Argumentative Paper: Reimagining Ecology with an Apex Carnivore

Jared Brantley

8 December 2014

Metropolitan State University of Denver

REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 2

Abstract

The impact of ecological restoration on gray wolves in Yellowstone National Park was

studied. Far reaching and also immediate with in the ecosystem and regional economy that can

be directly or indirectly correlated back to the reintroduction of wolves were researched. Also

studied was the possibility of degradation of livestock and personal property and the compromise

that reimbursed official losses. A fear of wolves claiming territory outside of the park was

studied as well as a tracking device that allowed researchers to insure wolves kept to the

boundaries of the National park. Increased human traffic throughout the park was noted and

researched as well, yet the research yielded a significantly regenerated environment even with

such an increase in visitors. The research shows that the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone

National Park benefits numerous species of animals and vegetation throughout the park, as well

as benefiting the regional economy. The results also provide that although there may be loss in

property to livestock, parties with official losses would be reimbursed. Throughout the study,

wolves obtain respect as a unifying force in the balance of nature, rather than the villain they

personified as throughout the 19th century.

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Argumentative Paper: Reimagining Ecology with an Apex Carnivore

The reintroduction of gray wolves in Yellowstone National Park, a grandiose experiment

unfounded, yet through time has proven the crucial role all animals play in each environment.

The reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone has impacted more than the environment. In

addition to the ecosystem, the wolves have impacted the region economically and the people

surrounding the park. This wolf recovery program has changed the way scientists think about

balancing ecosystems. Predators, especially gray wolves have continued to improve the

environment in Yellowstone National Park by controlling animal populations, restoring trees and

willows, and revitalizing species that were once dwindling. The Yellowstone Wolf Recovery

Project has been the most successful to date. Throughout the last nineteen years these wolves

have been studied and the findings have been remarkable.

Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone National Park is located in the North Western corner of Wyoming reaching

into areas of Montana and Idaho. Yellowstone was the first national park to be founded in the

United States and was signed into existence in 1817 by then President Ulysses S. Grant. The park

and its beauty captivated the country and soon was a place set apart for the enjoyment and

benefit of the people. In order to sustain that enjoyment, the Lacey Act was passed by congress

giving protection to wildlife in Yellowstone, except for wolves and coyotes (Haines, 1977, p.

60).

Wolf Trouble in Yellowstone

There is perhaps no other large predator that is more deeply embedded in our human

psyche than the wolf. Historically, gray wolves defined by the Encyclopedia of Life as Canis

Lupus, have been given a role vilified by people through literature and legend. Between the years

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1883 and 1914 bounty hunters killed 81,000 wolves in Montana alone (Lister & McDaniel,

2006). According to the Yellowstone Wolf Project, by 1926 gray wolves were officially

extirpated from Yellowstone National Park. The slaughter of wolves would eventually cease in

1973 when the Endangered Species Act was passed making it a crime to kill wolves punishable

by a $50,000 fine and up to a year in jail (Lister & McDaniel, 2006). Not surprisingly wolf

populations had been thoroughly diminished by this time throughout North America. In addition

to protecting threatened species, the Endangered Species Act also provides for their

reintroduction into former habitats. In 1987, the Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan

recommended that the gray wolf be reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park (Lister &

McDaniel, 2006). In the following years the reintroduction of wolves would play out in federal

courts.

Wolf Reintroduction

The United States Government was charged with implementing and enforcing a

compromise between those for and apposed to wolf reintroduction. Those for the reintroduction

included many biologists, members of congress, and the Defenders of Wildlife, which was

founded in 1947. The majority of people apposing the recovery plan were those living in the

surrounding the area, such as ranchers and farmers whom feared that the reintroduction of

wolves would relinquish the safety they had become accustomed to for their domestic animals.

