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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, theoretical approaches and other studies related with the
research are served to answer the research question. This research uses the myth
of anti-intellectualism and bullying study, social psychological approach, and at
last semiotics film theory.
A. The Myth of Anti-Intellectualism
The myth of anti-intellectualism has two narratives frequently circling
among American societies. The first myth-narrative concerns about leadership and
judgment and it seems to be serious conversation. The second myth-narrative
centers upon peer culture. It seems less complex rather than the first but perhaps
even more common.
A. 1. The Myth among Adult Life
Firstly the myth of anti-intellectualism emerged as a form of dislikeness
European-Americans to their ancestor, aristocratic Europeans, devoting
themselves to study yet lack of human sight. As aristocratic people, the ruling
class, surely the condition had them be smart in order to organize the lower class;
they must enhance their education. Accordingly aristocratic Europeans spent their
much time in learning digging out any knowledge. But, higher intellectual quality
13
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became a causal problem of the fleeing Europeans. The fleeing people assumed
that the Europeans (aristocratic classes) had been blinded by glistened knowledge.
Aristocratic classes regarded themselves as human set in the top over others
snob and worthyand higher cleverness leading themselves to ignorant people.
Aristocratic Europeans tried to enrich their wealth by using their tricky skill to
befool the superficial poor people. Hence they were escaping because the better
educational people (aristocrat) took the poor peoples properties by using the
manipulated law. In brief, European-Americans hated Aristocratic-Europeans
started from intellectualism.
Therefore old Americans gave a suspicion to aristocratic Europeans that
the aristocratic people put power of mind or mind-over-body in the paramount
of life (so passionate in thought). In one side, because of rejection toward
intellectual people, The Americans did not count herself as dumb or stupid. They
regarded themselves as intelligent people perfectly suited to their circumstances
and needs. Then, the early settlers gave clearly characteristics separation among
intelligence and intellect. Toward the historian Richard Hofstadter, we can
see how American people differentiate themselves to aristocratic Europeans.
IntelligenceAmerican
Practical
Thought---action
Knowledge derived from experience and
books
Shrewd, clever, inventive
Democratic, common man,
One of us
Real world
Professionals (live off ideas)
IntellectEuropean
Contemplative
Thought---more thought
Thought derived from thought and
experimentation books
Abstract, ideological
Aristocratic, learned man,
One of them
Ivory tower
Egg heads (live for ideas)
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Intelligent and intellectual people are separated clearly by those opposition
values. Furthermore, the historian Hofstadter (1963), in Nachbar and Lause
(1992), gives additional information through his conclusion toward the opposition
values.
Intelligence isa manipulative, adjustive, unfailingly practical quality (which) works
within the framework of limited but stated goals, and may be quick to shear away
questions of thought that do not seem to helping reaching them.intellect, on the other
hand, is the criticaland contemplative side of mind.(I)ntellect examines, ponders,
wonders, theorizes, criticizes, imagine. (Nachbar and Lause, 1992, p. 87)
Then through the Hofstadters explanation we get clearly understanding
what American people hold. Americans believe that they have great way of life
Intelligence has ingrained and has mold their life. Intelligence is over intellect
because intelligence attributed with an amazing practical thought which can finish
problems quickly rather than intellect which needs thought and more thought
toward problems. Clearly, people who regard themselves as practical do not want
to think over about problems, they tend to have actions. Thus according to
practical people, ideologists like to think over problems and more thought so they
do not finish the problem effectively.
The value of anti-intellectualism, practical, and the value of
intellectualism, ideological, became an important problem during the exploration
age. In this age, many west countries did explorations to find something new for
progress of human civilizations. If American people say that they hate
intellectuals, it may be they less enlightened. American people such as John
Bartram contributed a science development in botany plain, Franklin and
Jefferson as cosmopolitan figures of scienceespecially Franklin contributed in
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electricity plain. Nevertheless during these ages many important people such as
politicians and keepers of the purse emerged a simple but clear boundary between
practical and ideological.
By and large, those who demanded only practical science in America and
Europe were not scientists but politician and keepers of the purse. And even
these men did not scorn science as long as it was practical, leading them to
mineral depositsand the discovery of commercial products like baking
powder, rubber, and most recently, oil. (William H. Goetzmann, 1992, p.
