CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION The Ministry of Civil Aviation of the Government of India (MCA) is the nodal

Ministry responsible for the formulation of national policies and programmes for

development and regulation of Civil Aviation and for devising and implementing

schemes for the orderly growth and expansion of civil air transport. Its functions

also extend to overseeing airport facilities, air traffic services and carriage of

passengers and goods by air. The Ministry also administers implementation of the

1934 Aircraft Act and is administratively responsible for the Commission of

Railways Safety.

1.2 STRUCTURE OF MCA

FIGURE 1.1: CIVIL AVITION SET UP IN INDIA

1

Ministry of Civil

Aviation

Director General of Civil

Aviation

Civil Aviation

Department

Flying Clubs

Bureau of Civil

Aviation Security

Airports Authority of India

Private Airport

s

Airlines

Air India

Air TaxiPrivate

Airlines

Indira Gandhi Rastriya

Uran Academy

1.2.1 DGCA

The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is the Indian

governmental regulatory body for civil aviation under the Ministry of Civil

Aviation. This directorate investigates aviation accidents and incidents. It is

headquartered along Sri Aurobindo Marg, opposite Safdarjung Airport,

in New Delhi. Endeavour to promote safe and efficient Air Transportation

through regulation and proactive safety oversight system.

1.2.2 BCAS

The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS) is an agency of the Ministry

of Civil Aviation of India. Its head office is on the first through third floors

of the A Wing of the Janpath Bhawan along Janpath Road in New Delhi. The

agency has four regional offices, located at Indira Gandhi

Airport in Delhi, Chhatrapati Shivaji International

Airport in Mumbai, Chennai International Airport in Chennai, and Netaji

Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport in Kolkata.

1.2.3 AAI

The Airports Authority of India (AAI) under the Ministry of Civil Aviation

is responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil

aviation infrastructure in India. It provides Air traffic management (ATM)

services over Indian airspace and adjoining oceanic areas.

1.2.4 PRIVATE AIRPORTS

The airports in India are categories as Custom, Domestic, International,

Defence, Future and Privates. Private Airports are used for specific purpose.

List of private airports in India are:

Sri Sathya Sai Airport, Andhra Pradesh

OP Jindal Airport, Chhattisgarh

Mehsana Airport, Gujarat

Vidyanagar Airport, Karnataka

2

Amravati Airport, Shirpur Airport, Baramati Airport, Gondia Airport,

Maharashtra

Savitri Jindal Airport, Barbil Tonto Aerodrome, Jajpur Airstrip,

Kendujhar Airstrip, Lanjigarh Airstrip, Phulbani Airstrip, Rourkela

Airport, Odisha etc.

1.2.5 AIR LINES

The total fleet size of commercial airlines in India was 371 by 20 February

2013. In 1994, the Air Corporation Act of 1953 was repealed with a view to

remove monopoly of air corporations on scheduled services, enable private

airlines to operate scheduled service, convert Indian Airlines and Air India to

limited companies and enable private participation in the national

carriers. Since 1990 private airline companies were allowed to operate air

taxi services, resulting in the establishment of Jet Airways and Air Sahara.

These changes in the Indian aviation policies resulted in the increase of the

share of private airline operators in domestic passenger carriage to 68.5% in

2005 from a meagre 0.4% in 1991

1.2.6 IGRUA

Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (IGRUA) is a premier pilot

training institute of India. It’s an autonomous institution and comes

under Ministry of Civil Aviation, Government of India. Course offered are :

Commercial Pilot License (CPL), Simulator training.

1.3 FUNCTION Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and

domestic airports and civil enclaves.

Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the

territorial limits of the country, as accepted by ICAO.

Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals.

Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and

domestic airports.

3

Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the passenger

terminals at airports.

Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons,

Taxiway etc.

Provision of visual aids.

Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR,

DME, Radar etc.

1.4 AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIAAirports Authority of India (AAI) was build by an Act of Parliament and came

into being on 1st April, 1995 by merging erstwhile National Airports Authority

and International Airports Authority of India.AAI at various airports handled

about 5 lakhs aircraft movements (4 lakhs domestic and 1 lakh international); 40

million passengers (26 million domestic and 14 million international) and 9 lakh

tonnes of cargo (3 lakh domestic and 6 lakh international). AAI manages 126

airports, which include 11 international airports, 89 domestic airports and 26 civil

enclaves at Defence airfields.

1.5 BACKGROUNDThe Government of India constituted the International Airports Authority of India

(IAAI) in 1972 to manage the nation's international airports while the National

Airports Authority (NAA) was constituted in 1986 to look after domestic

airports. The organisations were merged in April 1995 by an Act of Parliament

and was named as Airports Authority of India (AAI). This new organisation was

to be responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation

infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country.

4

1.6 OPERATIONS

1.6.6 PASSENGER FACILITIES

Construction, modification & management of passenger terminals,

development & management of cargo terminals, development & maintenance

of apron infrastructure including runways, parallel taxiways, apron etc.

Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes

provision of DVOR / DME, ILS, ATC radars, visual aids etc., provision of air

traffic services, provision of passenger facilities and related amenities at its

terminals thereby ensuring safe and secure operations of aircraft, passenger

and cargo in the country.

1.6.7 AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES

In tune with its global approach to modernise Air Traffic Control (ATC)

infrastructure for seamless navigation across state and regional boundaries,

AAI is upgrading to satellite based Communication, Navigation, Surveillance

(CNS) and Air Traffic Management. A number of co-operation agreements

and memoranda of co-operation have been signed with the Federal Aviation

Administration, US Trade & Development Agency, European Union, Air

Services Australia and the French Government Co-operative Projects and

Studies initiated to gain from their experience.

1.6.8 IT IMPLEMENTATION

AAI website is a website giving a host of information about the organization

besides domestic and international flight schedules and such other

information of interest to the public in general and passengers in particular.

1.6.9 HRD TRAINING

AAI has a number of training establishments, viz. NIAMAR in Delhi, CATC

in Allahabad, Fire Training Centres at Delhi & Kolkata for in-house training

of its engineers, Air Traffic Controllers, Rescue & Fire Fighting personnel

etc. NIAMAR & CATC are members of ICAO TRAINER programme under

5

which they share Standard Training Packages (STP) from a central pool for

imparting training on various subjects.

1.6.10REVENU

Most of AAI's revenue is generated from landing/parking fees and fees

collected by providing CNS & ATC services to aircraft over the

Indian airspace.

1.7 AAI, JAIPURJaipur Airport (IATA: JAI, ICAO: VIJP) is in the southern suburb of Sanganer,

13 km from Jaipur, the capital of the Indian state of Rajasthan.

Jaipur airport is the only international airport in the state of Rajasthan. It was

granted the status of international airport on 29 December 2005. The

civil apron can accommodate 14 A320 aircraft and the new terminal building can

handle up to 1000 passengers at a time. There are plans to extend the runway to

12,000 ft (3,658 m) and expand the terminal building to accommodate 1,000

passengers per hour. The runway is now being extended to 11,500 ft (3,505 m).

This extension will help to land big planes such as Boeing 747 and Airbus A380.

Thus, the air traffic will be more and the international destinations will be also

more. This project will be completed on July 2015.

1.8 STRUCTURE OF AAI, JAIPURThe new domestic terminal building at Jaipur Airport was inaugurated on 1 July

2009.The new terminal has an area of 22,950 sqm, is made of glass and steel

structure having modern passenger friendly facilities such as central heating

system, central air conditioning, inline x-ray baggage inspection system integrated

with the departure conveyor system, inclined arrival baggage claim

carousels, escalators, public address system, flight information display

system (FIDS), CCTV for surveillance, airport check-in counters with Common

Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE), car parking, etc. The International Terminal

Building has peak hour passenger handling capacity of 500 passengers and annual

handling capacity of 400,000.The entrance gate , made

6

of sandstone and Dholpur stones along with Rajasthani paintings on the walls,

give tourists a glimpse of the Rajasthani culture. Two fountains on both sides of

the terminal, dotted with palm trees, maintain normal temperature within the

airport premises. The transparent side walls of the building have adjustable shades

that control the passage of sunlight into the airport premises, thereby cutting down

heavily on electricity bills.

FIGURE 1.2: JAIPUR AIRPORT FIGURE 1. 3:

TERMINAL-2,JAIPUR AIRPORT

The Airlines operating at this airport are: -

(a) International : Indian , Air Arabia, & Air India Express

(b) Domestic: Indian, Jet Airways, Jet lite, Indigo, Kingfisher, Go Air, Spice Jet.