Two decades of fighting would ensue before a green light would be given to begin the project. In

1974, the federal government would appoint a wolf recovery team and the first recovery plan

would be released in 1982 (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). The public and apposing parties

were consistently against the plan, which caused federal and state agencies to revise the recovery

plan. A second recovery plan was released in 1985, yet congress required more research before

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giving the green light to implement a recovery plan (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). The plan

following was adjusted and included the studies ordered by congress and the Defenders

announced an established $100,000 Wolf Compensation Fund to reimburse ranchers for verified

wolf depredations of livestock (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). The final piece of the recovery

puzzle was to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Court hearings would be held

to discuss EIS three times until 1994 when the final EIS is issued and a green light would

officially be received to begin reintroduction (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). During the week

of January 3, 1995 wolves from Alberta, Canada were captured and carted to recovery zones

within Yellowstone National Park and placed in acclimation pens (“Defenders of Wildlife”,

2006). An important part of the recovery plan was the use of the acclimation pens. Studies have

shown that wolves carry strong bonds, which is the reason that many wolves were taken from the

three separate packs and kept together once they arrived in the United States (Smith, 2005). The

acclimation pens were used to ensure the wolves would remain in the area instead of making a

mad dash back to Canada after the release. The wolves released in 1995 were kept in the

acclimation pens before their “soft release” for ten weeks (Smith, 2005). A similar operation

would be held the following year and another group of wolves would be released in Yellowstone

in 1996.

The Wolf Effect

By nature, wolves are carnivores and prefer to eat large hooved mammals such as deer, elk,

bison, and moose. In Yellowstone National Park the effects of a lack of wolves were felt long

before 1973 when the Endangered Species Act was established. Without wolves, elk and other

large hooved animal’s populations increased exponentially and as Douglas Smith states in the

2010 Yellowstone Park Foundation’s periodical, “when wolves were reintroduced in 1995,

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Yellowstone was the best place in the world to have wolves that did not currently have them,

since there was an abundant prey population”. As with any large population, a primary necessity

is food. Elk, for example, rely on vegetation for sustenance and without wolves, plant vegetation

was being rapidly consumed, overgrazed, and was beginning to decline. Once wolves were

returned to Yellowstone National Park, elk were influenced greatly. Wolves have a continuous

effect on their surroundings often described as a trickle down effect. An abundance of animals

like elk, or a missing species like wolves (before 1995) change systems for better or worse.

Actions taken by packs of wolves are beneficial and far-reaching throughout the ecosystem and

food chain.

Trophic Cascade Approach

Wolves are often described as an “apex Carnivore” meaning that they are atop the food

chain; Elk, bison, and deer are considered consumers. The relationship between all animals can

be perfectly viewed through the lens of a trophic cascade. Trophic Cascades are extremely

complex chains that systematically link all animals within an ecosystem together. Envision a

rope ladder, when parts of the rope are cut the ladder becomes unreasonable, or extremely

difficult, to climb. John Muir, an early advocate of preservation of wilderness in the United

States once stated the importance of balancing ecosystems perfectly when he wrote, “When we

try to pick anything out by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the universe” (Muir,

1911). In keeping with Muir’s philosophy, if parts of an ecosystem are removed it is hard to keep

the balance of that ecosystem. In this case the carnivore are wolves, and the herbivore is elk;

simply put, the carnivores prey upon the herbivores effectively controlling their population size.

Not only does the population of elk come under control in numbers, further research conducted

on wolves by Adolph Murie in Alaska determined that wolves would selectively target the

REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 7

weakest and most vulnerable members of deer, elk, bison, and other wildlife. Such a selection

process will undoubtedly enhance the health and vigor of the park’s game species. The cascade

is, in fact, much more complicated than simple food chain statistics. Elk are directly impacted by

the return of wolves through killing for food, yet indirectly wolves impact elk distribution

throughout the park, as well as how the elk behave (Smith, 2005).