317)
The politicians and the money holders only employed the scientists to get
their purpose. As long as the scientists were able to make money, those men loved
and supported the scientists experiments. On the other hand the scientists who
failed in their experiments would be scorned and boldly classed as ideologists
who like playing with ideas but no clear stated goal.
Then whether this myth is still strong or decrease to weak, in fact, the
myth of anti-intellectualism is able to penetrate up to this era. Take a look at the
flash back journey of the myth. Through political field, according to many
researches, the election between Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams in
1828 was one of the realities of the applied myth of anti-intellectualism. Jackson
planned by setting Adams as an elitist intellectual with lack of moral and values
who could not relate to the common man. He had provoked the society that
intellectuals as counterfeiters used smart structured language and rhetoric to
deceive ordinary people. At that time Jackson was able to defeat Adams by setting
himself as the peoples candidate. Likewise president election between Jackson
and Adams, George Bush set Al Gore as a boring, monotonous intellectual, even,
an arrogant intellectual out of touch with the common man. As Jackson, Bush
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spread image that he was the right person who could bring America to the better
future because he was the common man who had heart than mind. Therefore the
myth of anti-intellectualism still remains and molds its holders to believe that
intellects are dangerous characters.
The issues around the myth of anti-intellectualism tend to be felt
ambivalence rather than totally hate intellects. Common knowledge, United States
of America is united by the great intellects founding fathers. Furthermore the
amazing development in its technologies and sciences does not apart from the
intellects contributions and the societies like them. But, the myth which is held for
long years from the ancestors makes them still in the same line with the other
major holders. Generally, if they are out of the culture has been built for long
years; certainly they are none other the outcast. Thus they hate the intellects; on
the other hand they love them.
A. 2. The Myth among Peer Culture
The second myth-narrative centers upon peer culture relating to an identity
and self-image. There is a group called as nerds comprising of intellectual
adolescents. An adolescent labeled as a nerd is always characterized has awful
characteristics. An intellectual adolescent is related closely to physically
repulsive, socially inept, shy, and show higher insecurity.
To understand the root of nerd, we can see its history development. The
terminology of nerd is firstly known from the comic book made by Dr. Seuss
(1950), If I Ran the Zoo. The word nerd is one of long list fantastic creatures,
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And then, just to show them, Ill sail to Ka-Troo, and bring back IT-KUTCH, a
PREEP, and a PROO, a NERKLE, a NERD, and a SEERSUCKER, too
(Anderreg, 2008: 25). Thereafter in 1951, term of nerd gets its first debut in an
article of Newsweek, In Detroit, someone who once would be called drip or a
square is now, regrettably, a nerd, or in a less severe case, a scurve. Around
1959, an Ottawa lab uses N.E.R.D acronym for Northern Electric Research and
Development. In another point of view, nerd derived from its origin tale begins
as a joke. The original spelling is knurd, or drunk spelled backward to
describe those who prefer studying to partying (ibid).
In 1985 Life magazine lists nerd characteristics, including adhesive-tape
repaired glasses, high-waisted and high-water geezer pants, goofy smile, nerd
pack (plastic protector with pencils, pen, slide rule or calculator, etc) (Nerd
Look, n. d.). Culturally, those characteristics firstly belong to male intellects.
Year by year, the characteristics of male intellects pervasively attach to female
intellects including wearing eyeglasses, dressing unfashionably, leaving her hair
in unfashionable styles, being shy and may be socially inept in social life,
unskilled in sports, may be slightly overweight or notably thin (Nerd girl, n. d.).
In brief, the stereotypes of male and female nerds are very close to students who
are socially inept, freak or uncool, out of style since nerds can be recognized by
their dress, clumsy, gangling or slovenly, and concentrates only on study.
Afterward, American culture still maintains the myth of anti-
intellectualism through its products. For example, there is a nerd self test
published broadly in society through a box of toy.
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SCORING THE NERD TEST: Each yes answer is worth three points. Total number of pointsdetermines your percentage of nerdiness, up to 100 percent. You get one point for reading this far.
