vertical

scissors,

tend

to

happen

after

ahigh

speed

overshoot

from

above.(Figure11)Thedefenderreversesintoaverticalclimbandintoabarrelrolloverthe

top,forcingtheattackertoattempttofollow.Theadvantageliesinthespacecraftthatcan

pullitsnosethroughthetoporbottomoftheturnfaster.Inbattleswithspacecraftthathave

athrusttoweightratiooflessthanonethespacecraftwillquicklyloseDFB,anddisintegrating

intothenearestbodysatmospherebecomesapossibility.AccordingtoauthorMikeSpick,

"Disengagementfromaverticalrollingscissorsisbestmadewithasplitsandalotofhope."


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GUNS DEFENSEGunsdefensemaneuvering,or"gunsD",isthelastresortforadefenderthatfailsto

outmaneuvertheattacker.GunsDisaseriesofrandomchangesinthedefendersflightpath,

intendedtospoiltheattacker'saimbypresentingaconstantlyshiftingtarget,and,hopefully,

tomaneuveroutoftheordinancestream(hose).Itconsistsofarbitraryspeed

changes,yaws,skids,slips,pitchups,androlls,andisoftenreferredtoas"jinking."Because

theattacker

must

aim

ahead

of

the

opponent,

the

primary

goal

in

guns

D

is

to

disorient

the

attacker'saimbykeepingthenosepointedinadifferentdirectionthanthevelocityvector(the

directionoftravel),andisveryeffectiveatpreventingtheattackerfromachievingasuitable

gunssolution.However,gunsDmaneuveringstillleavesthedefendersusceptibletostray

bulletsand"luckyshot"hits,anddoeslittletoimprovetherelativepositionalsituation.Thus,

itisonlyemployedasalastditchdefensiveeffortwhennothingelseworks.

HIGH-G BARREL ROLLA high g barrel roll is a last-ditch defensive maneuver, performed when the attackerhas achieved a suitable gunssolution, in order to cause anovershoot.(Figure 12) The high gbarrel roll is performed much moreaggressively than a normal barrelroll. Range is critical to the successof the roll, and the defender willusually turn very hard, or employ

other measures to draw theopponent very close beforeperforming the roll. The roll isexecuted by applying hard back-stick pressure, creating the high g-forces, and adding hard rudderinput to assist the ailerons in rollingthe fighter. A high g barrel roll canbe performed "over-the-top", or itcan be performed "underneath",which is accomplished by rollingupside-down and beginning themaneuver from the invertedposition. The high g barrel roll is anenergy-depleting maneuver thatrarely causes the attacker to fly out in front, but usually will result in a flightpathovershoot, a flat scissors, or, at the very least, will temporarily disrupt the attacker'saim.

Figure12


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DEFENSIVE SPIRAL

Figure13A defender that fails to outmaneuver the attacker can quickly become "out of velocity

and ideas". The defensive spiral is a maneuver used by the defender when the kineticenergy becomes depleted and other last-ditch maneuvers cannot successfully beimplemented. The maneuver consists of dropping the nose low during the turn andgoing into a spiral dive, using gravity to supply the energy needed to continue evasiveaction. The defensive spiral becomes a rolling scissors performed straightdown.(Figure 13) The defender's goal is to stay out of phase with the attacker until theground is dangerously close. The advantage usually goes to the spacecraft that candecelerate quicker, and the defender will often cut the power and extend thespeedbrakes in an effort to force an overshoot. If this attempt is unsuccessful, thedefender will usually pull out of the dive at the last possible second, hoping to causethe attacker to crash into the ground.


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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

DistancefromBodyAreplacementforaltitudewhenreferringtoplanetaryspacecombat.Thegravitationalfieldofanearbybodymaybeusedtoatacticaladvantage,andexploitedas

potentialenergy.

MolecularDestabilizationAnoccurrenceatincrediblyhighGforces,whichcausestheindividualmagneticfieldsatthemolecularleveltobegintolosestability.Thiscancausemany

typesofphysicaldamage,includingdisintegration.

SunwardTowardtheclosestsuninanygivenstarsystem.ShadewardAwayfromtheclosestsuninanygivenstarsystem.


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Flight Combat Handbook