Continuous Trophic Cascades

Another cascade that is being correlated to the reintroduction of wolves is the carcass’

they leave behind. In the event that a pack grows large enough to eat an entire animal they kill,

there will always be morsels left behind for scavengers to eat. According to wolf expert and

Yellowstone wolf recovery project leader Douglas Smith, wolves that prey on deer live in packs

of five to seven while elk killing deer range from eight to twelve. Wolves that prey upon moose

and bison will often be in packs with fifteen plus members (Smith, 2005; 121). Not only does

this fact help illustrate the tactical strategies that assist wolves in hunting, but the understanding

of the environment that wolves have throughout their entire habitat. Their understanding of

survival, without human intervention, is magnificent as wolves are able to work together as a

whole. The reintroduction of wolves has brought in a varying array of scientists and researchers

to observe the wolf effect. For instance, Biologist Dan Stahler and noted raven expert Bernd

Heinrich spend time watching ravens that follow wolves. The birds understand that if they stick

around long enough they are also going to receive a meal. Stahler and Heinrich discovered that

the average wolf kill attracts 29 ravens, yet they have observed nearly 135 ravens on two

adjacent kills (Smith, 2005; 122). As part of their research Stahler and Heinrich wanted to know

how much the ravens were reliant on the wolf killings. For their research the pair would hike

around Yellowstone and would place elk carcasses on open ground. The research team also

REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 8

discovered that the ravens would not attempt to eat the artificially placed legs and would

continue flying, yet after a wolf kill the ravens would immediately stop and begin eating.

Trophic Cascades Explored Above

While some trophic cascades can be easily observed as top down, one interesting

example is that of grizzly bears, or black bears. The bears are easily more powerful than the

wolves, yet they lack the agility to prey upon large hooved animals successfully. Bears are able

to easily take over a kill made by wolves. An important time of year is at the end of winter when

bears leave their dens extremely hungry. What better way to wake up then to take over a carcass

from a pack of wolves without much of a fight? Wolves are to grizzlies what mosquitos are to

humans, an annoyance. Wolves will harass the bears, but will rarely be able to retrieve a kill after

a bear has staked its claim. This example is important to understand because both are apex

carnivores, yet the bear is above the wolf. While the bear may be able to control a wolf kill with

impunity, there is a different tune when it is coyotes that come calling for food. Much of a

coyotes diet consists of mice and ground squirrels, so the sight of several hundred pounds of elk

meat would be terribly difficult to resist (Smith, 2005). In a similar order, coyotes are to wolves

what mosquitos are to humans, an annoyance. Throughout these examples it is easy to digest that

wolves are crucial to the survival of the environment that they inhabit. Without wolves bears

might struggle, coyotes would not be kept in line, and ravens survival would become more

dependent on others. Wolves provide a balance that every ecosystem truly needs.

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Elk Connections to Wolf Population

APA Citation: Yellowstone Center for Resources Annual Report 2006. (2007). Yellowstone Center for Resources.

Retrieved November 15, 2014, from http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/loader.cfm?

csModule=security/getfile&PageID=325473

From figure 3 above it can be determined the average amount of elk killed during the

winter months from 1995-2006, which allows researchers to determine the direct correlation that

wolves have on the population of elk. The chart below shows elk population before wolves were

reintroduced in Yellowstone National Park and after the reintroduction. Elk population numbers

were consistently between 1500 and 2500 elk before reintroduction and between 500 and 1500

after the reintroduction of wolves. As figure 3 depicts, both populations are dependent on the

other. As one population grows, so to does the other. Both animals benefit from such a

dependency. Wolves are smart and usually prey upon weak or struggling elk, which actually

helps the elk in becoming stronger as a whole. Figure 4 below helps depicts the populations of

REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 10

elk between 1929 through 2004. Just looking at the figure, one might assume that something

wrong is happening with a decrease in population, but there is a lot happening behind the figure.

When the strong survive the population of Yellowstone elk gradually begins to become stronger

as well. Although elk populations are less in numbers, the populations are much stronger in 2004

than in 1929, four years from the year that the gray wolf was officially extirpated from

Yellowstone National Park. Vice Versa, as elk populations grow stronger, wolf populations

throughout Yellowstone National Park grow stronger as well. Since reintroduction, wolves have

made Yellowstone National Park a healthier habitat for many animals, especially elk.

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Figure 4: Populations of Elk in greater Yellowstone Area 1929-2004, APA Citation: Hamlin, K. (2006, January 1).

