Flexible Working Arrangements: Divergence and Convergence across

Countries

Types of flexible working arrangements

Working time Contractual Externalised

Part-time workWeekend workOvertimeShift workCompressed working weekAnnualised hoursFlexi-time

Job sharingTemporary/casual workFixed-term employment

Home-based workTele-working

There are several key findings: • Continuous growth in flexible working arrangements• National and regional differences in flexibility are still

pronounced• National differences often cut across popular

understanding of flexible labour markets• Traditional patterns of flexible working arrangements

are still dominant over ‘new’ forms of flexibility

FWAs by Proportions Used

Proportions of Companies by Regions of the World (%)English

SpeakingNorthern European

Central European

Mediter-ranean

Former Eastern Block

Asian

Shift WorkNot Used0 - 5%6-10%11-20%21-50%>50%

29.318.010.009.214.319.3

37.014.408.508.915.815.4

32.215.309.608.314.420.1

24.214.010.009.313.029.4

24.912.809.309.020.223.8

47.007.805.907.810.021.5

Annual Hours ContractNot Used0 - 5%6-10%11-20%21-50%>50%

72.411.802.802.803.506.6

63.111.604.103.403.314.5

65.508.403.102.405.215.2

77.105.603.101.402.710.1

60.824.105.803.901.703.7

92.703.902.0

001.5

0

FlextimeNot Used0 - 5%6-10%11-20%21-50%>50

45.920.609.506.406.610.9

21.715.811.011.012.527.9

26.709.406.908.211.836.9

66.512.704.104.004.308.3

45.323.510.507.806.606.3

81.510.202.002.401.002.9

TeleworkingNot Used0 - 5%6-10%11-20%21-50%>50

73.019.903.801.601.100.6

58.032.205.102.001.900.8

69.723.802.801.601.001.2

90.106.601.400.800.400.7

75.618.203.301.300.800.8

91.405.301.4

001.400.5

National and regional differences in flexibility are still pronounced

National differences often cut across popular understanding of flexible labour markets

• In the debate over labour market flexibility, there has often been a notion that where state regulation is limited countries – for example, the USA or the United Kingdom – should score high across most flexibility measures. However, this is not the case since the prevalence of certain types of flexible working arrangements vary across countries.

• As Robinson (1999: 96) has pointed out regarding temporary work: countries with high levels of regulation of standard employment contracts often have high levels of flexible working arrangements. If firms find that certain types of flexible working arrangements are constrained by regulations then they will pursue other, more easily obtained forms of flexibility.

• Thus, France scores high in terms of annual hours contract, the Netherlands scores high in terms of part-time work and fixed-term contracts and Spain and Turkey are leaders in shift work.

• “So the relationship between regulation and the incidence of temporary employment is exactly the opposite way round from what might be expected. Indeed, a high and rising incidence of temporary employment could be taken as a worrying sign that regulation of standard employment contracts is seen as burdensome and may be distorting the labour market.” (Robinson 1999: 96).

Countries Not used 0-5% 6-10% 11-20% 21-50% >50%

UK 79.9 16.0 2.6 1.0 0.4 0.2

Germany 57.0 37.3 1.9 1.3 1.6 0.9

Sweden 55.5 35.3 4.5 2.1 1.1 1.6

Denmark 61.3 30.5 3.7 1.3 2.6 0.6

Netherlands 59.4 29.2 6.6 1.9 2.4 0.5

Slovakia 55.1 29.9 9.1 2.4 2.0 1.6

Norway 39.7 47.6 5.5 3.7 3.2 0.5

Iceland 52.4 30.5 13.3 1.9 1.0 1.0

USA 45.2 36.9 10.3 3.2 2.0 2.4

Traditional patterns of flexible working arrangements are still dominant over ‘new’ forms of flexibility

Proportion of workforce involved in tele-working (% of organsations)

• In light of the futuristic discussion of the ‘end of the job’ (Bridges 1994), it has often been expected that annualised hours, job sharing, home-based working and tele-working would become major features of working life.

• However, this has yet to happen. For example, extensive use of tele-working (that is, more than 10% of a organisation’s workforce) covers less than 10% of the responding organisations.

• Even in countries that are the leaders in this area there is a long way to go before tele-working becomes part of mainstream flexible working arrangement (see Table on previous slide).

Bundles of Flexible Working ArrangementsNon-Standard Work Patterns

Non-Standard Work Hours

Work Outsourced Work Away from the Office

Annual ContractsPart-time WorkJob SharingFlextime Fixed-term Contracts Compressed Work-week

Weekend WorkShift WorkOvertime

Temporary EmploymentSubcontracting

Home-based WorkTele-working

Flexible Work Arrangements By Category /Bundle

Proportion of Companies by Country Regions (%)English

SpeakingNorthern European

Central European

Mediter-ranean

Former Eastern Block

Asian

Non-Standard Work HoursNo FWAs1 FWA_ 2 FWAs3 FWAs4 FWAs5 FWAs6 FWAs

01.809.320.026.022.414.805.7

00.204.714.332.228.415.404.8

00.604.018.132.225.115.404.7

10.528.328.619.409.102.501.4

05.317.630.428.113.303.701.5

17.339.325.011.204.602.000.5

Non-Standard Work PatternsNo FWAs1 FWA_ 2 FWAs3 FWAs

04.613.727.454.3

06.221.128.044.7

07.818.731.342.2

05.714.531.448.4

06.815.828.848.6

20.434.527.218.0

Work OutsourcedNo FWAs1 FWA_2 FWAs

08.454.936.7

07.156.236.7

31.539.029.5

24.134.941.0

16.751.431.8

24.630.844.6

Work Away From the OfficeNo FWAs1 FWA_ 2 FWAs

59.828.012.2

51.631.716.6

63.928.008.2

87.608.903.5

71.022.706.3

91.807.201.0

• (a) non- standard work patterns have become embedded in most regions, though less so amongst Asian countries;

• (b) the two bundles of non-standard work hours and work away from the office are more common amongst countries in the English Speaking, Northern and Central European regions;

• (c) work outsourced is most common amongst Mediterranean and Asian countries; and

• (d) working away from the office has yet to take hold in Mediterranean and Asian countries.