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Shruti Khatri [email protected]

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Fundamentals Of Information Technology

Shruti [email protected]

Delhi Technical University Sem 1

[email protected]

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Dear All,

Through my own experiences as a student and as any other human being, I have beenstruggling to fight my fears and come out strongly as a winner. Your fear may be of loosing a

run ....to stand in front of 100s on a stage ...to be ignored if you are fat ..to be ignored ifyou are skely ...to be ignored if you have less money ..to be embarrassed if you dont knowdancing ..to be sad if you do propose and face rejection ..to fail in a test and admit toparents ...to loose your friends because you were you.. to be less learned than others ..tobe less beautiful than the fair-est..to be less confident ..and to always be a coward......These fears will ruin your life completely . I have learnt my lessons well ...and now I wishto teach THE FEAR ---A TIGHT LESSON ...

Always remember

Courage is not the absence of fear. It is only the judgment that something else is moreimportant than fear. The courageous may not live forever, but the cautious does not live at all

I hope your engineering teaches you the true lessons of lifeto work hard, and to loveharder ..and I do hope my experience does some good to you!. Happy Reading !!!!

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Topic1: Definition Of Electronic Computer

What is a Computer?

Definition:

A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is needed, processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally returns the results to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed, but a computer cannot think. A computer makes decisions

based on simple comparisons such as one number being larger than another. Although the computer can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot solve problems on its own.

Explanation/History

The abacus was an important counting machine in ancient Babylon, China, and throughout Europe where it was used until the late middle ages. It was followed by a series of improvements in mechanical counting machines that led up to the development of accurate mechanical adding machines in the 1930s. These machines used a complicated assortment of gears and levers to

perform the calculations but they were far to slow to be of much use to scientists. Also, a machine capable of making simple decisions such as which number is larger was needed. A machine capable of making decisions is called a computer.

Since civilizations began, many of the advances made by science and technology have depended upon the ability to process large amounts of data and perform complex mathematical

calculations. For thousands of years, mathematicians, scientists and businessmen have searched for computing machines that could perform calculations and analyze data quickly and efficiently. One such device was the abacus.

The first computer like machine was the Mark I developed by a team from IBM and Harvard University. It used mechanical telephone relays to store information and it processed data entered on punch cards. This machine was not a true computer since it could not make decisions.

In June 1943, work began on the world's first electronic computer. It was built at the University of Pennsylvania as a secret military project during World War II and was to be used to calculate the trajectory of artillery shells. It covered 1500 square feet and weighed 30 tons. The project was not completed until 1946 but the effort was not wasted. In one of its first demonstrations, the computer solved a problem in 20 seconds that took a team of mathematicians three days. This machine was a vast improvement over the mechanical calculating machines of the past because it used vacuum tubes instead of relay switches. It contained over 17,000 of these tubes, which were the same type tubes used in radios at that time.

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The invention of the transistor made smaller and less expensive computers possible. Although computers shrank in size, they were still huge by todays standards. Another innovation to computers in the 60s was storing data on tape instead of punch cards. This gave computers the ability to store and retrieve data quickly and reliably.

Topic 2: Generations Of ComputersFirst Generation Computers:

The First Generation Computers was marked by the use of vacuum tubes for the electronic components and by the use of electrostatic tubes or mercury delay lines for storage. Examples of first generation computers are EDSAC (1949), EDVAC (1951) etc., this generation lasted until the end of the 1950s and the computers in this era had their basis in wired circuitry and thermion valves. Their outstanding features were:-

1.Very expensive, poor reliability, slow input/output.

2. Quite large, generated lot of heat and required special housing.3. The medium of internal storage was magnetic drum.

4. Punched cards and paper tapes were used for secondary storage.

5. Continuous maintenance is required; produces lot of heat hence requires special airconditioning.

6. Applications-pay roll and other single applications in large companies.

7. Uses batch processing technology, to process the data. Ex. In 1949 at Cambridge UniversityEDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage Automatic Calculator was developed).

In 1952 at Pennsylvania University, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable AutomaticCalculator) was developed.

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In 1951, UNIVAC-I (Universal Automatic Computer) was developed.

Limitations of First Generation Computer Followings are the major drawbacks of Firstgeneration computers.

1. They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.

2. They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity. 3. They consumedlots of electricity and produced lots of heat. 4. Their computing capabilities were limited. 5. Theywere not so accurate and reliable. 6. They used machine level language for programming. 7.They were very expensive.

Second Generation Computers:

The second generation computers are initially marked by either magnetic drum or magnetic corestorage and later by the use of the transistor in the place of vacuum tubes. Main features of thesecond generation computers are: 1. Magnetic core was used as primary storage device and tape

as secondary storage. 2. Used transistor circuits, hence the size of the computer was smallcompared to that of first generation computer. 3. Greater reliability and higher speed, whencompared to that of first generation computers. 4. Uses high level procedural languages viz.,FORTRAN (Formula Translator) 1954-57, COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)1957-61.

5. They are small, faster and required less power to operate.

6. Applications: Payroll, Inventory, Accounts Receivable, in large and medium sized companies:Ex: IBM 700, 1401; ATLAS; ICL 1901

Third Generation Computers (1965-1971):The arrival of the third generation in the mid 1960s proved to be an important milestone in the evolution of computers. The advances over the previous generations were very significant and allowed an increased number of organizations to reap the undoubted benefits which computerization could bring. The following are the features of this generation:

1. Further reductions in size of computer.

2. The cost/performance factor has improved significantly.

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3. Increased internal core memory capacity.