TABLE NO. 1: TECHNICAL DATA OF THE AIRPORT

AERODROME REFERENCE CODE 4D

ELEVATION 1263.10 Feet (385 meter)

ARP COORDINATES 26°49′26.3″N

075°48′′12.5″E

MAIN RWY ORIENTATION 27/09

RWY DIMENSION 2797.05m X 45m

APRON DIMENSION 230m X 196 m

PARKING BAYS

TABLE NO. 2: GENERAL INFORMATION OF AIRPORT

7

AIRPORT NAME JAIPUR AIRPORT,JAIPUR

AIRPORT TYPE CIVIL AERODROME

OPERATOR AIRPORT AUTHORITY OF INDIA

ADDRESS OIC,AAI,JAIPUR AIRPORT,JAIPUR-

302029

NAME & DESGINATION OF

OPERATOR INCHARGE

RAMA GUPTA

REGION NORTHERN REGION

RHQ NEW DELHI

NATURE OF STATION NON TENURE

TABLE NO. 3: RUNWAY

DIRECTION LENGTH SURFACE

09/27 9,177ft CONCRETE/ASPHALT

15/33 5,233ft ASPHALT

TABLE NO. 4: TERMINALS, AIRLINES & DESTINATION

AIRLINES DESTINATION TERMINAL

AIR ARABIA SHARJAH 2

AIR COSTABANGALORE,CHENNAI,HYDERABAD,VISAKHAPATNA

M2

AIR INDIA MUMBAI,DELHI 2

AIR INDIA

EXPRESS

DUBAI 2

8

ETIHAD

AIRWAYSABU DHABI 2

GOAIR CHENNAI, MUMBAI 2

INDIGOAHMEDABAD, BANGALORE, CHENNAI, GUWAHATI,

HYDERABAD, KOCHI, KOLKATA, MUMBAI, INDORE2

JET

AIRWAYS

AHMEDABAD, CHANDIGARH, DELHI, MUMBAI,

LUCKNOW, INDORE2

JETKONNECT DELHI, INDORE, PUNE 2

OMAN AIR MUSCAT 2

SPICEJET DELHI 2

1.9 Conclusion

9

CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION-BOSCH

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Robert Bosch GmbH, or Bosch is a German multinational engineering and electronics company headquartered in Gerlingen, near Stuttgart, Germany. It is the world's largest supplier of automotive components measured by 2011 revenues. The company was founded by Robert Bosch in Stuttgart in 1886.

Bosch's core products are automotive components (including brakes, controls, electrical drives, electronics, fuel systems, generators, starter motors and steering systems), industrial products (including drives and controls, packaging technology and consumer goods) and building products (including household appliances, power tools, security systems and thermotechnology).

Bosch has more than 350 subsidiaries across over 60 countries and its products are sold in around 150 countries.[4] Bosch employs around 306,000 people and had revenues of approximately €52.5 billion in 2012. In 2012 it invested around €4.8 billion in research and development and applied for around 4,800 patents worldwide.[4]In 2009 Bosch was the leader in terms of numbers of patents at the German Patent and Trade Mark Office (GPTO) with 3,213 patents.

However, Bosch continued to extend its international footprint through company acquisitions and investments in new plants, and will continue along with this path in 2013. For example, the Bosch Group is planning to set up a manufacturing site for automotive windshield-wiper systems near Belgrade, Serbia. By 2019 some 70 million euros will be invested. Construction work was set to begin in early 2012, with production due to commence at the start of 2013. Initially, some 60 associates will work in manufacturing operations with a floor area of around 22,000 square meters. By 2019 the number of associates is set to rise to some 620. Its objectives are to achieve a better increase in sales than in 2012 and to improve result significantly.[5]

Robert Bosch GmbH is privately owned, and 92% of its share capital is held by Robert Bosch Stiftung GmbH, a charitable foundation.[4] The majority of voting rights are held by Robert Bosch Industrietreuhand KG, an industrial trust.[4] The remaining shares are held by the Bosch family and by Robert Bosch GmbH.[4] The Bosch logo represents a simple magneto armature and casing, one of the company's first products.

10

2.2 Operations

Bosch comprises more than 350 subsidiary companies. In addition to automotive components, which generate around 60% of its revenues, Bosch produces industrial machinery and hand tools.

2.2.1 Locations

The Bosch world headquarters in Gerlingen, Germany

Although most of the company's plants and employees are located in Germany (112,300 employees), Bosch is a worldwide company.

In North America, Robert Bosch LLC (a wholly owned Bosch subsidiary) has corporate headquarters in Farmington Hills, MI; with factories and distribution facilities in Mt. Prospect, Illinois; Hoffman Estates, Illinois; Broadview, Illinois; Kentwood, Michigan; Waltham, Massachusetts; Clarksville, Tennessee; Anderson, South Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; South Bend, Indiana (to close 2011[13]); and 11 other cities. The Research Technology Center is located in Palo Alto, California nearStanford University. There are also two corporate sites in Brazil and ten in Mexico where a central purchasing office for all divisions of Bosch Group is located in Broadview, Illinois. In North America, Bosch employs about 24,750 people in 80 locations, generating $8.8 billion in sales in 2006.[14]

There are other wholly owned Bosch subsidiaries in:

India (18,450)

Brazil (14,190)

China (12,370)

France (9,720)

Czech Republic (8,690)

Japan (8,130)

Spain (7,950)

Turkey (7,000)

Hungary (6,280)

Italy (5,160)

United Kingdom (4,920)

Portugal (3,940)

Romania

Netherlands (3,320)

Switzerland (2,780)

Australia (2,300)

Malaysia (2,220)

Austria (2,140)

Belgium (2,040)

South Korea (2,000)

Russia (1,730)

Poland (1,640)

Sweden (1,230)

South Africa (1,010)

11

Viet Nam (1,000) Tunisia (770)

and other countries. Bosch employs over 281,717 people in more than 50 countries, supplying a complex distribution network of new products and parts.[16]

2.2.2 Activities

1. Automotive components

The Bosch R&D center in Abstatt,Germany, which is a major site for the development of automotive components.

About 60% of Bosch's worldwide annual sales are produced in automotive technology. Bosch invented the first practicalmagneto, an early ignition electrical source, which provided the spark to ignite the fuel in most of the earliest internal combustion engines. Bosch's corporate logo to this date depicts the armature from a magneto. Bosch was an early manufacturer of Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), and as time passed, Bosch became a leader in such specialized fields as traction control systems (TCS), the Electronic Stability Program (ESP), body electronics (such as central locking, doors, windows and seats), and oxygen sensors, injectors and fuel pumps. Even in such humble technological areas as spark plugs, wiper blades, engine cooling fans and other aftermarket parts, Bosch has over $1 billion in annual sales.

Bosch is a leading player in car stereo systems and in-car navigation systems.

Bosch is supplying hybrid diesel-electric technology to automakers, including PSA Peugeot 3008.[17]

2. Industrial technology

Bosch's subsidiary Bosch Rexroth is a supplier of industrial technology, producing hydraulic, electric, and pneumatic machinery for driving, controlling, and moving machines in applications ranging from automotive to mining.[3]

Bosch's packaging technology division plans, designs, manufactures and installs packaging lines for manufacturers of pharmaceutical, confectionery, food, and similar products. Bosch is one of the largest supplier of packaging technology.

3. Consumer goods and power tools[edit]

Bosch caters to the areas of consumer goods and building technology with its power tool, thermotechnology, and security systems, as well as with its household appliances business within the BSH Bosch and Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH joint venture. In the US, power tools are provided by the Robert Bosch Tool Corporation based in Mt. Prospect, Illinois.

With its brands Bosch, Hawera, Skil, Dremel, RotoZip, Freud, Vermont American, and many more, Bosch is one of the largest manufacturer of portable power tools worldwide. Bosch manufactures power tools for the building trade, industry, and do-it-yourselfers

12

(DIY-ers). In or around 1956, Dr. Hans Erich Slany worked with Bosch to design one of the first plastic power tools. Prior to this time, power tools were metal castings that often conducted electrical sparks or current into the user as well as being very heavy. Today the power tools designed by TEAMS Design have been winning awards worldwide for many years.[20]In 2011, the 12" Dual-Bevel Glide Miter Saw won an EID Silver Award.[21] In 2012, the Dremel Saw Max was awarded a Good Design Award[22] and was chosen as an IDEA Award finalist.[23] The product range also includes accessories such as drill bitsand saw blades, under its Vermont American brand, as well as gardening and water gardening products under its Gilmour, LR Nelson, and Sunterra brands.[24]

Bosch is the largest European manufacturer of thermotechnology (heating units, etc.) with its subsidiary BBT Thermotechnik GmbH. It had revenues of €2.8 billion in 2006. Its brands include Bosch, Buderus, Junkers, Dakon, e.l.m leblanc S.A., Florida Heat Pump (FHP), Geminox, IVT, Nefit, Sieger, Vulcano and Worcester.

