First Bulgarian Empire

Not to be confused with Old Great Bulgaria.

The First Bulgarian Empire (modern Bulgarian: Пър-вo българско царство, Parvo Balgarsko Tsarstvo) is thehistoriographical term for the khanate founded by theBulgars circa 681, when they settled in the northeasternBalkans, subdued or drove out the Byzantines and madethe South Slavic settlers their allies. It evolved into aprincipality in 864 and an empire around 913-927. Atthe height of its power Bulgaria spread from the DanubeBend to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River to theAdriatic Sea. As the state solidified its position in theBalkans, it entered on a centuries-long interaction, some-times friendly and sometimes hostile, with the ByzantineEmpire. Bulgaria emerged as Byzantium’s chief antag-onist to its north, resulting in several wars. The twopowers also enjoyed periods of peace and alliance, mostnotably during the Second Arab siege of Constantino-ple, where the Bulgarian army broke the siege and de-stroyed the Arab army, thus preventing an Arab invasionof Southeastern Europe. Byzantium had a strong cul-tural influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventualadoption of Christianity in 864. After the disintegrationof the Avar Khaganate, the country expanded its territorynorthwest to the Pannonian Plain. Later the Bulgariansconfronted the advance of the Pechenegs and Cumans,and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars, forcingthem to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia.During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Simeon Iachieved a string of victories over the Byzantines, andwas recognized with the title of Emperor, and expandedthe state to its greatest extent. After the annihilation ofthe Byzantine army in the battle of Anchialus in 917, theBulgarians laid siege to Constantinople in 923 and 924.The Byzantines eventually recovered, and in 1014 un-der Basil II, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bulgariansat the Battle of Kleidion.[10] By 1018, the last Bulgar-ian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire,and the First Bulgarian Empire had ceased to exist.[11] Itwas succeeded by the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185.After the adoption of Christianity, Bulgaria became thecultural center of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural po-sition was further consolidated with the invention of theGlagolitic and Early Cyrillic alphabets shortly after in thecapital Preslav, and literature produced in Old Bulgariansoon began spreading north. Old Bulgarian became thelingua franca of much of Eastern Europe and it came tobe known as Old Church Slavonic.[12][13] In 927, the fullyindependent Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recog-

nized.Between the 7th and 10th centuries, the local population,the Bulgars and the other tribes in the empire, which wereoutnumbered by the Slavs,[14][15][16] gradually becameabsorbed by them, adopting a South Slav language.[17]Since the late 10th century, the names Bulgarians andBulgarian became prevalent and became permanent des-ignations for the local population, both in the literatureand in the spoken language. The development of OldChurch Slavonic literacy had the effect of preventing theassimilation of the South Slavs into neighboring cultures,while stimulating the formation of a distinct Bulgarianidentity.[18]

1 Nomenclature

The First Bulgarian Empire became known simply asBulgaria[19] since its recognition by the Byzantine Em-pire in 681. Some historians use the terms Danube Bul-garia,[20] First Bulgarian State,[21][22] or First BulgarianTsardom (Empire). Between 681 and 864 the country wasalso known as the Bulgarian Khanate,[23] Danube Bulgar-ian Khanate, or Danube Bulgar Khanate[24][25] in orderto differentiate it from Volga Bulgaria, which emergedfrom another Bulgar group. During its early existence,the country was also called the Bulgar state[26] or Bulgarqaghnate.[27] Between 864 and 917/927, the country wasknown as the Principality of Bulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bul-garia.In English language sources, the country is often knownas the Bulgarian Empire.[28]

Created as a union between Bulgars and Slavs, for mutualprotection against the Byzantine Empire to the south andthe Avars to the north-west, the First Bulgarian Empirewas ruled according to Bulgar tradition with the head ofstate being the Khan. The Slavs kept significant autonomyand eventually their language and traditions shaped theBulgarian culture and people with Bulgaria becoming aSlavic country.

2 Background

During the time of the late Roman Empire, the landsof present-day Bulgaria had been organized into severalprovinces - Scythia Minor, Moesia (Upper and Lower),Thrace, Macedonia (First and Second), Dacia (north of

1

2 3 HISTORY

The Bulgarian colonies after the fall of Old Great Bulgaria in the7th century.

the Danube), Dardania, Rhodope and Hermimont, andhad a mixed population of Romanized Getae and Hel-lenized Thracians. Several consecutive waves of Slavicmigration throughout the 6th and early 7th centuries ledto the almost complete Slavicization of the region, at leastlinguistically.