Monitoring and Assessment of Wolf-Ungulate Interactions and Population Trends within the Greater

Yellowstone Area, Southwestern Montana, and Montana Statewide. Montana Fish and Wildlife Parks.

Wolf Reintroduction Influences Foliage

Wolves killing elk is indirectly connected to recoveries throughout the National park.

Researchers began observing a rebound of foliage between two or three years after wolves were

released (Smith, 2005). Correlation between the recovery of willows and the recovery of wolves

was determined by the behavior of elk. When wolves were not present to dictate where elk could

spend time the elk had the option to remain in places for a longer duration of time. However, as

soon as wolves were reintroduced to the park elk soon discontinued their time in the places that

they were most likely to be killed by wolves, thus instating a recovery for willows in those areas

(Smith, 2005). Some researchers criticize this approach to revitalizing willows stating from

research that moose eat more than elk. However, due to a massive forest fire in 1988 the number

of moose declined, so if in fact moose were the primary variable behind the recovery of willows

then recovery would have began much earlier (Smith, 2005). An indirect effect that wolves have

on revitalization throughout the park is on aspen trees. A study conducted by biologists Bill

Ripple and Erik Larson yielded important information confirming the importance of wolves in

the ecosystem (2001). After drilling into the cores of more than a hundred trees the researchers

discovered that the trees stopped regenerating around 1930, which is near the time wolves were

extirpated from Yellowstone (Larsen & Ripple, 2001). In addition, it was becoming apparent that

the Lamar River was becoming over-widened. The banks of the river were eroding and the soil

was being taken and distributed down river (Bescheta, 2003). This information is crucial to the

link between wolves and the ecosystem. Due to overgrazing, vegetation that used to line and

keep the riverbanks safe had vanished (Bescheta, 2003). Because of the impact wolves have on

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the behavior of large hooved animals, vegetation located on the banks of the Lamar River has

started to rejuvenate. Ecosystems are extremely vulnerable and the slightest change can have far

reaching impacts. Similar to a game of chess, the balance of entire system is crucial to the

assistance of all inhabited species. The information provided by countless hours of research

allows an incredible amount of knowledge to be revealed. Thanks to wolves, researchers now

understand better the delicate act of balance between all species, human and animal. Since the

return of the wolves in Yellowstone the plants and vegetation have made a comeback, herbivore

populations are under control, and the ecology of the park has started to become healthier and

better balanced.

Annual Economic Impacts

In 2007 wolf restoration in Yellowstone had reached its 11th year and was becoming the

most successful wildlife recovery project in the history of endangered species conservation.

From 2003-2006 the Yellowstone Park Foundation (YPF) conducted a study with support from

other groups, which would aim to quantify the economic impacts of the wolves in Yellowstone

post-recovery. The research was gathered by interviewing thousands of park visitors over the

time period to understand just how wolves are influencing people’s decisions to visit the park,

and the corresponding impact on the regional economy. It was determined that visitors who

come to Yellowstone to view wolves contribute $35.5 million annually to the region (YPF,

2007). With added funds throughout the region, money can be spent to assist in schooling,

continued preservation of parks, and to help educate the communities of the importance that all

animals have throughout the environment. Also, the information that this research presents is

extremely valuable for the immediate surroundings of Yellowstone National Park in that it

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allows for better management of wildlife, community development of wildlife education, and

public recreation.

Opposed to Wolf Reintroduction

Many concerns were gathered from reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone National

Park. A majority of the concerns were linked to the extensive damage to livestock, decimation of

game species, or causing death to humans. Regardless of the research conducted to prove that in

fact wolves were not responsible for loss of game species. In actuality, wolves helped maintain

healthy population levels of game species that human hunting could not accomplish on its own.

Also, according to a study conducted by Professors Brad Lister and Carl McDaniel, biologists

were unable to document a single instance of wolves causing deaths to humans anywhere in the

world (2006). A major concern that the people living in the areas surrounding the park attempted

to validate was that wolves that were reintroduced into the National Park would eventually leave

the boundary of the park and come into contact with people. One of the first actions that was

taken once the wolves were captured in Canada was to place a radio collar around each wolves

neck. Collars are key to wolf studies, The Yellowstone Wolf Foundation states:

Wolves range far and wide throughout Yellowstone’s 2.2-million acres of

dense wilderness, yet the Park’s wolf population is one of the most studied

populations of wild wolves ever.  It is radio collars that enable the monitoring

of multiple wolf packs across this vast area (2014).