4. Security systems[edit]

In 2001, Bosch bought Detection Systems and Radionics, Inc., to build their business in the North American security and life safety products manufacturing/supply business. Through the Detection Systems acquisition, Bosch also obtained additional sales channels in Latin America, Asia-Pacific (including Australia), and Europe.[25] [26]

In 2002, Bosch acquired Philips Communications and Security, Inc., adding a video surveillance portfolio, as well as sales channels, to its business.[27]

In 2008, Bosch acquired Extreme CCTV, a rugged camera and IP camera manufacturer, to further expand their video surveillance portfolio.[28] [29]

5. Mobile phones[edit]

Bosch also used to create mobile phones for a short time. Their first three mobile phones were the Com 906, Com 738 and World 718, all from 1996. In 1997, they released two other phones: Com 207 and Com 607. The Com 908 came out in 1998, and in 1999 they released their final phones: the Com 509, the 909 Dual and the 909 Dual S.

2.3 Joint ventures

1. BSH Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte

BSH Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH, in which Bosch and Siemens AG each hold a 50% share, is one of the world's top three companies in the household appliances industry. In Germany and Western Europe, BSH is the market leader. Its portfolio includes the principal brand names Bosch and Siemens, Gaggenau, Neff,Thermador, Constructa, Viva, and ufesa brands, and further six regional brands. Bosch household appliances for the North American market are mainly manufactured at its factory near New Bern, North Carolina.

13

2. Purolator Filters

Bosch owned 50% of Purolator Filters in a joint venture with Mann+Hummel until 2013. In 2013 the Mann+Hummel Group has taken over the remaining 50% stakes from Bosch.

Bosch owns 50% of the home appliance manufacturer Bosch-Siemens Hausgeräte.[3] The vehicle audio equipment company Blaupunkt was a subsidiary of Bosch until March 2009.[3]

3. SB LiMotive

In June 2008 Bosch formed SB LiMotive, a 50:50 joint company with Samsung SDI. The company held ground breaking ceremony for a 28.000 m2 lithium-ion battery cell manufacturing plant in September 2009 and it is scheduled to start production for hybrid vehicles in 2011 and for electric vehicles in 2012 The plant will generate a 1.000 jobs in Ulsan, Korea in addition to the 500 employees in Korea, Germany and the USA. SB LiMotive was officially ended in September 2012 with both companies focusing on automotive batteries alone.

2.4 Corporate affairs

Robert Bosch GmbH, including its wholly owned subsidiaries such as Robert Bosch LLC in North America, is unusual in that it is an extremely large, privately owned corporation that is almost entirely (92%) owned by a charitable foundation. Thus, while most of the profits are invested back into the corporation to build for the future and sustain growth, nearly all of the profits distributed to shareholders are devoted to humanitarian causes.

For example, in 2004, the net profit was US$2.1 billion, but only US$78 million was distributed as dividends to shareholders. Of that figure, US$72 million was distributed to the charitable foundation, and the other US$6 million to Bosch family stockholders. The remaining 96% of the profits were invested back into the company. In its core automotive technology business, Bosch invests 9% of its revenue on research and development, nearly double the industry average of 4.7%.

2.5 Accreditations

Almost all Bosch locations are both ISO 9001 certified (quality) and ISO 14001 certified (environmental protection). In addition to that, their management is compliant with OHSAS 18001.

2.6 Conclusion

14

CHAPTER 3

TRAINING ATTENDED &

TECHANICAL DESCRIPTON

3.1 INTRODUCTIONTraining at Airport Authority of India was a 45 days packed package, filled with

information and knowledge regarding Communication, Navigation, Surveillance,

Security equipments and required associated equipments.

3.2 CNS DEPARTMENT

Communication, Navigation and Surveillance are three main functions (domains)

which constitute the foundation of Air Traffic Management (ATM) infrastructure.

The following provide further details about relevant domains of CNS: 

(a) Communication: Communication is the exchange of voice and data

information between the pilot and air traffic controllers or flight information

centres.

(b) Navigation: Navigation Element of CNS/ATM Systems is meant to provide

Accurate, Reliable and Seamless Position Determination Capability to

aircrafts.

(c) Surveillance: The surveillance systems can be divided into two main types:

Dependent surveillance and Independent surveillance.

In dependent surveillance systems, aircraft position is determined on

board and then transmitted to ATC. The current voice position

reporting is a dependent surveillance system in which the position of

the aircraft is determined from on-board navigation equipment and

then conveyed by the pilot to ATC.

Independent surveillance is a system which measures aircraft position

from the ground.

15

3.2.1 ROLE OF CNS DEPARTMENT1. To provide uninterrupted services of Communication, Navigation and

Surveillance (CNS) facilities for the smooth and safe movement of aircraft

(over flying, departing & landing) in accordance with ICAO standards and

recommended practices.

2. To maintain Security Equipments namely X-Ray Baggage systems (XBIS),

Hand Held Metal Detectors (HHMD) and Door Frame Metal Detectors

(DFMD).

3. To provide and maintain inter-unit communication facility i.e. Electronic

Private Automatic Exchange Board (EPABX)

4. To maintain the Computer systems including peripherals like printers, UPS

etc. provided in various sections connected as standalone as well as on Local

Area Network (LAN).

5. To maintain the passenger facilitation systems like Public Address (PA)

system, Car Hailing System and Flight Information Display System (FIDS).

6. To maintain and operate Automatic Message Switching system (AMSS)

used for exchange of messages over Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication

Network (AFTN).

7. To provide Communication Briefing to pilots by compiling NOTAM

received from other International NOF.

8. To maintain and operate Fax machine.

9. To co-ordinate with telephone service providers for provision and smooth

functioning of auto telephones/ hotlines/ data circuits.

3.2.2 DIFFERENT CNS DEPARTMENT

CNS Departments in AAI are: 

(a) CNS-Operation and Maintenance (CNS- O&M)

(b) CNS- Planning (CNS- P)

(c) Flight Inspection Unit & Radio construction and Development Units (

FIU & RCDU)

16

3.2.3 SERVICES PROVIDED BY CNS FOR ATS & AIRCRAFT

OPERATION

Various services provided are: 

(a) Aeronautical Radio Navigation Service

(b) Aeronautical Mobile Service

(c) Aeronautical Fixed Service

(d) Aeronautical Information Service

(e) Aeronautical Broadcast Service

3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CNS

TABLE NO. 5: COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENTS

NAME OF

EQUIPMENTMAKE

OPERATING

FREQUENCYPOWER

Transmitters

OTE

DT-100

PARKAIR

125.25

126.650W

Receivers

OTE

DR-100

PARKAIR

125.25

126.6

VHF AM

Transreceivers

PAE 5610

PAE BT6M

DS-Radio

JORTON

I-COM

125.25

125.25

125.25

125.25

DVR RETIA 64 Channel NA

64 kbps line NA NA

FIDSIDDS

SOLARINA NA

Digital Clock NA NA

17

DSCN VIASAT

LAN/WAN Cisco Tele NA NA

EPABXCoral

PanasonicNA NA

VCCS SCHMID NA NA

Mobile Radio FM

Communication

(BASE STATION)

MOTOROLA

161.825MHz

For CISF

166.525MHz

For AAI

-

VERTEX Standard

10W

Mobile Radio FM

Communication

(HAND HELD SET)

MOTOROLA

VERTEX Standard

KENWOOD

161.825MHz

166.525MHz

-

-

-

AUTOMATION INDRA NA NA

ADS-B COMSOFT 1090MHz NA

TABLE NO. 6: NAVIGATION EQUIPMENTS

NAME OF

EQUIPMENTS MAKEOPERATING

FREQUENCYPOWER

DVOR(JJP)THALES-420 112.9MHz 100W

HP DME(JJP)

Collocated with

DVOR

THALES

Airsys-435

1100MHz

1163MHz1KW

LOCALIZER(IJIP)NORMAC-7013 109.9MHz 15W

18

GLIDE PATHNORMAC-7033 333.8MHz 5W

LP DME(IJIP)

Collocated with GP

THALES

Airsys-415

997MHz

1060MHz 100W

Locator OuterSAC100 295KHz 50W

TABLE NO. 7: SECURITY EQUIPMENTS

NAME OF EQUIPMENTS MAKE

X-BIS SYSTEM

DEPARTURE LAUNCH

100100VHeimann(Ger)

SECURITY HOLD AREA

6040iHeimann(Ger)

EXPLOSIVE TRACE DETECTORS

Smith 500DT

Smith

IONSCAN500DT

(Singapore)

DFMDMETOR-200

CEIA

HHMD METOR-28

CCTV INFINOVA

PA SYSTEM BOSCH

3.4 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMCommunication is process of conveying message at a distance. The electronics

equipments which are used for communication purpose are called communication

equipments. Different communication equipments when assembled together form a

communication system. Typical examples of communication system are: line

telephony and line telegraphy, radio telephony and radio telegraphy, radar

communication, mobile communication, radio aids to navigation, radio aids to

aircraft landing etc.