1. Has anyone ever called you a nerd?
2. Did you skip a grade in elementary school?
3. Was your SAT math score 600 or more?
4. Can you figure out anagram without a piece of paper?
5. Did you try to figure out if the last question was an anagram?
6. Did you letter in high school for academics or band?
7. Did you have your first drink on your twenty-first birthday?
8. Do you know at least one of these languages? Perl. COBOL, C, C+, C++, FORTRAN.
9. Was your last intimate relationship in chat room?
10. Do you own a fanny pack or pocket protector?...
11. Do you consider chess a sport?...12. Have you ever told a joke about chemistry or physics?
(David Anderreg, 2008, p. 17)
Through the questions of the nerd self-test, we know that nerds have great
achievement in the math and scientific plane. They have SAT (Scholastic
Aptitude Test) score in or above 600 and they seem to know every single about
computer program. Definitely they have academic success since they much
allocate their time in academic sector.
Yet, the test seems to undervalue for the dumbest nerd. American societies
consider the test as a normal treatment for the young intellects; in fact, it actually
humiliates the intellectual adolescents. Through the point nine, the question
signifies that being a nerd is far from beloved person. None girls or boys want to
approach nerds because nerds spend more time in front of computer than real act
of social life. Nerds like to surf in internet world even for their date. Thus nerds
are always stereotyped having unsuccessful relationship in real social life.
The stereotypes labeled to nerds are often expressed trough negative
behaviors. Frequently, students perceiving themselves have higher status above a
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nerd always persecute and bully this intellectual student. For example, it comes
from the twelve years girl named Ellie. She was hospitalized briefly after taking
an overdose of Tylenol. The reason of her action based on the vicious her friends
about her bookishness, and she slowly lost one friend after another. Her last friend
abandoned her explaining that she still liked her, but could not be seen with her or
speak with her at school because Ellie was so nerdy that her friends own
reputation was in danger (Anderreg, 2008, p. 41).
Ellies experience may be suffered by many students labeled as a nerd.
Having no friends because of excluded by others make Ellie decide herself to try
doing suicide. However, the most terrible situation happened in April 20th 1999
when two students, Dylan Klebold and Eric Harris, shot 12 students and one
teacher before deciding to shoot themselves. All this time, there are two points of
view about the cause of Columbine massacre done by the two. In the book
Human Development written by Diane E. Papilia and friends say that Klebold
and Harris do the homicide because both of them show partly the anti-social
behaviors such as using drug and alcohol, involving into certain gang, fight,
stealing, and properties destruction. Diane and friend do not totally blame Klebold
and Harris because their anti-social activities. Yet, in their book, Diane and
friends tend to blame the sub-urban Columbines social condition. They
summarize a boy who live in bad social conditions tend to involve into violence
actions. On the other hand, several reports say that the two commit shooting
because of unbearable pressures being bullied. Since Klebold and Harris labeled
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as smart students, they often get humiliations by their average peers and even the
lower grades.
And after the Columbine massacre in 1999, parents and school officials across
the country started persecuting nerds and geeks in the same manner. They were
sort of like the Columbine killers: smart, computer-savvy, social outcast
(Anderreg, 2008, p. 32).
Additionally, according to Dedman (2000) (in American Medical
Association, 2002) U.S Secret Service reported that 41 school shooters (including
Columbine) disclosed two-third of the doers felt persecuted or threatened by their
peers. Thus the Columbine shooters are type of smart students who are often
bullied. Then they determine to express their hatred by shooting their peers
because negative effect of the awful pressures.
B. The Social Psychological Development of Adolescents
in High School Plane
The wider branch of psychology is social psychology which studies
individual behavior and thoughts and it is also concerned with the social side of
lifehow people think and interact with others. As stated by Baron and Byrne
(2000, p. 6), social psychology is the scientific field that seeks to understand the
nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in social situations. Hence,
to understand individual behavior and thoughts can be started from analyzing
psychology plane. Then, an individual psychology is linked with social setting
where the individual lives.
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Kids enter adolescence in the age between 12/13 up to 17 years old. In this
age, adolescents experience the blooming time in several facets such as biological
growth, psychological growth, and changes in their social environment. Because
of biological growth, adolescents reproduction organs both boys and girls start
undergoing sexual maturity. The maturity of reproduction organs can be seen in
several cues represented in adolescents body for example because of the ovum
maturity, girls are usually bleeding every month depend on their condition, and
their breasts are getting bigger. For boys, the average of their maturity is usually
about two years later than girls. Boys also experience increasing hormone and
usually their voices become husky. Definitely boys and girls become taller than
their childhood.