2.1 The Bulgars

Main articles: Bulgars and Old Great Bulgaria

The Bulgars also included the tribes of Onogurs, Utigursand Kutrigurs.[29] Between 630 and 635, Khan Kubratmanaged to unite the main Bulgar tribes, creating apowerful confederation called Old Great Bulgaria, alsoknown as Onoguria. Under strong Khazar pressure OldGreat Bulgaria disintegrated in 668.[30] Afterwards KhanAsparuh parted ways to seek a secure home. It is difficultto estimate the number of Asparuh’s Bulgars, Zlatarskiposits that their number was not great,[31] on the contraryRunciman consider that the tribe must have been of con-siderable dimension.[32] In 680 Asparukh founded afterthe Battle of Ongal the First Bulgarian Empire, south ofthe Danube on Byzantine territory. It was officially rec-ognized as an independent state by the Byzantine Empirein 681.[33][34][35]

2.2 Formation of the Bulgarian ethnicity

It is likely that the original Bulgars were greatly outnum-bered by the Slavic population among whom they weresettled. Between the 7th and the 10th centuries, the Bul-gars gradually became absorbed by the Slavs, adoptinga South Slav language[17] and converting to Christian-ity (of the Byzantine rite) under Boris I of Bulgaria in864. Modern Bulgarians are normally considered to beof Southern Slavic origin. However, the Slavs were onlyone of the communities that had been present in the areaconquered by Bulgars, themselves being recent migrants

in the Balkans. Several other peoples were eventually ab-sorbed into the new ethnicity. At that time the process ofabsorption of the remnants of the old Thraco-Roman andThraco-Byzantine population had already been signifi-cant in the formation of this new ethnic group. The newsingle identity nationwould continue to identify as Bulgar-ian and uphold the eponymous state as its own. ModernBulgarians continue to celebrate the original non-SlavicBulgar state and Thracian ancestors, while embracing aSlavic identity at the same time.

3 History

3.1 Establishing a firm foothold in theBalkans

Bulgaria, c. turn of 7th century

After the decisive victory at Ongala in 680 the armies ofthe Bulgars and Slavs advanced to the South of the Balkanmountains, defeating again the Byzantines who were thenforced to sign a humiliating peace treaty which acknowl-edged the establishment of a new state on the borders ofthe Empire. They were also to pay an annual tribute toBulgaria. In the same time the war with the Khazars tothe East continued and in 700 Khan Asparough perishedin battle with them. The Bulgars lost the territories to theEast of the Dnester River, but managed to hold the landsto the West. The Bulgars and the Slavs signed a treaty ac-cording to which the head of the state became the Khan

3.3 Territorial expansion 3

of the Bulgars, who had also the obligation to defendthe country against the Byzantine, while the Slavic lead-ers gained considerable autonomy and had to protect theNorthern borders along the Carpathian mountains againstthe Avars.[36]

Khan Asparuh's successor, Khan Tervel helped the de-posed Byzantine Emperor Justinian II to regain his thronein 705.[37] In return he was given the area Zagore inNorthern Thrace, which was the first expansion of thecountry to the South of the Balkan mountains. However,three years later Justinian tried to take it back by force,but his army was defeated at Anchialus. In 716 KhanTervel signed an important agreement with Byzantium.During the siege of Constantinople in 717–718 he sent50,000 troops to help the besieged city. In the decisivebattle the Bulgarians massacred around 30,000 Arabs[38]and Khan Tervel was called The saviour of Europe by hiscontemporaries.

3.2 Internal instability and struggle forsurvival

Khan Sevar, the last scion of the Dulo clan, died in 753.With his death the Khanate fell into a long political cri-sis during which the young country was on the verge ofdestruction. In just fifteen years, seven Khans ruled, allof whom were murdered. There were two main fac-tions: some nobles wanted uncompromising war againstthe Byzantines, while others searched for a peaceful set-tlement of the conflict. That instability was used bythe Byzantine Emperor Constantine V (745–775), wholaunched nine major campaigns aiming to eliminate Bul-garia. In 763 he defeated the Bulgarian Khan Telets atAnchialus,[39][40] but the Byzantines were unable to ad-vance further North. In 775 Khan Telerig tricked Con-stantine into revealing those loyal to him in the Bulgar-ian Court, then executed all the Byzantine spies in thecapital Pliska.[41] Under his successor Khan Kardam, thewar took a favourable turn after the great victory in thebattle of Marcelae[42] in 792. The Byzantines were thor-oughly defeated and forced once again to pay tribute tothe Khans. As a result of the victory, the crisis was finallyovercome, and Bulgaria entered the new century stable,stronger, and consolidated.

3.3 Territorial expansion

See also: Krum of Bulgaria and battle of PliskaUnder the great Khan Krum (803–814), also known asCrummus andKeanusMagnus, Bulgaria expanded south-ward and to the northwest, occupying the lands betweenthe middle Danube and Moldova, the whole territory ofpresent-day Romania, Sofia in 809[43] and Adrianople(modern Edirne) in 813, threatening Constantinople it-self. Between 804 and 806 the Bulgarian armies thor-oughly eliminated the Avar Khanate and a border with