The radio collar that was placed on the wolves is similar to a dog collar, but with Very High

Frequency (VHF) and Global Positioning System (GPS) attachments to allow researchers to

track the wolves (YPF, 2014). The collars that are placed on the wolves are the key to wolf

studies. However, even with technological tracking devices, some wolves do eventually tend to

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drift outside of park boundaries. In 2003, depredation caused by 301 estimated wolves equaled

the sum of 291 animals, where 211 were sheep, 64 cows, 6 dogs, and 10 goats (Taylor, Johnson,

Shelby, 2005). Three years earlier, a study was conducted to determine the depredation of grizzly

bears in the greater Yellowstone area (GYA). There were 152 grizzly bear-human related

conflicts in 2000 where 45% was determined to be bears obtaining anthropogenic foods and 32%

was determined to be bears killing livestock (Haroldson & Frey, 2001). The fact of the matter is

that simply living on this earth means a balancing act between all animals, humans included.

There are going to be wildlife to human encounters, yet when humans take a step back and

reflect at a “30,000ft view”, the positive effects of balancing ecosystems outweighs the

depredation of livestock.

Compromise for Depredation

Much thought was put into compromises for both sides of reintroduction. While

depredation of livestock would eventually occur, a compromise would once again be set and laid

out in front of congress and the public within the final recovery plan. As stated before, the plan

included the studies ordered by congress. The Defenders of Wildlife (a major contributor, pro

wolf recovery) announced an established $100,000 Wolf Compensation Fund to reimburse

ranchers for verified wolf depredations of livestock (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). Both parties

want to keep both wolves and humans safe along with all domesticated animals. Those parties

for certainly do not want to harm the famers, or ranchers, way of life, source of income. This

additional fund allows for a light at the end of long tunnel in the eyes against wolf reintroduction

of Yellowstone.

REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 15

Increase in Human Footprint

However much good comes from the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone National

Park, there is an increased amount of strain that has been put onto the fragile features throughout

the park by increased human traffic. The human footprint increase at Yellowstone can be traced

back to the influx of accessibility of the automobile. The world is ever growing at a rate faster

than ever witnessed. It is inevitable that visitation would increase with the amount of people

calling Earth home. Fast forward to 2006 and there are more people visiting Yellowstone than

ever before. Yellowstone National Park topped 3 million visitors for the fifth straight year in

2011 (NPS, 2014). On average, Yellowstone National Park receives more than 2 million visitors

throughout the last 15 years. Amazingly, 20,000 people are seeing wolves in Yellowstone every

year (Smith, 2005). National parks are founded on the basis that preservation is crucial, so even

with such a massive population Yellowstone National Park must be kept alive and well. The

balancing and conservation of ecosystems allows for these parks to continue in growing healthier

even with an incredible amount of visitors. For the amount of people that visit Yellowstone

National Park, more and more people will leave the park more knowledgeable than they arrived.

Understanding that protection and a certain amount of distance is key in observing the natural

beauty of this countries first national park will help keep not only the wolf alive, but also entire

systems alive in the years to come.

Yellowstone National Park has lived through thousands of years of change, and the wolf

has stood near its side. The impact that wolves have had on the ecosystem throughout the park is

a monumental beginning for conservation projects in the years to come. Wolves are a pivotal

species that are able to assist in population control, ensuring that wolves are not only becoming

stronger, but the prey animal becomes stronger over a period of time. The reintroduction of gray

REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 16

wolves in the park has allowed other species, specifically ravens, a sure meal. It is difficult to

observe the crucial role wolves play in the revitalization of Yellowstone National Park.

However, through research the understanding of the role is becoming as grandiose as the story

behind it. As time continues, more research conducted, and data collected, the educational

benefits will allow successful projects throughout the future.

REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 17

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