In some research, biological growth can influence the psychological of any
adolescent. The boys who are late in their maturity will be hard to join the same
activity. Those who are shorter and less strong among others, socially they might
lose opportunity to join certain activities and they are supposed to disable to
achieve same position with those who are mature earlier in handling every
physical activity. Hence boys who are late in puberty tend to be less popular.
Studi yang pernah dilakukan menunjukkan bahwa anak laki-laki yang lambatmencapai pubertas, cenderung menjadi kurang populer dibandingkan dengan
teman sekelas mereka dan memiliki konsep diri yang jelek, serta lebih banyak
terlibat dalam perilaku yang lebih tidak matang yaitu mencari perhatian
(Dharma and Adriyanto, 1991, p. 137)
The unpopularity labeled to boys who are mature later has a tendency to
commit inappropriate behavior such as looking for attention and they will also
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feel unaccepted and dominated by their friends. In one hand, for those who are
mature earlier tend to have more self-confidence and more independent.
As boys, girls condition in getting their maturity gives almost same
impact with boys. Psychologically girls who are mature earlier feel more prestige
than others and it gives contributions to social life. The earlier mature girls usually
become a leader in any school activity.
Furthermore the development of psychological can be viewed when
adolescents eagerly want to join in a desirable group. They are entangled in two
most common thingsself-esteem and self-competenceto enhance their image
among peers. Generally adolescents enhance their self-esteem trough appearance
it could be body shape, hair style, make up or dress that they are wearing.
According to research by Kwon cited in by Baron and Byrne (2000, p. 173) that
self-esteem increases when people like the clothes they are wearing. If an
adolescent ignore his appearance in the middle of crowd, it will denigrate his self-
esteem and it completely give serious negative effects. He may be excluded from
group or even he becomes an object of prank. Then adolescents who are excluded
tend to evaluate themselves negatively. In line with Olmstead and friends
research that people who value lower than others will suffer negative effects such
as less adequate social skills, loneliness, depression, and decreased effort on a task
following a failure experience (ibid). The adolescents success in enhancing self-
esteem is more capable to compete with the others and the possibility to involve in
their desirable group is wider than adolescents with low self-esteem.
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The changing psychological is going along with the alteration social life of
adolescentswhen adolescents begin to enter high school, relationship and
competition with their classmates are more important. In U.S., adolescents
allocate much their time with pleasant peers rather with their parents. Peers can
stand for an adolescent both in good or bad attitudes. Peers set parents position
when an adolescent has no enough emotional support. Fortunately if an adolescent
befriends good peers who have enough support for beneficial actions, it will lead
him into brighter future. Unluckily parents are worrying about peer friendship in
supporting bad attitudes, the idea here is that peers provide, or model, both
delinquent attitudes and delinquent behaviors, (Burfeind and Bartusch, n. d.).
Not only peers relationship which able to support delinquent behavior, but also
peers rejection represents a constructive factor for the development of antisocial
behavior, isolation by other students because peers do not want to lose status by
associating with him/her or because peers do not want to increase the risks of
being bullied by higher group, (Lumsden, 2002). It is because the nature
behavior of adolescents that they befriend with others who have same common
goals and they do not tolerate dissimilarity.
C. Bullying
Bullying study constitutes a new study. This study is inspired by the
suicides of several severely victimized students. One of prominent figures of this
study is Dan Olweus. Olweus has contributed his bullying prevention program
among students and he firstly has applied his program in Norway and Sweden.
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Olweuss program is felt good for the development of children and then many
nations stand with him to prevent bullying. Those nations which conduct
prevention program for bullying such as United States of America, Australia,
Ireland, Canada, Great Britain, and Japan. Problems associated with bullying have
been noted and discussed wherever formal schooling environments exist. Thus,
Dan Olweus is recognized as the father of bullying research because of his big
contributions in preventing bullying.
Then what is meant by bullying? We know it is sort of like persecution
among children. Therefore Olweus is capable to enlighten through his
understanding about bullying:
A person is being bullied when he or she is exposed, repeatedly and over time,
to negative actions on the part of one or more other persons (Olweus, 1993).