Khan Krum feasts after the victory at Varbitsa Pass

the Frankish Empire was established along the middleDanube. In 811 a large Byzantine army was decisivelydefeated in the battle of the Varbitsa Pass.[44] The Byzan-tine Emperor Nicephorus I was slain along with most ofhis troops, and his skull was used as a drinking cup.[45]Krum immediately took the initiative and moved the wartowards Thrace, defeating the Byzantines once more atVersinikia in 813.[46] After a treacherous Byzantine at-tempt to kill the Khan during negotiations, Krum pil-laged the whole of Thrace, seized Odrin, and resettled its10,000 inhabitants in "Bulgaria across the Danube".[47]He made enhanced preparation to capture Constantino-ple: 5,000 iron-plated wagons were built to carry the siegeequipment;[48] the Byzantines even pleaded for help fromthe Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious.[49] Due to the sud-den death of the great Khan, however, the campaign wasnever launched. Khan Krum implemented legal reform,establishing equal rules and punishment for all peoplesliving within the country’s boundaries, intending to re-duce poverty and to strengthen the social ties in his vastlyenlarged state.Khan Omurtag (814–831) concluded a 30-year peacetreaty with the Byzantines,[50] thus allowing both coun-tries to restore their economies and finance after thebloody conflicts in the first decade of the century. Thenorthwestern boundaries with the Frankish Empire werefirmly settled along the middle Danube by 827. Extensivebuilding was undertaken in the capital Pliska, includingthe construction of a magnificent palace, pagan temples,ruler’s residence, fortress, citadel, water-main, and bath,mainly from stone and brick.During the short reign of Khan Malamir (831–836), theimportant city of Plovdiv was incorporated into the coun-try. Under Khan Presian (836–852), the Bulgarianstook most of Macedonia, and the borders of the countryreached the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. Byzantine histo-rians do not mention any resistance against the Bulgarianexpansion in Macedonia, leading to the conclusion thatthe expansion was largely peaceful.[51] Between 839 and842 the Bulgarians waged war on the Serbs but did not

4 3 HISTORY

make any progress.[52]

3.4 Bulgaria under Boris I

See also: Boris IThe reign of Boris I (852–889) began with numerous

Bulgaria during the rule of Boris I

setbacks. For ten years the country fought against theByzantine and Eastern Frankish Empires, Great Moravia,the Croats and the Serbs[53] forming several unsuccessfulalliances and changing sides. In August 863 there wasa period of 40 days of earthquakes and there was a leanyear, which caused famine throughout the country. Tocap it all, there was an incursion of locusts.

3.4.1 Christianization

See also: Christianization of Bulgaria

In 864 the Byzantines under Michael III invaded Bul-garia on suspicions that Khan Boris I prepared to acceptChristianity in accordance with the Western rites. Uponthe news of the invasion, Boris I started negotiations forpeace.[54] The Byzantines returned some lands in Mace-donia and their single demand was that he accept Chris-tianity from Constantinople rather than Rome. KhanBoris I agreed to that term and was baptised in September865 assuming the name of his godfather, Byzantine Em-peror Michael, and became Boris-Mihail.[55] The pagan

title "Khan" was abolished and the title "Knyaz" assumedin its place. The reason for the conversion to Christianity,however, was not the Byzantine invasion. The Bulgarianruler was indeed a man of vision and he foresaw that theintroduction of a single religion would complete the con-solidation of the emerging Bulgarian nation, which wasstill divided on a religious basis. He also knew that hisstate was not fully respected by Christian Europe and itstreaties could have been ignored by other signatories onreligious basis.Тhe Byzantines’ goal was to achieve with peace what theywere unable to after two centuries of warfare: to slowlyabsorb Bulgaria through the Christian religion and turnit into a satellite state, as naturally, the highest posts inthe newly founded Bulgarian Church were to be held byByzantines who preached in the Greek language. KnyazBoris I was well aware of that fact and after Constantino-ple refused to grant autonomy of the Bulgarian Churchin 866, he sent a delegation to Rome declaring his de-sire to accept Christianity in accordance with the West-ern rites alongwith 115 questions to PopeNicolas I.[56][57]The Bulgarian ruler desired to take advantage of the ri-valry between the Churches of Rome and Constantino-ple as his main goal was the establishment of an inde-pendent Bulgarian Church in order to prevent both theByzantines and the Catholics from exerting influence inhis lands through religion. The Pope’s detailed answersto Boris’ questions were delivered by two bishops head-ing a mission whose purpose was to facilitate the conver-sion of the Bulgarian people. However, Nicolas I and hissuccessor Pope Adrian II also refused to recognize an au-tonomous Bulgarian Church, which cooled the relationsbetween the two sides, but Bulgaria’s shift towards Romemade the Byzantines much more conciliatory. In 870,at the Fourth Council of Constantinople, the BulgarianChurch was recognized as an Autonomous Eastern Or-thodox Church under the supreme direction of the Patri-arch of Constantinople. It was the first Church officiallyaccepted, apart from the Churches of Rome and Con-stantinople. Eventually, in 893, the Old Bulgarian lan-guage became the third official language, recognized bythe Churches and used during services and in Christianliterature.After the adoption of Christianity the country preservedmany institutions from the pagan state of the Bulgars.[58]