4. Processor speeds are rated in nano seconds.

5. The use of high level languages became common e.g.: COBOL, FORTRAN and PL/I.

6. Multiprogramming operating system was developed.

7. Magnetic disk was used as secondary storage.

8. Transistors were replaced with integrated circuits hence increased miniaturization.

9. Computers were capable of performing both scientific and business tasks with high speed andreliability.

10. Input and Output devices are improved.

11. Applications: Order Processing, air line reservation, real-time inventory control etc.

12. Uses online, real time processing and multiprogramming operating system. Ex:

IBM/360/370; NCR 395; Burroughs-B6500.

Fourth Generation Computers:

The fourth generation computers arrived in mid 1970s. The distinguishing marks were the introduction of standard architecture which proved greater mobility of the system. The introduction of micro technology and significant software developments, Micro technology gave rise to the development of micro computers, work processors and intelligent terminals. Features of this fourth generation are:

1. Integrated Circuits are replaced with very large scale integrated circuits.

2. Semiconductors used as primary storage.

3. Dramatic decrease in the size of computer development of micro computers, personalcomputer.

4. Development of electronic spread sheet.

5. Development of database management systems.

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6. Development of distributed data bases and virtual storage operating system.

7. Increased use of data communications and computer networks.

8. Increased use of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) terminals.

9. The computers are compact, faster, and cheaper and are more reliable.

10. Application : Corporate modeling, decision support system, electronic funds transfer,electronic spread sheet, word processing and small business applications.

Future Computers (since 1985):

By the end of 1982, the computers were used every where, in automobiles, appliances, business information systems, and military hardware. With electronic technology advancing rapidly, the use of computers is expected to grow in coming years. With the increased user requirements, the technology has evolved with outstanding features. Some of the important features of the future computers are:

1.Future Computers use organic chips to process the data.

2. Both the software and hardware costs are decreasing at a high speed, so that the computers can be used by every common man (within the reach of common man).

3. Increased miniaturization and price/performance ratio.

4. The computers have high speed, and storage capacity.

5. Has the capacity to make decisions. (Auto decisions).

6. Uses non procedural software, which is very user friendly.

7. Applications: Artificial Intelligence, Robots, Large Scale Corporate modeling, oil exploration,starwars system and personal robots.

Topic3: Classification of Computers

Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data handling and functionality.

According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or specific purpose. General purpose computers are designed to perform a range of tasks.

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They have the ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency. Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine.

According to functionality, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers

work on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements obtained are translated into data. Modern analog computers usually employ electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the

quantities being manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers. Theymeasure continuous physical magnitudes. Digital computers are those that operate withinformation, numerical or otherwise, represented in a digital form. Such computers process datainto a digital value (in 0s and 1s). They give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate.Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting featureof a digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers use analog components and

for storage, digital memories are used. According to functionality, computers are classified as:Analog Computer

An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.

Digital Computer

A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities representedas digits, usually in the binary number system.

Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digitaland analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performingcomplex simulations.

On the basis of Size

Super Computer The fastest and most powerful type of computer. Supercomputers are veryexpensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts ofmathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other

uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energyresearch, and petroleum exploration.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.

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Mainframe Computer A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, oreven thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simplemicroprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top,mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful thansupercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers canexecute a single program faster than a mainframe.

Mini Computer A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie betweenworkstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputersand small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputersand workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable ofsupporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

Workstations A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just ageneric term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

The following illustrate varieties in micro-computers.

Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. Itis generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.

Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops haveno keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

Topic4: CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERSThe characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful

have been enumerated as follows:

1) Speed: A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in few seconds, the amount of work that a human being can do in an entire year. The speed of a computer measure in microseconds(10-6), nanoseconds(10-9) and picoseconds(10-12). A powerful computer is capable of performing several billion arithmetic operations per second.

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2) Accuracy: A Computer is very accurate device. The accuracy of a computer is in

principle high. The degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design. Computer does every calculation with same accuracy. Errors can occur in a computer, However, these problem are mainly due to human rather than technological weaknesses.

3) Automatic(Automation): A machine is no sooner than done to be automatic if it, works byitself without

human intervention. Computers are automatic machines, because once started on a job, they carry on, until the job is finished, without any human assistance. However, computer being machines can not start them selves. They cannot go out to find their own problems and solutions. They have to be instructed.

4) Diligence: Computers are unlike human beings. A computer is free from dullness and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error in doing regular types of jobs, which requires great accuracy. Computer can perform any number of calculations with exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first one.

5) Versatility: Versatility is a most important characteristic of computer. It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills. A computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to series of logical steps.

6) Memory(Power of Remembering): Computer has a brain, but unlike human (Man) beings. A computer can store data and information. And recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. Because of its secondary storage capability. A data and information can be retrieved as long as desired by the user and can be recalled, as when required. The information recalled would be as accurate as on the first day when it was fed to the computer.

7) No. I.Q.(Intelligence Quotient) : A computer is not a magical device. It is not intelligent of its own. Users can determine, what tasks will the computer perform. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

8) No Feelings: Computer has no feelings. They have no emotions, because they are machines. AComputer is

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