Bullying happens because imbalance power between more powerful
students or group attacking those who are less powerful. Bullying is conducted
repeatedly and it certainly raises negative effects.
Through the characteristics above, students who close related to bullies
tend to popular students. Somehow, popular students set superior life over the
other students, and they often do well socially and get lots of friends (popular
students have a social capital). Hence, bullying actions most be conducted by the
popular students to students look like weak, less power, and etc.
Then bullying can be categorized into three forms: physical, verbal and
psychological (Ericson, 2001). Physical bullying, where the perpetrators use their
physical actions to hurt the victims. Physical bullying can be many actions
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including hitting, kicking, spitting, pushing, and taking personal belongings. The
second form of bullying is verbal bullying. The perpetrators make verbal threats
or inconvenience voices to their victims. Taunting, malicious teasing, and making
threats are the verbal forms of bullying. The last form is non-verbal/ non-physical
bullying. This bullying action attacks the psychological of its victims. It can be
embodied in several ways such as manipulating social relationships, or engaging
in social exclusion, extortion, or intimidation.
Those three forms of bullying can be subdivided into two methods: direct
and indirect bullying methods. Boys usually conduct direct bullying and girls tend
to use indirect bullying to others, Boys more often use direct bullying and
indirect bullying is more common in girls (Wyrick, 2002). To get clearly
description about bullying, it can be understood easily through simple table which
is got in the paper of American Medical Association in 2002. Types of bullying
and its methods are categorized finely.
Each two major groups involved into bullying action, the bullies and the
victims, has their own characteristics. According to Ron Banks, there are typical
Table 1. Common Forms of Bullying
Direct bullying Indirect bullying
Verbal bullying Taunting, teasing, name-
calling
Spreading rumors
Physical bullying Hitting, kicking, shoving,
destruction or theft of property
Enlisting a friend to assault
someone for youNon-verbal/
Non-physical bullying
Threatening, obscene gesture Excluding others from a group,
manipulation of friendship,
threatening e-mail
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characteristics owned by both the bullies and the victims. First, studies indicate
that bullies often come from homes where physical punishment is used or hostile
family environments." Their parents indirectly teach them to strike back
physically as the way to handle problems. Second, children are strongly predicted
conducting bullying behavior is because parents lack in supervising them. Third,
bullies displaying bullying action usually show defiant attitudes toward adults,
antisocial, and pertinent to break school rules (Banks, 1997).
In one side, victims of bullying have typical characteristics, anxious,
insecure, cautious, and low of self-esteem (ibid). The other opinion comes from
Charach and friends, in Banks (1997), about typical characteristics of the victims,
that students considered victims to be "weak," "nerds," and "afraid to fight back."
Beside those two groups: the bullies and the victims, we cannot ignore the
third party, the bystanders. Bystanders are the peers who attend when bullying
action happen. There are two types of bystander: the active bystanders who
participate in the harassment, and the passive bystanders. A study found that peers
were present in 83 percent of the bullying episodes but they intervened to stop the
bullying only 30 percent of the case (American Medical Association, 2011).
Numerous studies noted that some of them did not want to intervene bullying
because it was not their problem and many of them avoid intervening bullying
action because they did not want to be the next target (American Medical
Association, 2002).
Bullying creates huge effects both to the bully and the bullied. There are
short-and long-term consequences for the perpetrators and the victims of bullying.
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The victims experience having no friends and having trouble making social
adjustment. According to longitudinal studies, victims of bullying in early grades
also reported being bullied several years later. The effect of bullying to the
chronic victims may be brought to the adult life such as depression, poor self-
esteem and other mental health problem (Limberand Nation, 2002).
The perpetrators of bullying also cannot avoid the negative outcome. The
bullies tend to drop out than other student. Several researches reported that
bullying behavior as a factor to the future violence and delinquency and according
to Dan Olweus that bullying could lead later criminal behavior.
D. Semiotic Film Theory
To be certain Christian Metz is well-known as person who develops
semiotic into film theory. However, when this study is rolled back into its root,
two famous persons such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Roland Barthes may
enlighten our understanding about semiotics.