3.4.2 Creation of the Slavic Writing System

Although the Bulgarian Knyaz succeeded in securing anautonomous Church, its higher clergy and theologicalbooks were still Greek, which impeded the efforts to con-vert the populace to the new religion. Between 860 and863 the Byzantine monks of Greek origin[59] Saint Cyriland Saint Methodius created the Glagolitic alphabet, thefirst Slavic alphabet by order of the Byzantine Emperor,who aimed to convert Great Moravia to Orthodox Chris-tianity. However, these attempts failed and in 886 their

3.5 The Golden Age 5

Old Bulgarian Alphabet

disciples Clement of Ohrid, Naum of Preslav and Ange-larius, who were banished from Great Moravia, reachedBulgaria and were warmly welcomed by Boris I. The Bul-garian Knyaz commissioned the creation of two theolog-ical academies to be headed by the disciples where thefuture Bulgarian clergy was to be instructed in the localvernacular. Clement was sent to Ohrid[60] in Southwest-ern Bulgaria, where he taught 3,500 pupils between 886and 893. Naum established the literary school in the cap-ital Pliska, moved later to the new capital Preslav. Dur-ing the Council of Preslav in 893, Bulgaria adopted theGlagolitic alphabet and Old Church Slavonic (Old Bul-garian) language as official language of the church andstate, and expelled the Byzantine clergy. In the early 10thcentury the Cyrillic script was created at the Preslav Lit-erary School.

3.5 The Golden Age

Main article: Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian cultureSee also: Simeon I of Bulgaria and Battle of Achelous(917)By the late 9th and the beginning of the 10th century,Bulgaria extended to Epirus and Thessaly in the South,Bosnia in the West and controlled the whole of present-day Romania and Eastern Hungary to the North. TheSerbian state came into existence in the mid-9th cen-tury as a response to the Bulgarian expansion West of theMorava.[61] Switching loyalties between Bulgaria and theByzantines, the Serb rulers successfully resisted severalBulgarian invasions until 924 AD, when it was fully sub-ordinated under the general and possibly Count of Sofia

Structure of the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th to 10thcentury

Marmais. Under Tsar Simeon I (Simeon the Great), whowas educated in Constantinople, Bulgaria became againa serious threat to the Byzantine Empire and reachedits greatest territorial extension.[62] Simeon I hoped totake Constantinople and fought a series of wars with theByzantines throughout his long reign (893–927). Theborder close to the end of his rule reached the North-ern limits of Attica in the South. Simeon I styled himself“Emperor (Tsar) of the Bulgarians and Autocrat of theGreeks”, a title which was recognized by the Pope, butnot by the Byzantine Emperor nor the Ecumenical Patri-arch of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He was recognized“Emperor (Tsar) of the Bulgarians” by the Byzantine Em-peror and the Patriarch only at the end of his rule.

Simeon sends envoys to the Fatimid Caliph to form an allianceagainst the Byzantines.

Between 894 and 896 he defeated the Byzantines andtheir allies the Magyars[63] in the “Trade War”, so-calledbecause the pretext of the war was the shifting of theBulgarian market from Constantinople to Thessaloniki(Solun).[64][65] In the decisive battle of Bulgarophygon,the Byzantine army was routed,[66] and the war endedfavourably for Bulgaria, though the peace was often vi-olated by Simeon I.[67] In 904 he captured Solun, whichwas previously looted by the Arabs, and returned it tothe Byzantines only after Bulgaria received all Slavic-

6 3 HISTORY

populated areas in Macedonia and 20 fortresses in Al-bania, including the important town Drach.[68]

After the unrest in the Byzantine Empire following thedeath of Emperor Alexander in 913, Simeon I invadedByzantine Thrace, but he was persuaded to stop in re-turn for official recognition of his Imperial title and mar-riage of his daughter to the infant Emperor ConstantineVII.[69][70] Simeon I was supposed to become regent ofthe Emperor and to temporarily rule the Byzantine Em-pire. However, after a plot in the Byzantine court, Em-press Zoe, mother of Constantine VII, rejected the mar-riage and Simeon’s title, and both sides prepared for adecisive battle. By 917 Simeon I broke every attemptof the Empire to form an alliance with the Magyars, thePechenegs, and the Serbs, and the Byzantines were forcedto fight alone. On 20 August the two armies clashed atAnchialus in one of the greatest battles in the MiddleAges.[71] The Byzantines suffered an unprecedented de-feat, leaving 70,000 killed on the battlefield; the pursu-ing Bulgarian forces defeated the remainder of the en-emy armies at Katasyrtai.[72] Constantinople was saved bya Serb attack from the West; the Serbs were thoroughlydefeated, but their attack allowed the Byzantine admiraland later Emperor Romanos Lakepanos to prepare thedefense of the city. In the following decade the Bulgari-ans gained control of the whole Balkan peninsula with theexception of Constantinople and Peloponnese.In a Croatian–Bulgarian battle of 926, often called theBattle of the Bosnian Highlands, Duke Alogobotur at-tacked Croatia. The Croatian forces under the leadershipof their King Tomislav completely devastated the Bulgar-ian army and stopped Simeon’s expansion westwards.[73]

3.6 Decline

See also: Sviatoslav’s invasion of BulgariaAfter Simeon’s death in 927, Bulgarian power slowly de-