19

It started with wire telegraphy in 1840 followed by wire telephony and subsequently

by radio/wireless communication. The introduction of satellites and fiber optics has

made communication more widespread and effective with an increasing emphasis on

computer based digital data communication.

In Radio Communication, signals are send in form of radio. The radio equipment

involved in communication systems includes a transmitter and a receiver, each

having an antenna and appropriate terminal equipment such as a microphone at the

transmitter and a loudspeaker at the receiver in the case of a voice-communication

system. The power consumed in a transmitting station varies depending on the

distance of communication and the transmission conditions. The power received at

the receiving station is usually only a tiny fraction of the transmitter's output, since

communication depends on receiving the information, not the energy, that was

transmitted.

3.4.1 BASIC COMMUNICATION ELEMENTS1. Transmitter

2. Receiver

3. Antenna

4. Transmission Line

3.4.1.1 TRANSMITTERIn electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is

an electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna , produces radio

waves. The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating current,

which is applied to the antenna. When excited by this alternating current, the

antenna radiates radio waves. In addition to their use in broadcasting ,

transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices that

communicate by radio , such as cell phones , wireless computer networks,

Bluetooth enabled devices, two-way radios in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft,

radar sets, and navigational beacons.

VHF Transmitter uses an oscillator to produce the desired radio frequency

current. Crystal-Controlled oscillators are normally employed to provide

20

better frequency stability. Thinner the crystal, higher will be the operating

frequency.

OPERATING STATES

ON Line state: If the AF line port, located onto the ALB-x rear

panel, is used to manage the AF + signaling connection.

OFF line state: If the microphone connector , located onto the

control panel front side, is used to manage the AF+ signaling

connection.

The DT100 equipment can operate in the 108 to 156 MHz frequency band.

FIGURE 3.1: OTE DT 100 VHF TRANSMITTER

TABLE NO. 8: VHF TRANSMITTER

S.NO DESCRIPTION FUNCTION1. LEDs (Green and Red) PSU Module Status

2. LEDs (Green and Red) Tx/PA Module Status

3. LEDs (Green, Red and Yellow) BB Module Status

4. LCD Display 2x10 digits Display on Control Panel

5. Switch ON/OFF AC Switch

6. Switch ON/OFF DC Switch

21

7. Mini- DIN 8-Pin Connector Test Connector

8. RP17 Headset/ Microphone Connector

9. Four Control Keys Keyboard on Control Panel

3.4.1.2 RECEIVER

A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna, uses electronic filters to

separate a wanted radio signal from all other signals picked up by this

antenna, amplifies it to a level suitable for further processing, and finally

converts through demodulation and decoding the signal.

The VHF RX has the function of selecting the desired signal at vhf

frequencies from all the other unwanted signals, amplifying and

demodulating it, and reproducing it in the actual shape / desired manner.

OPERATING STATES

ON Line state: If the AF line port, located onto the ALB-S rear

panel, is used to manage the AF + signaling connection.

OFF Line state: If the Microphone connector, located onto the

Control Panel front side, is used to manage the AF+ signaling

connection.

The DR100 equipment can operate in the 108 to 156 MHz frequency band.

FIGURE 5: OTE DR 100 VHF RECEIVER

TABLE NO. 9: VHF RECEIVER

22

S.NO. DESCRIPTION FUNCTION1. LEDs (Green and Red) Rx Module Status

2. LEDs (Green, Red and Yellow) BB Module Status

3. LCD Display 2x10 digits Display on Control Panel

4. Mini-DIN 8-Pin Connector Test Connector

5. RP17 Headset/ Microphone Connector

6. Four Control Keys Keyboard on Control Panel

3.4.1.3 ANTENNA

An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric

power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio

transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an

electric current oscillating at radio frequency  to the antenna's terminals, and

the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic

waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power

of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals,

that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.

Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are

used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way

radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite

communications, as well as other devices such as garage door

openers, wireless microphones, Bluetooth-enabled devices, wireless

computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise.

Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of

metallic conductors (elements), electrically connected (often through a

transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current

of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an

oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while the charge of

the electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the elements.

These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a

moving transverse electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during reception,

the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert

23

force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back

and forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna.

CHARACTERSTICS OF ANTENNA

1 GAIN

Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's

radiation pattern. A high-gain antenna will preferentially radiate in a

particular direction. Specifically, the antenna gain, or power gain of an

antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface)

radiated by the antenna in the direction of its maximum output, at an

arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity radiated at the same distance by a

hypothetical isotropic antenna.

2 BANDWIDTH

 An antenna's bandwidth specifies the range of frequencies over which its

performance does not suffer due to a poor impedance match.

3 POLARIZATION

The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation of the electric field of

the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the

physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation. Therefore, straight

wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a

different polarization when mounted horizontally. For most of antennas, it is

very easy to determine the polarization. It is simply in same plane as

elements of antenna. So, a Vertical Antenna will receive vertically polarized

signals and similarly, Horizontal Antenna will receive horizontally polarized

signals.

4 DIRECTIVITY

It is measure of how directional an antenna’s radiation pattern are.

5 BEAMWIDTH

Half power beam width is angle between half power (-3dB) points of main

lobes, when referenced to peak effective radiated power of main lobe. An

antenna’s radiation in the far field is often characterized by its beam width.

3.4.1.4 TRANSMISSION LINE

24

In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a

specialized cable or other structure designed to carry alternating

current of radio frequency, that is, currents with a frequency high enough that

their wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission lines are used for

purposes such as connecting radio transmitters, receivers with their antennas,

distributing cable television signals, trunk lines routing calls between

telephone switching centres, computer network connections, and high speed

computer data buses.

Coaxial lines confine virtually all of the electromagnetic wave to the area

inside the cable. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted (subject

to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive

supports without inducing unwanted currents in them. In radio-frequency

applications up to a few gigahertz, the wave propagates in the transverse

electric and magnetic mode (TEM) only, which means that the electric and

magnetic fields are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation (the

electric field is radial, and the magnetic field is circumferential). However, at

frequencies for which the wavelength (in the dielectric) is significantly

shorter than the circumference of the cable, transverse electric (TE) and

transverse magnetic (TM) waveguide modes can also propagate. The most

common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with

bandwidth of multiple megahertz.

3.5 FREQUENCY BANDS USED IN COMMUNICTAION

TABLE NO. 10: FREQUENCY BANDS

BAND NAME FREQUENCY BAND

Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) 3Hz-30Hz

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3KHz-30KHz

Low Frequency (LF) 30KHz-300KHz

Medium Frequency (MF) 300KHz-3MHz

High Frequency (HF) 3MHz-30MHz

25

Very High Frequency (VHF) 30MHz-300MHz

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300MHz-3GHz

Super High Frequency (SHF) 3GHz-30GHz

Extra High Frequency (EHF) 30GHz-300GHz

Infrared Frequency (IF) 3THz-30THz

TABLE NO. 11: VARIOUS EQUIPMENTS FREQUENCY BANDS

NAME OF THE

EQUIPMENTFREQUENCY BAND USES

NDB 200 – 450 KHzLocator, Homing &

En-route

HF 3 – 30 MHzGround to Ground, Ground

to Air Comm.

Localizer108 – 112 MHz Instrument Landing System

VOR 108 – 118 MHzTerminal, Homing &

En-route

VHF30 – 300 MHz Ground to Air Comm.

Glide Path328 – 336 MHz Instrument Landing System

DME960 – 1215 MHz Measuring of distance

UHF LINK0.3 – 2.7 GHz Remote control, monitoring

RADAR0.3 – 12 GHz Surveillance

3.6 SPACE MODULATION

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Space modulation is a radio amplitude modulation technique used in instrument

landing systems that incorporates the use of multiple antennas fed with various radio

frequency powers and phases to create different depths of modulation within various

volumes of three-dimensional airspace. This modulation method differs from

internal modulation methods inside most other radio transmitters in that the phases

and powers of the two individual signals mix within airspace, rather than in a

modulator.