Semiotics or semiology is a science that studies how a meaning is derived
from signs. Through Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure about his language
study, we can get the understanding of semiology. Semiology comes from Greek
semeion which means sign. Sign is a union of signifier and signified. The
signifier is the sensible, material, acoustic, or visual signal which triggers a
mental concept, the signified while the signifier is the perceptible aspect of the
sign (Stam, et al, 1992). In short, we can say that the signifier is the image and
the signified is the mental concept, and the relation between image and mental
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concept is sign. Afterward the relationship between signifier and signified
according to Saussure is arbitrary. For example, the word shoes are interpreted
differently by each person. Nevertheless what are imagined by persons when they
hear the word shoes in a sentence I need a new shoes remain shoes itself, not
the image of sandal, stone, or anything else. Every person has own mindset about
shoes and whatever model of shoes are (basketball shoes, boot, and etc), there is a
convention in society that shoes refers to outer covering for persons foot. Thus,
arbitrary means certain idea (regardless types or models) related to certain form
based on a convention among societies.
Then this science is advanced by Roland Barthes who studied signs in the
mass culture. In Barthes book, laculture de masse, Barthes uncovered meaning
in the product of mass culture including advertisings, newspapers, magazines,
photographs, cars, childrens toys, and so on. In his book, Barthes added one
system of the Saussures sign (sign= signifier + signified) by including second
order semiological system. We can see it through the Barthess sign diagram.
1. Signifier 2. Signified
3. Sign
I SIGNIFIER II SIGNIFIED
III SIGN
Through the diagram, we can see that there are two semiological systems.
First, it is like Saussures system. For example, the word ROSE, in the language
plane, the signifier is the alphabetic order of R-O-S-E, and the signified is the
Language
Myth
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conventional meaning of rose, (bush or shrub, usu with thorns on its stems,
bearing an) ornamental and usu sweet-smelling flower, (Hornby, 1994, p. 1100).
The word of rose interprets meaning explicitly of rose itselfthere is no implicit
meaning behind it. Hence in the first, it is found denotation meaning both
languages and images. Subsequently a sign created in the first system becomes a
signifier in the second order semiological system and it automatically forms a new
signified. After that, the combination between both new signifier and signified
create a new sign. A sign in the second system is clarified implicitly. In brief,
when a certain sign is viewed from the second order system, it directly explains a
certain myth which full of connotation depends upon the users cultural
experience (Turner, 1993, p. 46).
Then around 1960s semiotics develop again reaching the range of film
theory. Christian Metz becomes the prominent figure in introducing this new
study. According to Metz that semiotic system in film is not like semiotics in
language system. Language system can modify a certain root of word, yet in the
film, object which is shown cannot be modified. For example, along with Metz in
Monaco a rose can be simply a rose, but it can be modified with similar words:
rose, rosy, rosier, rosiest, rise, risen, rows (ruse, arose, roselike, and so forth
(Monaco, 2000, p. 158). Distinctly semiotics in film lacks of the arbitrary
linguistic sign (Stam, p. 35). Signs in film consist of the signifier nearly equals
with the signified.
As language system, film also has its own language. Film language can be
recognized through its terminologies and techniques. To know more about film
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language, lets have a look what types of terminologies and techniques contained
in film.
D. 1. Codes
There are a number of codes that cinema shares with culturally derived
codes and allocates with other arts. Culturally derived codes are set outside of film
and the filmmakers reproduce it simply, for example the way people eat. Then
codes shared with the other arts, for example a gesture, which is a code of theater
as well as in film. The use of illumination in the film also uses shared codes with
the photography, where the filmmakers want to modify the image with certain
lighting. There is also musical code existing outside of film.
D. 2. Mise-en-scene
Mise-en-scene pronounced as meez-on-scene, is derived from French
phrase which has literally means placing on stage. The phrase refers to the
arrangement of all visual elements within a given playing area or stage. People
and object are arranged in actual space which means that all of the measurement
on the frame has been thought including depth, height, and width. Mize-en-scene
itself is three dimensional, but after mize-en-scene is on frame of shot, it seems
like two dimensional images. In brief, mize-en-scene resembles the art of painting
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where the image presented on a flat surface and enclosed with a frame. Beneath
several involving in part of mize-en-scene:
D. 2. a. The framed shot
According to Louis Giannetti, the movie frame has function as a metaphor
since through the frame, the filmmakers put their ideas. For instance, when a
visual image is set near the top of the frame, it will deal with power, authority,
and aspiration. Yet the top does not always give such kind of ideas, sometimes
image which is shot from medium shot seems to be set near the top of the frame.