The Bulgarian Empire under Samuil[64]

clined. In a peace treaty the same year, the Byzantinesofficially recognized the Imperial title of his son Peter I

and the Bulgarian Patriarchate. Peace with Byzantium,however, did not bring prosperity to Bulgaria. From thebeginning of his rule, Peter faced internal problems andunrest with his brothers, and in the 930s he was forcedto recognize the independence of Rascia.[74] The biggestblow came from the North: between 934 and 965 thecountry suffered five Magyar invasions.[75] In 944 Bul-garia was attacked by the Pechenegs, who looted thenortheastern regions of the Empire. Under Peter I andBoris II the country was divided by the egalitarian reli-gious heresy of the Bogomils.[76]

In 968 the country was attacked by the Kievan Rus,whose leader Svyatoslav I took Preslav[77] and establishedhis capital at Preslavets.[78] Three years later, Byzan-tine Emperor John I Tzimiskes intervened in the strug-gle and defeated Svyatoslav at Dorostolon. Boris II wascaptured and ritually divested of his imperial title inConstantinople,[79] and eastern Bulgaria was proclaimeda Byzantine protectorate.

3.7 Fall

See also: Samuil of Bulgaria and Battle of Kleidion

After the Byzantine takeover, the lands to the west of theIskar River remained in Bulgarian hands, and resistanceagainst the Byzantines was headed by the Comitopulibrothers. By 976, the fourth brother, Samuil, concen-trated all power in his hands after the deaths of his eldestbrother. When the rightful heir to the throne, Roman,escaped from captivity in Constantinople, he was recog-nized as Emperor by Samuil in Vidin,[80] and the latterremained the chief commander of the Bulgarian army. Abrilliant general and good politician, he managed to turnthe fortunes to the Bulgarians. The new Byzantine Em-peror Basil II was decisively defeated in the battle of theGates of Trajan in 986 and barely escaped.[81][82] Fiveyears later he eliminated the Serbian state of Rascia.[83]In 997, following the death of Roman, the last heir ofthe Krum dynasty, Samuil was proclaimed Emperor ofBulgaria.[84] After 1001, however, the war turned in favorof the Byzantines, who captured the old capitals of Pliskaand Preslav, and beginning in 1004 launched annual cam-paigns against Bulgaria. The Byzantines further benefitedfrom a war between Bulgaria and the newly establishedKingdom of Hungary in 1003. The Byzantine victoriesat Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bul-garian army, and in annual campaigns, Basil methodi-cally reduced the Bulgarian strongholds. Eventually, atthe Battle of Kleidion in 1014, the Bulgarians were com-pletely defeated.[10] The Bulgarian army was captured; itis said that 99 out of every 100menwere blinded, with theremaining hundredth man left with one eye so as to leadhis compatriots home (earning Basil the moniker “Bul-garoktonos”, the Bulgar Killer). When Tsar Samuil sawthe broken remains of his army, he suffered a heart attackand died. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had sur-

4.2 Ceramics 7

rendered and the First Bulgarian Empire was abolished.

4 Culture

The Madara Rider (c. 710), large rock relief carved on theMadara Plateau east of Shumen, northeast Bulgaria.

The Great Basilica in Pliska

The cultural heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire isusually defined in Bulgarian historiography as the Pliska-Preslav culture, named after the first two capitals, Pliskaand Preslav, where most of the surviving monumentsare concentrated. Many monuments of that period havebeen found around Madara, Shumen, Novi Pazar, thevillage of Han Krum in north-eastern Bulgaria, as wellin the territory of modern Romania, where Romanianarchaeologists called it the "Dridu culture"[85] Remainsleft by the First Empire have also been discovered insouthern Bessarabia, now divided between Ukraine andMoldova.[86]

4.1 Architecture

The most important feature of the early Bulgarian ar-chitecture was monumental construction known to theRomans but not used in the contemporary Byzantine Em-pire. There were two main types of construction em-ployed in the building of Pliska. For the first one the

construction materials were timber and bricks. The sec-ond type was construction of defensive walls using largecarved limestone blocks put together with plaster. Thesame method was used in the construction of the fortressof Preslav, the military camp at Han Krum, the hunt-ing palace in Madara, and in the fortress on the islandof Păcuiul lui Soare.[87] Fortresses were mainly situatedin the plains, unlike those constructed during the SecondBulgarian Empire.After the adoption of Christianity in 864, intensive con-struction of churches and monasteries began through-out the Empire, including the Great Basilica of Pliska,which was one of the biggest structures of the time withits length of 99 m, and the splendid Golden Church inPreslav. Most of the churches built during that period hadthree naves. The Bulgarian capital was also famous forthe ceramics that adorned its public and religious build-ings. Beautiful icons and church altars were made of spe-cial ceramic tiles. There were numerous goldsmith andsilversmith workshops producing fine jewellery.