An aircraft with an on-board ILS receiver within the capture area of an ILS, (glide

slope and localizer range), will detect varying depths of modulation according to the

aircraft's position within that airspace, providing accurate positional information

about the progress to the threshold.

Another type of amplitude modulation process may be required to be used in many

places like Navaids where the combination (addition) of sideband only (SBO

comprising one or more TSB(s)) and the carrier with or without the transmitter

modulated sidebands takes place in space. Note that both of the SBO or carrier with

sidebands (CSB) are transmitter modulated but when all the required signals out of

these three namely SBO, CSB or carrier are not radiated from the same antenna the

complete modulation process will be realized rather the composite modulated

waveform will be formed at the receiving point by the process of addition of all the

carriers and all the sidebands (TSBs). The process of achieving the complete

modulation process by the process of addition of carriers and sidebands (TSBs) at

the receiving point in space is called the “Space Modulation” which means only that

modulation process is achieved or completed in space rather than in equipment itself

but not at all that space is modulated.

3.7 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Navigation is the 'ART' of determining the position of an aircraft over earth's

surface and guiding its progress from one place to another. To accomplish this ART,

some sort of 'aids' are required by the PILOTS. In the twentieth century, electronics

also entered in the Aviation field. Direction finders and other navigational aids

27

enabled the navigators to obtain 'Fixes' using electronic aids only. Hence such aids

became more and more popular and came into extensive use.

NAVIGATION FACILITIES:

6 VHF Omni-range (VOR).

7 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME).

8 Instrument Landing System (ILS).

FIGURE 6: DVOR

3.7.1 VHF OMNI RANGE (VOR)

VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) is a type of short-range radio

navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to determine

their position and stay on course by receiving radio signals transmitted by a network

of fixed ground radio beacons. It uses frequencies in the very high frequency (VHF)

band from 108 to 117.95 MHz

28

A VOR ground station sends out an omnidirectional master signal, and a highly

directional second signal is propagated by a phased antenna array and rotates

clockwise in space 30 times a second. This signal is timed so that its phase

(compared to the master) varies as the secondary signal rotates, and this phase

difference is the same as the angular direction of the 'spinning' signal. By comparing

the phase of the secondary signal with the master, the angle (bearing) to the

aircraft from the station can be determined. This bearing is then displayed in

the cockpit of the aircraft, and can be used to take a fix as in earlier radio direction

finding (RDF) systems. This line of position is called the "radial" from the VOR.

The intersection of two radials from different VOR stations on a chart gives the

position of the aircraft. VOR stations are fairly short range: the signals are useful for

up to 200 miles.

3.7.1.1 PURPOSE OF VOR

The main purpose of the VOR is to provide the navigational signals for an

aircraft receiver, which will allow the pilot to determine the bearing of the

aircraft to a VOR facility.

VOR enables the Air Traffic Controllers in the Area Control Radar (ARSR)

and ASR for identifying the aircraft in their scopes easily. They can monitor

whether aircraft are following the radials correctly or not.

VOR located outside the airfield on the extended Centre line of the runway

would be useful for the aircraft for making a straight VOR approach.

VOR located enroute would be useful for air traffic 'to maintain their PDRS

(PRE DETERMINED ROUTES) and are also used as reporting points.

VORs located at radial distance of about 40 miles in different directions

around an International Airport can be used as holding VORs for regulating

the aircraft for their landing in quickest time.

29

FIGURE 7: DVOR ANTENNA WITH DME ANTENNA

3.7.2 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation

technology that measures slant range distance by timing the propagation

delay of VHF or UHF radio signals. The DME system is composed of a UHF

transmitter/receiver (interrogator) in the aircraft and a UHF receiver/transmitter

(transponder) on the ground.

3.7.2.1 OPERATION

Aircraft use DME to determine their distance from a land-based transponder

by sending and receiving pulse pairs – two pulses of fixed duration and

separation. The ground stations are typically co-located with VORs. A

typical DME ground transponder system for en-route or terminal navigation

will have a 1 kW peak pulse output on the assigned UHF channel.

A low-power DME can be co-located with an ILS Localiser antenna

installation where it provides an accurate distance to touchdown function,

similar to that otherwise provided by ILS Marker Beacons.

3.7.2.2 ASSOCIATION OF DME WITH VOR

Associated VOR and DME facilities shall be co-located in accordance with

the following:

30

DME Antenna Doppler VHF

Omni-Directional Range Antenna

(a) Coaxial co-location: the VOR and DME antennas are located on the

same vertical axis; or

(b) Offset co-location:

For those facilities used in terminal areas for approach purposes or

other procedures where the highest position fixing accuracy of

system capability is required, the separation of the VOR and DME

antennas does not exceed 30 m (100 ft) except that, at Doppler VOR

facilities, where DME service is provided by a separate facility, the

antennas may be separated by more than 30 m (100 ft), but not in

excess of 80 m (260 ft);

For purposes other than those indicated above, the separation of the

VOR and DME antennas does not exceed 600 m (2,000 ft).

3.7.2.3 ASSOCIATION OF DME WITH ILS

Associated ILS and DME facilities shall be co-located in accordance with the

following:

(a) When DME is used as an alternative to ILS marker beacons, the

DME should be located on the airport so that the zero range

indication will be a point near the runway.

(b) In order to reduce the triangulation error, the DME should be sited to

ensure a small angle between the approach path and the direction to

the DME at the points where the distance information is required.

3.7.3 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

An instrument landing system (ILS) is a radio beam transmitter that provides a

direction for approaching aircraft that tune their receiver to the ILS frequency. It

provides both lateral and a vertical signals. It is a ground-based instrument

approach system that provides precision guidance to an aircraft approaching and

landing on a runway, using a combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-

intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during instrument meteorological

31

conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or

blowing snow.

An instrument approach procedure chart (or approach plate) is published for each

ILS approach to provide the information needed to fly an ILS approach

during instrument flight rules (IFR) operations. A chart includes the radio

frequencies used by the ILS components or navaids and the prescribed minimum

visibility requirements.

3.7.3.1 ELEMENTS OF ILS

Localizer

Glide Path

Marker Bacon

DME

FIGURE 8: INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM

3.7.3.2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

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An aircraft approaching a runway is guided by the ILS receivers in the

aircraft by performing modulation depth comparisons. Many aircraft can

route signals into the autopilot to fly the approach automatically. An ILS

consists of two independent sub-systems. The localiser provides lateral

guidance; the glide slope provides vertical guidance.

LOCALISER (LOC, OR LLZ)

A localiser is an antenna array normally located beyond the departure end of

the runway and generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas. Two

signals are transmitted on one of 40 ILS channels. One is modulated at 90 Hz,

the other at 150 Hz. These are transmitted from co-located antennas. Each

antenna transmits a narrow beam, one slightly to the left of the runway

centreline, the other slightly to the right.

The localiser receiver on the aircraft measures the difference in the depth of

modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals. The depth of modulation

for each of the modulating frequencies is 20 percent. The difference between

the two signals varies depending on the deviation of the approaching aircraft

from the centreline.

If there is a predominance of either 90 Hz or 150 Hz modulation, the aircraft is

off the centreline. In the cockpit, the needle on the instrument part of the ILS

(the omni-bearing indicator (nav indicator), horizontal situation

indicator (HSI), or course deviation indicator (CDI)) shows that the aircraft

needs to fly left or right to correct the error to fly toward the centre of the

runway. If the DDM is zero, the aircraft is on the LOC centreline coinciding

with the physical runway centreline. The pilot controls the aircraft so that the

indicator remains centered on the display (i.e., it provides lateral guidance).

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FIGURE 9: LOCALIZER

GLIDE SLOPE (GS) OR GLIDE PATH (GP)

A glide slope station is an antenna array sited to one side of the runway

touchdown zone. The GS signal is transmitted on a carrier frequency using a

technique similar to that for the localiser. The centre of the glide slope signal is

arranged to define a glide path of approximately 3° above horizontal (ground

level). The beam is 1.4° deep (0.7° below the glide-path centre and 0.7°

above).

The pilot controls the aircraft so that the glide slope indicator remains centered

on the display to ensure the aircraft is following the glide path to remain above

obstructions and reach the runway at the proper touchdown point (i.e., it

provides vertical guidance).