The images are also set in the bottom of the frame and these images will deal with
the meaning of subversive, vulnerability and powerlessness. Moreover, the images
are also set onto the side of frame: left and right edges which suggest
insignificant, and usually the filmmakers give darkness lighting to the images.
The framed shots also contain the illumination in cinema. There are three
ways of the filmmakers in using light: key, fill, and backlighting. Then, the key
lighting is divided into two: low and high key. High key lighting gives most the
scene of the film bright light, whereas low key produces less light in the scene or
even give it darkness shafts. Fill light is an additional illumination; it usually
gives illumination from side of the subject. This function can soften the shadow of
the subject. The backlighting in the movie produces a silhouette of visual image in
the screen. This technique is taken from the rear or the bottom of the image, often
with a glaring light. The filmmakers use these three kinds of illumination to
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describe the genre of the movie, for instance, high key in comedy and low key in
horror film.
Besides explaining illumination, obviously the framed shots give certain
understanding about limitation of visual image in frame. There are two aspects
which are considered important in the framed shot; limitation and composition.
Since the frame determines the limit of images, composition must be arranged
carefully.
The framed shot is divided into two: closed and open form. Closed form is
when the image of the frame is self-sufficient, conversely if the filmmakers have
composed the shot in such a way that we are always subliminally aware of the
area outside the frame, (Monaco, 2000: 213) then the form is considered as open
form. For instance, if the camera follows the subject constantly, we can call it as
closed form. And on the other hand, when the filmmakers encourage the subject
to leave and reenter in the shot, then this form is clearly open.
D. 2. b. Diachronic shot
Shot of the image in the frame is the way the filmmakers portray the
images to the audiences. Shot is also very important to give clearness to the
images. Giannetti stated that there are six categories of shot in cinema; the
extreme long shot, the long shot, the full shot, the medium shot, the close up, and
the extreme close up and the examples each of the shots are taken from Wilson
(2010).
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D. 2. b. 1. The Extreme Long Shot
The extreme long shot is taken from a great distance around a quarter of
mile away. This shot happens mostly on exterior shot where the visual images
taken appear as mere specks or spots on the screen. The film genres that always
use this shot are including western, war film, samurai film, and historical film.
Figure 2. 1: Extreme long shot
D. 2. b. 2. The Long Shot
The long shot is hard to describe because this shot is the most complex in
the cinema and the term itself is one of the most imprecise. The easiest way to
understand the range of this shot as many filmmakers said, The range of the shot
is like the distance of the audience in the live theater. (Giannetti, 1972, p. 7).
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Figure 2. 2: Long shot
D. 2. b. 3. Full Shot
Full shot is the closest range within the long shot. This shot shows full
human body with the head near the top and the feet near the bottom.
D. 2. b. 4. The Medium Shot
The medium shot is taken mostly for conversation and movement of
characters. This shot contains a figure from the knees or waist up. The medium
shot is always used for transition between close up and the longer shot.
Figure 2. 3: Medium shot
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D. 2. b. 5. The Close Up
The distance of this shot appears almost on the frame space, for example
the cat face in the figure 2.4. This shot usually to lift up the importance of things.
Figure 2. 4: Close-up
D. 2. b. 6. Extreme Close Up
This shot is variation of close up shot. Extreme close up might show only
a persons eyes or mouth or a cats eye in the figure 2.5.
Figure 2. 5: Extreme close-up
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D. 3. Sound
Sound is one of the richest sources of meaning in films. There are several
sub sounds, but only dialogue which gives the audience of major source of
meaning. In domain of sound, sound is divided into three classifications: sound
effect, music, and spoken language. Sound effect is also sub-divided again into
three aspects, those are: pitch, volume, and tempo. Three of them are sub-divided
again into, pitch: high and low, volume: loud and quite, tempo: fast and slow.