4.2 Ceramics

Ceramic icon of St. Theodore, Preslav, c. 900, National Archae-ological Museum, Sofia

One of themost famous features of the Pliska-Preslav cul-ture was the decoration of palaces and churches with lac-quered ceramic plates, which may indicate a Near East-ern (Arabic) influence. The ceramic plates were paintedmostly with geometric or vegetative elements, while a fewfeature depictions of saints. Among the most notable ofthose is the well-preserved, 20-tile Icon of St Theodore,found in the ruins of the Saint Panteleimon Monasteryin the outskirts of Preslav.[88] The tiles were either flat

8 6 SEE ALSO

or tubular and were arranged to form friezes of repeat-ing motifs. Due to the destruction of Pliska and Preslav,only fragments and details of the ceramic decoration havesurvived. Most finds of tiles, as well as archaeologicalevidence of the workshops producing them, come fromPreslav and the surrounding region (chiefly the village ofPatleina).[89]

The main sources for Bulgarian domestic use-orientedpottery are the necropoleis at Novi Pazar, Devnya, andVarna. The vessels were made with a potter’s wheel, un-like Slavic practice. Two-story ovens were used for theannealing of the pottery. The shape and decoration ofthe early Bulgarian pottery was similar to that found innorthern Caucasus, the Crimea, and the shores of the Seaof Azov.

4.3 Literature

Culture of the First Bulgarian Empire

Bulgarian literature is the oldest Slavic literature. Mis-sionaries from Thessalonica, Cyril and Methodius, de-vised the Glagolitic alphabet, which was adopted in theBulgarian Empire around 886. The alphabet and the OldBulgarian language gave rise to a rich literary and culturalactivity centered around the Preslav and Ohrid Schools,established by order of Boris I in 886. In the beginningof the 10th century, a new alphabet — the Cyrillic script- was developed on the basis of Greek and Glagolitic cur-sive at the Preslav Literary School. According to an alter-native theory, the alphabet was devised at the Ohrid Liter-ary School by Saint Clement ofOhrid, a Bulgarian scholarand disciple of Cyril and Methodius. A pious monk andhermit, St. Ivan of Rila (Ivan Rilski, 876–946), becamethe patron saint of Bulgaria.During his reign Simeon gathered many scholars in hiscourt who translated an enormous number of booksfrom Greek and wrote many new works. Among themost prominent figures were Constantine of Preslav, JohnExarch, and Chernorizets Hrabar, who is believed by

some historians to have been Simeon himself. Cher-norizets Hrabar wrote his popular work An Account ofLetters, Clement of Ohrid worked on translations fromGreek and is credited with several important religiousbooks, John Exarch wrote his Shestodnev and translatedOn Orthodox Christianity by John of Damascus, Naumof Preslav also had a significant contribution. Bulgar-ian scholars and works influenced most of the Slavicworld, spreading Old Church Slavonic and the Cyrillicand Glagolithic alphabets to Kievan Rus’, medieval Ser-bia, and medieval Croatia, as well as to non-Slavic me-dieval Wallachia and Moldavia.

5 Religion

Depiction in the Manases Chronicle of baptism of Boris I

After the creation of the Bulgarian state, the Bulgars andthe Slavs continued to practice their indigenous religions.The Bulgar religion was monotheistic, and they believedin Tangra, the God of the Sky. When Omurtag and LeoV the Armenian concluded a peace treaty in 815, theByzantine Emperor had to make an oath according to theBulgarian traditions. Byzantine historians recorded thatthe “most Christian” ruler had to perform different paganrites including cutting dogs and using them as witnessesfor his oath.[90] The Slavs worshiped numerous deities,and their supreme god was Perun. There is evidence thatChristianity remained widespread in Bulgaria during thefirst 150 years of its existence. In the mid-9th century,Boris I decided to adopt Christianity in order to firmlyunite the population of the country.

6 See also

• Bulgars

• Slavs

• Thracians

• Kingdom of Balhara

9

• Old Great Bulgaria

• Bulgarian Orthodox Church

7 Notes• a. [a] Bulgaria is usually accepted to have been estab-lished in 681 when the Byzantine Empire acknowl-edged the country as a sovereign state in a treaty.However, only some Bulgarian historians maintaina fringe view that Bulgaria existed since 632 withthe creation of Old Great Bulgaria by Khan Kubratin today Ukraine.

8 Footnotes[1] Jean W Sedlar, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages,

1000-1500, University of Washington Press, 2011, ISBN9780295800646, p. 424

[2] The barbarian conversion: from paganism to Christianity,Richard A. Fletcher, University of California Press, 1999,ISBN 0-520-21859-0, p. 338

[3] A history of the Greek language: from its origins tothe present, Francisco Rodríguez Adrados, BRILL, 2005,ISBN 90-04-12835-2, p. 265.

[4] Greek East and Latin West: the church, AD 681-1071, StVladimir’s Seminary Press, 2007, ISBN 0-88141-320-8,p. 180.

[5] The early medieval Balkans: a critical survey from thesixth to the late twelfth century, John Van Antwerp Fine,University of Michigan Press, 1991, ISBN 0-472-08149-7, p. 106.

[6] The other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars,Khazars, and Cumans, Florin Curta, Roman Kovalev,BRILL, 2008, ISBN 90-04-16389-1, pp. 350-351.