MARKER BEACON

Marker beacon is operating at a carrier frequency of 75 MHz. When the

transmission from a marker beacon is received it activates an indicator on the

pilot's instrument panel and the tone of the beacon is audible to the pilot. The

distance from the runway at which this indication should be received is

published in the documentation for that approach, together with the height at

which the aircraft should be if correctly established on the ILS. This provides a

34

check on the correct function of the glide slope. In modern ILS installations,

a DME is installed, co-located with the ILS, to augment or replace marker

beacons. A DME continuously displays the aircraft's distance to the runway.

i. Outer marker

The outer marker is normally located 7.2 kilometres (3.9 nmi; 4.5 mi) from

the threshold, except that where this distance is not practical, the outer

marker may be located between 6.5 and 11.1 kilometres (3.5 and 6.0 nmi;

4.0 and 6.9 mi) from the threshold. The cockpit indicator is a blue lamp that

flashes in unison with the received audio code. The purpose of this beacon

is to provide height, distance, and equipment functioning checks to aircraft

on intermediate and final approach.

FIGURE 10: OUTER MARKER

ii. Middle marker

The middle marker should be located so as to indicate, in low visibility

conditions, the missed approach point, and the point that visual contact with

the runway is imminent, ideally at a distance of approximately 3,500 ft

(1,100 m) from the threshold. The cockpit indicator is an amber lamp that

flashes in unison with the received audio code.

35

FIGURE 11: MIDDLE MARKER

iii. Inner marker

The inner marker, when installed, shall be located so as to indicate in low

visibility conditions the imminence of arrival at the runway threshold. This is

typically the position of an aircraft on the ILS as it reaches Category II

minima. Ideally at a distance of approximately 1,000 ft (300 m) from the

threshold. The cockpit indicator is a white lamp that flashes in unison with

the received audio code.

FIGURE 12: INNER MARKER

DME substitution

Distance measuring equipment (DME) provides pilots with a slant

range measurement of distance to the runway in nautical miles. DMEs are

augmenting or replacing markers in many installations. The DME provides

more accurate and continuous monitoring of correct progress on the ILS

glide slope to the pilot, and does not require an installation outside the airport

boundary. When used in conjunction with an ILS, the DME is often sited

36

midway between the reciprocal runway thresholds with the

internal delay modified so that one unit can provide distance information to

either runway threshold. For approaches where a DME is specified in lieu of

marker beacons, DME required is noted on the Instrument Approach

Procedure and the aircraft must have at least one operating DME unit to

begin the approach.

TABLE NO. 12: ILS PERFORMANCE CATEGORY

OPERATION DECISION HEIGHTRUNWAY VISUAL

RANGE

CAT I Above 60m Not less than 550m

CAT II Between 30 to 60m Not less than 350m

CAT IIIA Lower than 30m Not less than 200m

CAT IIIB Lower than 15mLess than 200m but not less

than 50m

CAT IIIC No Decision HeightNo runway visual range

limitation

3.8 SURVEILLANCE

Surveillance is the monitoring of the behaviour, activities, or other changing

information, usually of people for the purpose of influencing, managing, directing,

or protecting them. This can include observation from a distance by means of

electronic equipment (such as CCTV cameras), or interception of electronically

transmitted information. An Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) is a radar system

used at airports to detect and display the position of aircraft in the terminal area. The

Digital Airport Surveillance Radar (DASR) is a new terminal air traffic control radar

system that replaces current analog systems with new digital technology. The DASR

37

system detects aircraft position and weather conditions in the vicinity of civilian and

military airfields. The civilian nomenclature for this radar is ASR-11.

FIGURE 13: SURVEILLANCE

3.8.1 RADAR

Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range,

altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft,

ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain.

The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves that

bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave's

energy to a dish or antenna that is usually located at the same site as the transmitter.

FIGURE 13: SURVEILLANCE RADAR

38

3.8.1.1PRINCIPLE OF RADAR

A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar

signals in predetermined directions. When these come into contact with an

object they are usually reflected or scattered in many directions. Radar

signals are reflected especially well by materials of considerable electrical

conductivity—especially by most metals, by seawater and by wet lands.

Some of these make the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar signals

that are reflected back towards the transmitter are the desirable ones that

make radar work. If the object is moving either toward or away from the

transmitter, there is a slight equivalent change in the frequency of the radio

waves, caused by the Doppler effect.

Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as the

transmitter. Although the reflected radar signals captured by the receiving

antenna are usually very weak, they can be strengthened by electronic

amplifiers. More sophisticated methods of signal processing are also used in

order to recover useful radar signals.

The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes

is what enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively long ranges—ranges

at which other electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared

light, and ultraviolet light, are too strongly attenuated. Such weather

phenomena as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet that block visible

light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain radio frequencies that are

absorbed or scattered by water vapor, raindrops, or atmospheric gases

(especially oxygen) are avoided in designing radars, except when their

detection is intended.

Radar relies on its own transmissions rather than light from the Sun or

the Moon, or from electromagnetic waves emitted by the objects themselves,

such as infrared wavelengths (heat). This process of directing artificial radio

waves towards objects is called illumination, although radio waves are

invisible to the human eye or optical cameras.

39

3.8.1.2 APPLICATION OF RADAR

1. The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range (and

therefore position) of the object from the radar scanner. The first use of

radar was for military purposes: to locate air, ground and sea targets. This

evolved in the civilian field into applications for aircraft, ships, and

roads.

2. In aviation, aircraft are equipped with radar devices that warn of aircraft

or other obstacles in or approaching their path, display weather

information, and give accurate altitude readings. The first commercial

device fitted to aircraft was a 1938 Bell Lab unit on some United Air

Lines aircraft. Such aircraft can land in fog at airports equipped with

radar-assisted ground-controlled approach systems in which the plane's

flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing

directions to the pilot.

3. Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to

prevent collision with other ships, to navigate, and to fix their position at

sea when within range of shore or other fixed references such as islands,

buoys, and lightships.

4. Meteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation and wind. It has

become the primary tool for short-term weather forecasting and watching

for severe weather such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, winter storms,

precipitation types, etc. Geologists use specialised ground-penetrating

radars to map the composition of Earth's crust.

3.9 SECURITY EQUIPMENTS

Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting passengers,

staff and aircraft which use the airports from accidental/malicious harm, crime and

other threats.

Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations

from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed in this, then the

chances of any dangerous situations, illegal items or threats entering into both

40

aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves

several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to

reassure the travelling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their

people.

Various security equipments used at airport are:

1. X- RAY Scanners

Multi Energy Machine

2. Metal Detectors

Hand Held Metal Detector (HHMD)

Door Frame Metal Detector (DFMD)

3. Explosive Trace Detector System (ETDS)

4. CCTV

3.9.1 X-RAY SCANNER

X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-

rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding

to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz(3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and

energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV. X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those

of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Due to their penetrating

ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e.g., in medical

radiography and airport security.

3.9.1.1 PROPERTY OF X-RAY

X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular

bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to

living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a short amount of time

causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk

of radiation-induced cancer.

Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being

much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used

to image the inside of visually opaque objects. The most often seen

applications are in airport security scanners etc. The penetration depth varies

41

with several orders of magnitude over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the

photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give

sufficient transmission through the object and at the same time

good contrast in the image.

X-rays have much shorter wavelength than visible light, which makes it

possible to probe structures much smaller than what can be seen using a

normal microscope. This can be used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high

resolution images, but also in X-ray crystallography to determine the

positions of atoms in crystals.

FIGURE 14 : X-RAY BAGGAGE SYSTEM

3.9.1.2 X-RAY PRODUCTION

X–ray are produced within the X-ray machine. No external radioactive

material involved. X-ray are produced by interaction of accelerated electrons

with tungsten nuclei within tube anode. Two types of radiation are generated:

characteristic radiation and bremsstrahlung (braking) radiation. Changing the

X-ray machine current or voltage settings alters the properties of the X-ray

beam. Different X-ray beam spectra are applied to different body parts.

Change in the current and voltage settings on the X-ray machine results in

manipulation of properties of the X-ray beam.

X-ray Tube

A small increase in the filament voltage (1) results in a large increase in tube

current (2) which accelerates high speed electrons from the very high

42

temperature filament negative cathode (3) within a vacuum, towards a

positive tungsten target anode (4). This anode rotates to dissipate heat

generated. X-rays are generated within the tungsten anode and an X-ray

beam (5) is directed towards the luggage.

FIGURE 15: X-RAY TUBE

Characteristic X-ray generation

When a high energy electron (1) collides with an inner shell electron (2) both

are ejected from the tungsten atom leaving a ‘hole’ in the inner layer. This is

filled by an outer shell electron (3) with a loss of energy emitted as an X-ray

photon (4).

FIGURE 16: CHARACTERSTIC X-RAY GENERATION

Bremsstrahlung/Braking X-ray generation

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When an electron passes near the nucleus it is slowed and its path is

deflected. Energy lost is emitted as a bremsstrahlung X-ray photon.

Approximately 80% of the population of X-rays within the X-ray beam

consists of X-rays generated in this way.