High pitched sounds generally produce a tension sense in the listener and low
pitched sounds emphasize the dignity of scene or it can also suggest anxiety and
mystery. Loud sounds in a film seem threatening, forceful, and interested for the
audiences, whereas quiet sounds make us delicate, doubtful, and often weak. The
last is tempo which goes along with the pitch and the volume. The faster the
tempo of sound, the greater the tension produced in the listener.
The second type of sound is music. Music in the films tells the listener
what kind of film they are watching. We can understand a genre of film from the
very beginning when a film is opened which is usually accompanied by music.
For example, music of frontier instruments such as harmonica or concertino
identifies that the movie has a theme of American frontier.
Spoken language is the third types of sound. In sound affairs, language in
film can be more complex than in literature. The words of film are spoken, not
written, and the words have more degrees than printed words. And tone of voice
can be much more communicative than words in revealing a persons thought. A
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sentence of language when it is spoken using different tone, then the sentence has
several meanings to deliver to the listener.
D. 4. Angle
The filmmakers always use angle of camera to make connotation meaning
of image. Angle happens when camera is set in certain position from the image.
Somehow, angle can be juxtaposed with a writers use of adjective which they
often reflect his or her attitude toward a subject. There are three types of angle in
film: low angle, eye-level angle, and high angle.
Low angles are when camera set near the ground toward the subject
vertically. In short, low angles increase a short actors height that means heighten
the importance of the subject. Eye-level shots mean to keep the camera neutral.
Eye-level shots permit us to think what kind of people is being presented. High
angles are when camera set upon the image. According to Giannetti, high angles
reduce the importance of the subject. Subjects shot from above seem harmless and
significant.
D. 5. The Moving Camera
Cinema has many types of camera movement in shooting the image on the
screen. According to Giannetti, there are seven basic moving camera shots
including pans, tilts, crane shots, dolly shots, zoom shots, hand-held shots, and
aerial shots.
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Panning shots is a movement of the camera that scans a scene horizontally.
The camera moves horizontally in order to keep the subject in the center of the
composition. The filmmakers always support this movement with a tripod. Tripod
makes the camera more stable since the filmmakers want to get clear image.
Figure 2. 6: Panning shots
Tilts shot movements are like the pan shots where the movements of
camera keep the image in the center of composition, but the way this shot taken is
not horizontally but vertically.
Dolly shots are sometimes called trucking or tracking shots. These shots
use a moving vehicle (dolly) to catch the subject. The vehicle regularly moves in,
out, or alongside a moving figure or object while the action is taken.
Hand-held shots are, like their name, mounted on the shoulder of
cinematographer. The characteristics of these shots are often jumpy and ragged
since the cinematographer moves to follow the figure unstably.
Crane shots movement using vehicle also seem like dolly shots. A crane is
a mechanical arm which has more than twenty feet in length. It can move virtually
in any direction: up down, diagonal, in, out, or any combinations of these.
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Figure 2. 7: Crane shot
Zoom shots are combination between the movement and the lenses of
camera. These shots permit the camera to change from close wide-angle distances
to extreme telephoto position almost simultaneously.
Aerial shots movement usually use helicopter to take the figure. These
shots are variation of crane shot. Since a crane is impractical to be used in exterior
locations, helicopter is more flexible in taking the image.
D. 6. Editing
Editing is the main part of a film to create motion picture. As stated by
Giannetti (1987, p. 125) that many talented people including Eisenstein,
Kuleshov, and Pudovkin believed that montage (editing) was the foundation of
film art. Editing is to disguise the transition from shot to shot, making the film
flawless in flowing images. In short, editing is a primary means of organizing the
film. There are four types of basic transitional happening in contemporary cinema:
the cut, the fade, the dissolve, and the wipe. The cut is simple break where two
shots are joined together. There are two kinds of fade; fade in and fade out. Fade
in is where the shots take a darkened image which gradually because the
illumination to the image, then the image becomes visible and achieve its proper
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brightness. Whereas fade out is the converse of fade in where the image
undergoes gradual darkening until it becomes black. The dissolve is achieved by
at the same time fading out in one shot while fading in on the next so the image
gradually disappears in one hand and another becomes visible. The last is wipe
transition, a transition in which the second shot appears to wipe the first shot off
the screen.