[7] “Atlas of Europe in the Middle Ages”, Ostrovski, Rome,1998, page 64

[8] “Atlas of Europe in the Middle Ages”, Ostrovski, Rome,1998, page 66

[9] “Atlas of Europe in the Middle Ages”, Ostrovski, Rome,1998, page 69

[10] Angold 1997

[11] Norwich 1998

[12] Schenker, Alexander (1995). The Dawn of Slavic. YaleUniversity Press. pp. 185–186, 189–190.

[13] BenjaminW. Fortson. Indo-European Language and Cul-ture: An Introduction, p. 374

[14] An historical geography of Europe, 450 B.C.-A.D. 1330,Norman John, CUP Archive, 1977, ISBN 0-521-29126-7,p. 179. Google Books. 28 January 1977. Retrieved 2011-11-13.

[15] The early medieval Balkans: a critical survey from the sixthto the late twelfth century, John Van Antwerp Fine, Univer-sity of Michigan Press, 1991, ISBN 0-472-08149-7 p. 68.Google Books. 15 May 1991. Retrieved 2011-11-13.

[16] “Formation of the Bulgarian Nation, Academician Dim-itŭr Simeonov Angelov, Summary, Sofia-Press, 1978”.Kroraina.com. Retrieved 2011-11-13.

[17] L. Ivanov. Essential History of Bulgaria in Seven Pages.Sofia, 2007.

[18] Who are the Macedonians? Hugh Poulton, C. Hurst &Co. Publishers, 2000, ISBN 1-85065-534-0, pp. 19-20.

[19] Runciman, S. A History of the First Bulgarian Empire, p.27

[20] Vladimirov, G. Danube Bulgaria and Volga Bulgaria, Or-bel, 2005

[21] John V. A. Fine, “The Late Medieval Balkans: A CriticalSurvey from the Late Twelfth Century”, 1994, p.55

[22] R. J. Crampton, “A concise history of Bulgaria”, 2005,p.21

[23] Bulgaria, Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-19-820514-7, p. 14.

[24] Dennis Sinor, The Cambridge history of early Inner Asia,Volume 1, Cambridge University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-521-24304-1, ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9, p.62

[25] Christopher I. Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road: a his-tory of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age, PrincetonUniversity Press, 2009, ISBN 0-691-13589-4, ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2, p.117

[26] Whittow, M. The making of Byzantium, 600-1025, Uni-versity of California press, Los Angeles, p. 272

[27] Whittow, M. The making of Byzantium, 600-1025, Uni-versity of California press, Los Angeles, p. 279

[28] Stephenson, P. Byzantium’s Balkan frontier, p. 18

[29] Sophoulis, Panos (2011). Byzantium and Bulgaria, 775-831. Brill. p. 89. ISBN 9789004206960.

[30] The Other Europe in the Middle ages: Avars, Bulgars,Khazars, and Cumans, Florin Curta, BRILL, 2008, ISBN9004163891, p. 351.

[31] Васил Н. Златарски. История на Първото българскоЦарство. Епоха на хуно-българското надмощие с.188.

[32] http://www.promacedonia.org/en/sr/sr_1_2.htm, p.28,line 15

[33] A Concise History of Bulgaria, R. J. Crampton, Cam-bridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521616379, pp. 8-9.

[34] The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 1, c. 500- c. 700, Paul Fouracre, Cambridge University Press,2005, ISBN 0521362911, p. 301.

10 8 FOOTNOTES

[35] Мутафчиев, П. Гюзелев. В, История на българскиянарод 681-1323. Българска Академия на науките,1986. стр. 106-108.

[36] Theophanes, p. 359

[37] Pauli Historia Langobardorum VI.31, MGH SS rer LangI, p. 175

[38] Theophanes, p. 397

[39] Nicephorus, p. 69

[40] Theophanes, p. 433

[41] Theophanes, р. 447–448

[42] Theophanes, p. 467

[43] Classen, J. (ed.) (1841) Theophanes Chronographia,Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ (Bonn) (“Theo-phanes”) Vol, I, 6301/802, pp. 752-3

[44] Theophanes, р. 492

[45] Martindale, J. R. Prosopography of the Byzantine EmpireI: (641-867), 2001

[46] Scriptor incertus, p. 337–339

[47] Scriptor incer., p. 346–347

[48] Scriptor incert., p. 347–348

[49] Annales Laurissenses minores, s. an. 814

[50] Theophanes Continuatus II, 17-18, pp. 64-6

[51] Bekker, Constantini Porphyrogeniti De Thematibus etDe Administrando Imperio, Corpus Scriptorum HistoriæByzantinæ, 1st ed., Bonn, 1840, pp. 154-155

[52] Bekker, Constantini Porphyrogeniti De Thematibus etDe Administrando Imperio, Corpus Scriptorum HistoriæByzantinæ, 1st ed., Bonn, 1840, p. 154