FIGURE 17: BRAKING X-RAY GENERATION

3.9.1.3 MULTI ENERGY MACHINE

The machine used in airports usually is based on a dual-energy X-ray

system. This system has a single X-ray source sending out X-rays, typically

in the range of 140 to 160kilovolt peak (KVP). KVP refers to the amount of

penetration an X-ray makes. The higher the KVP, the further the X-ray

penetrates.

After the X-rays pass through the item, they are picked up by a detector.

This detector then passes the X-rays on to a filter, which blocks out the

lower-energy X-rays. The remaining high-energy X-rays hit a second

detector. A computer circuit compares the pick-ups of the two detectors to

better represent low-energy objects, such as most organic materials.

Since different materials absorb X-rays at different levels, the image on the

monitor lets the machine operator see distinct items inside your bag. Items

are typically colored on the display monitor, based on the range of energy

that passes through the object, to represent one of three main categories:

Organic

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Inorganic

Metal

All X-ray systems use shades of orange to represent "organic." This is

because most explosives are organic. All modern carry-on X-ray systems are

considered film-safe. This means that the amount of X-ray radiation is not

high enough to damage photographic film. Since electronic media can

withstand much more radiation than film can, it is also safe from damage.

However, the CT scanner and many of the high-energy X-ray systems used

to examine checked baggage can damage film.

Electronic items, such as laptop computers, have so many different items

packed into a relatively small area that it can be difficult to determine if a

bomb is hidden within the device. That's why you may be asked to turn your

laptop or PDA on. But even this is not sufficient evidence since a skilled

criminal could hide a bomb within a working electronic device. For that

reason, many airports also have a chemical sniffer. This is essentially an

automated chemistry lab in a box. At random intervals, or if there is reason to

suspect the electronic device that someone is carrying, the security attendant

quickly swipes a cloth over the device and places the cloth on the sniffer. The

sniffer analyzes the cloth for any trace residue of the types of chemicals used

to make bombs. If there is any residue, the sniffer warns the security

attendant of a potential bomb. In addition to desktop sniffers like this, there

are handheld versions, that can be used to "sniff" lockers and other enclosed

spaces and unattended luggage. Walk-through models, such as GE's Entry

Scan 3, are also available. These sniffers can be used to detect explosives and

narcotics.

3.9.2 METAL DETECTOR

Metal detectors are devices used for detecting metallic objects from the soil, people,

or cargo. Metallic objects can be treasures buried underground, discarded pieces of

aluminum, jewelry or valuable coins.

Metal detectors satisfy all needs in humanitarian, industrial and security fields. A

typical metal detector comprises four main parts such as stabilizer, control box,

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shaft, and search coil. The search coil is also called search head, loop or antenna.

The stabilizer provides excellent stability for metal detectors in use. It is placed near

the hand grip area. The control box is the brain of a metal detector. It consists of a

microprocessor, circuitry, speaker, controls and batteries. A shaft is used to connect

the control box and search coil. It is adjustable and can be set at a level according to

the height of the user. The search coil senses the presence of metal components.

Metal detectors work in a very simple manner, based on the principle of

electromagnetism and its effects on conductive metals. The transmitter, located

inside the metal detector's search coil, makes use of battery power to generate a

penetrating electromagnetic field. When it enters the ground, the metal objects

below the ground become charged with magnetism. The magnetized metallic objects

under the ground send a signal to the control box. The speaker in the system control

pack or control box amplifies the signal and the user hears the beep sound. Some

modern metal detectors display the type of metal found below the ground. They also

inform how deep the metallic objects are located.

The various technologies used in metal detectors are very low frequency (VLF),

Pulse Induction (PI) and Beat-frequency oscillation (BFO). Metal detectors utilize

one of these technologies. VLF technology, also called induction balance, is perhaps

the most popular detector technology nowadays. It is highly successful in detecting

anything metallic and uses two coils, a transmitter coil and a receiver coil. In this

case, a sine wave is transmitted with one coil and received with the other. Compared

to VLF technology, pulse induction and beat-frequency oscillation are more

complicated. They can be operated in detecting very small objects.

Different types of Metal Detectors are :

Hand Held Metal Detector (HHMD)

Door Frame Metal Detector (DFMD)

3.9.2.1 HAND HELD METAL DETECTOR

Hand Held Metal Detectors uses the principle of Very Low Frequency

(VLF).

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TRANSMITTER

Inside the metal detector's loop (sometimes called a search head, coil,

antenna, etc.) is a coil of wire called the transmit coil. Electronic current is

driven through the coil to create an electro-magnetic field. The direction of

the current flow is reversed several thousand times every second; the transmit

frequency "operating frequency" refers to the number of times per second

that the current flow goes from clockwise to counter clockwise and back to

clockwise again.

When the current flows in a given direction, a magnetic field is produced

whose polarity (like the north and south poles of a magnet) points into the

ground; when the current flow is reversed, the field's polarity points out of

the ground. Any metallic (or other electrically conductive) object, which

happens to be nearby, will have a flow of current induced inside of it by the

influence of the changing magnetic field, in much the same way that an

electric generator produces electricity by moving a coil of wire inside a fixed

magnetic field. This current flow inside a metal object in turn produces its

own magnetic field, with a polarity that tends to be pointed opposite to the

transmit field.

RECEIVER

A second coil of wire inside the loop, the receive coil, is arranged so that

nearly all of the current that would ordinarily flow in it due to the influence

of the transmitted field is cancelled out. Therefore, the field produced by the

currents flowing in the nearby metal object will cause currents to flow in the

receive coil which may be amplified and processed by the detector's

electronics without being swamped by currents resulting from the much

stronger transmitted field.

The resulting received signal will usually appear delayed when compared to

the transmitted signal. This delay is due to the tendency of conductors to

impede the flow of current (resistance) and to impede changes in the flow of

current (inductance). We call this apparent delay "phase shift". The largest

phase shift will occur for metal objects which are primarily inductive; large,

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thick objects made from excellent conductors like gold, silver, and copper.

Smaller phase shifts are typical for objects which are primarily resistive;

smaller, thinner objects, or those composed of less conductive materials.

Some materials which conduct poorly or not at all can also cause a strong

signal to be picked up by the receiver thus "ferromagnetic" materials are

used. Ferromagnetic substances tend to become magnetized when placed in

the field like a paper clip which becomes temporarily magnetized when

picked up with a bar magnet. The received signal shows little if any phase

shift. Most soils and sands contain small grains of iron-bearing minerals

which causes them to appear largely ferromagnetic to the detector. Cast iron

(square nails) and steel objects (bottle caps) exhibit both electrical and

ferromagnetic properties.

METOR-28

Metor-28 is Hand Held Metal Detector used in airport for security. Metor-28

detect all types of metal and has light weight. Hand-held metal detectors are

an integral part of the physical security screening process . With the

Metor-28 , a unit is designed that benefits security personnel as well as

the person being scanned.

ADDITIONAL BENEFITS

1. The circular opening assists in pinpointing metal objects

2. Comfortable handle for easy control and grip

3. Light weight 260 g (9.3 oz.) with battery

4. Wrist strap

DETECTION

Detects all metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous.

SENSITIVITY

Three (3) sensitivity settings

Detection performance:

* Level 1: small handguns and knives

* Level 2: razor blades, handcuff keys

* Level 3:.22 caliber bullet, metal shanks

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OPERATION

3-way push-button operation:

On/Off/Momentary.

ALARM

Audible and visual alarm indication.

SAFETY

The Metor-28 is safe for people with pacemakers and will not affect

magnetic recording media. The magnetic field strength of the Metor-

28 meets with the limits set by international standards for human

safety.

3.9.2.2 DOOR FRAME METAL DETECTOR

All public access to an airport is channelled through the terminal, where

every person must walk through a metal detector and all items must go

through an X-ray machine. DFMD uses pulse induction technique (PI)

Typical PI systems use a coil of wire on one side of the arch as the

transmitter and receiver. This technology sends powerful, short bursts

(pulses) of current through the coil of wire. Each pulse generates a brief

magnetic field. When the pulse ends, the magnetic field reverses polarity and

collapses very suddenly, resulting in a sharp electrical spike. This spike lasts

a few microseconds (millionths of a second) and causes another current to

run through the coil. This subsequent current is called the reflected

pulse and lasts only about 30 microseconds. Another pulse is then sent and

the process repeats. If a metal object passes through the metal detector, the

pulse creates an opposite magnetic field in the object. When the pulse's

magnetic field collapses, causing the reflected pulse, the magnetic field of the

object makes it take longer for the reflected pulse to completely disappear.