[53] Konstantinos Porphyrogenitos De Administrando Imperio32, p. 154

[54] Georgius Monachus Continuatus, p. 824

[55] Georgius Monachus Continuatus, Logomete

[56] Johannes VIII Papa. Epistolae, p. 159

[57] Anastasius Bibliothecarius, pp. 1373—4

[58] Biliarsky 2011, p. 13

[59] Barford, P. M. (2001). The Early Slavs. Ithaca, NewYork: Cornell University Press

[60] Vita S. démentis

[61] The Early Medieval Balkans. A Critical Survey from the6th to the Late 12th Century. J V A Fine, Jr. Pg 110 they(the Bulgarians) became a threat to the Serbs..; presumablythis danger proved to be a catalyst in uniting of various Ser-bian tribes to oppose it. The Byzantines were....interested inbuilding a stronger Serbia

[62] Енциклопедия България, Академично издателство"Марин Дринов", 1988

[63] Fine (1991), p. 139

[64] Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.

[65] Fine (1991), p. 137

[66] Златарски, История на Първото българско царство, с.316.

[67] Златарски, История на Първото българско царство, с.321.

[68] Бакалов, История на България, "Симеон І Велики"

[69] Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p.157

[70] Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, pp. 144–148

[71] Dimitrov, Bulgaria: illustrated history.

[72] De Boor, Сarl Gothard (1888). Vita Euthymii. Berlin:Reimer, p. 214

[73] Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, “Simeon I Veliki”

[74] Constantine Porphyrogennetus. pp. 158—9

[75] Theophanes Continuatus, pp. 462—3,480

[76] Nicolaus Papa. Response, p. 1015

[77] Cedrenus: II, p. 383

[78] Chronique dite de Nestor, pp. 53—4

[79] Leo Diaconus, pp. 158-9

[80] Prokić, p. 28

[81] Skylitzes, pp. 436–438

[82] Гильфердинг, А (1868). Письма об истории сербов иболгар (in Russian), p. 209.

[83] Шишић, p. 331

[84] Розен, p. 43

[85] "История на българите: изкривявания ифалшификации", Димитър Овчаров, сборник, ч.1, София, "ТанНакРа", стр. 170-200

[86] Чеботаренко, Г. Ф. Материалы к археологическойкарте памятников VIII-Х вв. южной части Пруто-Днестровского междуречья//Далекое прошлоеМолдавии, Кишинев, 1969, с. 224-230

[87] Р. Diaconu, D. Vilceanu, Pácuiul lui Soare. Cetateabizantina, I, Bucureşti, 1972

[88] Kazhdan 1991, p. 335

[89] Kazhdan 1991, pp. 335, 2084–2085

[90] Andreev, J. The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars (Balgarskitehanove i tsare, Българските ханове и царе), VelikoTarnovo, 1996, pp. 57-58, ISBN 954-427-216-X

11

9 References

• Andreev, Jordan; Milcho Lalkov (1996). The Bul-garian Khans and Tsars (in Bulgarian). Abagar.ISBN 954-427-216-X.

• Zlatarski, Vasil N. (1918). Medieval History of theBulgarian State, Vol I: History of the First Bulgar-ian Empire, Part I: Age of Hunn-Bulgar Domina-tion (679–852) (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Science andArts Publishers, 2nd Edition (Petar Petrov, Ed.),Zahari Stoyanov Publishers, 4th Edition, 2006.ISBN 954-739-928-4. (История на българскатадържава през средните векове. Том I., Историяна Първото българско царство. Част I. Епоха нахуно-българското надмощие (679–852), София1918)

• Zlatarski, Vasil N. (1927). Medieval History of theBulgarian State, Vol I: History of the First Bulgar-ian Empire, Part II: From Slavianization to the Fallof the First Bulgarian Empire (852–1018) (in Bul-garian). Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,2002. (История на българската държава презсредните векове. Том I. История на Първотобългарско царство. Част II. От славянизациятана държавата до падането на Първото царство(852–1018)], София 1927)

• Бакалов, Георги; Милен Куманов (2003).Електронна издание – История на България(in Bulgarian). София: Труд, Сирма. ISBN954528613X.

• Цанев, Стефан (2006). Български хроники (inBulgarian). София, Пловдив: Труд, Жанет 45.ISBN 954-528-610-5.

• Делев, Петър; Валери Кацунов; Пламен Митев;Евгения Калинова; Искра Баева; Боян Добрев(2006). История и цивилизация за 11. клас (inBulgarian). Труд, Сирма.

• Българите и България (in Bulgarian).Министерство на външните работи на България,Труд, Сирма. 2005.

• Fine, Jr., John V.A. (1991). The Early MedievalBalkans. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.ISBN 978-0-472-08149-3.

• Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionaryof Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6

• Runciman, Steven (1930). AHistory of the First Bul-garian Empire. G. Bell & Sons, London.

• Cawley, Charles Medieval Lands, Foundation forMedieval Genealogy, 2006–2007

• Biliarsky, Ivan (2011). Word and Power in Mediae-val Bulgaria. Leiden, Boston: Brill. p. 582. ISBN9789004191457.

10 External links• Media related to First Bulgarian Empire at Wikime-dia Commons

12 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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14 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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