This process works something like echoes: If you yell in a room with only a

few hard surfaces, you probably hear only a very brief echo, or you may not

hear one at all. But if you yell into a room with a lot of hard surfaces, the

echo lasts longer. In a PI metal detector, the magnetic fields from target

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objects add their "echo" to the reflected pulse, making it last a fraction longer

than it would without them.

A sampling circuit in the metal detector is set to monitor the length of the

reflected pulse. By comparing it to the expected length, the circuit can

determine if another magnetic field has caused the reflected pulse to take

longer to decay. If the decay of the reflected pulse takes more than a few

microseconds longer than normal, there is probably a metal object interfering

with it.

FIGURE 18: DOOR FRAME METAL DETECTOR

METOR-200

It is a Multi-zone Walk-through Metal Detector

UNIQUE MULTI-ZONE PRINCIPLE

The Metor-200 walk-through metal detector features a unique multi-zone

principle to guarantee first-rate performance. Each detection zone functions

as an independent detector and automatically increases discrimination by

reducing the cumulative signal effect caused by distributed harmless objects.

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THE BENEFITS OF THE MULTI-ZONE PRINCIPLE

i. Superior discrimination.

ii. Reliable detection of threat items.

iii. High traffic throughput.

EIGHT INDEPENDENT DETECTION ZONES

i. Each zone detects targets independently

ii. Excellent discrimination reduces unnecessary alarms

iii. Uniform Detection across the entire walk-through unit

iv. Zone displays location of detected target

AUTOMATIC SENSITIVITY SELECTION

An automatic sensitivity program selects the correct sensitivity level

for a specific weapon or test object.  This eliminates the time

consuming trial and error method.

SELF-DIAGNOSTICS

The Metor-200 provides comprehensive self-diagnostics.  It

continuously monitors the detector’s environment, external

connections and internal circuitry for any problems.

CONTINUOUSLY ACTIVE

The Metor-200 detection circuitry is continuously active, ensuring

that it is not possible to toss, pass, or slide a weapon through the

system without detection.

MOBILITY

The unit is light enough to move easily from one location to another.

REMOTE CONTROL UNIT

The remote control unit allows you to remotely change all settings to

fit your needs.

SECURITY

Password protection on the remote control unit ensures that no

unauthorized person can change settings.

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SOFTWARE

Preset programs are designed to detect specific metals to meet a wide

array of security needs.

COUNTERS

Smart traffic counter can keep track of in and outbound traffic to get

an accurate count of actual people entering the detector.

USER-FRIENDLY INTERFACE

All functions are controlled through a remote control unit that shows

the results of parameter adjustments, traffic counts and self-

diagnostics.

ZONE DISPLAY

The zone display identifies the level(s) at which detected object(s) are

carried. This enables security personnel to immediately target metal

objects and ensures that maximum throughput can be maintained in

high traffic locations.

3.9.3 EXPLOSIVE TRACE DETECTOR SYSTEM

Explosives trace detectors (ETD) are security equipment able to

detect explosives of small magnitude. The detection can be done by sniffing vapours

as in an explosive vapour detector or by sampling traces of particulates or by

utilizing both methods depending on the scenario. Most explosive detectors in the

market today can detect both vapours and particles of explosives. Devices similar to

ETDs are also used to detect narcotics. The equipment is used mainly in airports and

other vulnerable areas considered susceptible to acts of unlawful interference.

3.9.3.1 CHARACTERISTIC OF ETDS

SENSITIVITY

Sensitivity is defined as the lowest amount of explosive matter a detector

can detect reliably. It is expressed in terms of nano-grams (ng), pico-grams

(pg) or femto-grams (fg) with fg being better than pg better than ng. It can

also be expressed in terms of parts per billion (ppb), parts per trillion (ppt)

or parts per quadrillion (ppq).

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Sensitivity is important because most explosives have a very low vapour

pressure and give out very little vapour. The detector with the highest

sensitivity will be the best in detecting vapours of explosives reliably.

LIGHT WEIGHT

Portable explosive detectors need to be as light weight as possible to allow

users to not fatigue when holding them. Also, light weight detectors can

easily be placed on top of robots.

SIZE

Portable explosive detectors need to be as small as possible to allow for

sensing of explosives in hard to reach places like under a car or an inside a

trash bin.

COLD START UP TIME AND ANALYSIS TIME

The start up time should not be a parameter for evaluation of an explosive

detector. Start up time only indicates the time required by the detector to

reach the optimized temperature for detection of contraband substances.

3.9.3.2 TECHNOLOGY USED IN ETD

ION MOBILITY SPECTROMETRY

Explosive detection using Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is based on

velocities of ions in a uniform electric field. There are some variant to IMS

such as Ion trap mobility spectrometry (ITMS) or Non-linear dependence

on Ion Mobility (NLDM) which are based on IMS principle. The sensitivity

of devices using this technology is limited to pg levels. The technology also

requires the ionization of sample explosives which is accomplished by a

radioactive source such as Nickel-63 or Americium-241. This technology is

found in most commercially available explosive detectors like the GE

Vapour Tracer, Smith Sabre 4000 and Russian built MO-2M and MO-8.

The presence of radioactive materials in these equipments cause regulatory

hassles and requires special permissions at customs ports. These detectors

cannot be field serviced and may pose radiation hazard to the operator if the

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casing of the detector cracks due to mishandling. Bi-yearly checks are

mandatory on such equipment in most countries by regulating agencies to

ensure that there are no radiation leaks. Disposal of these equipments is also

controlled owing to the high half-life of the radioactive material used.

ElectroSpray Ionization, Mobility Analysis (DMA) and Tandem Mass

Spectrometry (MS/MS) is used by SEDET (Sociedad Europea de

Detección) for the “Air Cargo Explosive Screener (ACES)”, targeted to

aviation cargo containers currently under development in

Spain. "SEDET" is a Joint Venture created by SEADM, Morpho and

CARTIF in order to develop a new generation of explosive trace detection

systems.

FIGURE 19: ETD MACHINE

3.9.4 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISON

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is the use of video cameras to transmit a signal to

a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast television in

54

that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may employ point to point (P2P),

point to multipoint, or mesh wireless links.

In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process

from a central control room, for example when the environment is not suitable for

humans. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a

particular event. A more advanced form of CCTV, utilizing digital video

recorders(DVRs), provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of

quality and performance options and extra features (such as motion detection and

email alerts). More recently, decentralized IP cameras, some equipped with

megapixel sensors, support recording directly to network-attached storage devices,

or internal flash for completely stand-alone operation. Surveillance of the public

using CCTV is particularly common in many areas around the world. In recent

years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced as a new form of

surveillance.

CAMERA

The starting point for any CCTV system must be the camera. The camera creates the

picture that will be transmitted to the control position. Apart from special designs

CCTV cameras are not fitted with a lens. The lens must be provided separately and

screwed onto the front of the camera. Not all lenses have focus and iris adjustment.

Most have iris adjustment. Some very wide angle lenses do not have a focus ring.

The 'BNC' plug is for connecting the coaxial video cable. Line powered cameras do

not have the mains cable. Power is provided via the coaxial cable.

MONITOR

The picture created by the camera needs to be reproduced at the control position. A

CCTV monitor is virtually the same as a television receiver except that it does not

have the tuning circuits.

SIMPLE CCTV SYSTEM

The simplest system is a camera connected directly to a monitor by a coaxial cable

with the power for the camera being provided from the monitor. This is known as a

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line powered camera. Probably the earliest well-known version of this was the Pye

Observation System that popularised the concept of CCTV, mainly in retail

establishments. It was an affordable, do-it- yourself, self-contained system.

The next development was to incorporate the outputs from four cameras into the

monitor. These could be set to sequence automatically through the cameras or any

camera could be held selectively. There was even a microphone built into the camera

to carry sound and a speaker in the monitor.

3.10 VOICE COMMUNICATION CONTROL SYSTEM

VCCS controls and connects together various voice communication systems used for

Air Traffic Management such as VHF Tx/RX, telephone, and other ATC

communications. It also provides an internetworked chain & backbone for numerous

interfaces acting as an exchange for all the interfaces put together. It works on

various IT protocols customized for each set of facility. The VCCS for controlling

air traffic are located in the air control centres, both on route and on approach, and in

the airport control towers, and they provide support for:

Ground/Air (G/A) data communications, between air traffic controllers and

aircraft pilots;

Ground/Ground (G/G) data communications between air traffic controllers for

coordination and between air traffic controllers and support, management and

administrative personnel:

Support for system operation and administration.

These systems are employed by the following users:

IN THE CONTROL TOWER:

Tower supervisor and tower (or local) controllers

Taxiing controllers

Apron controllers

Clearance controllers

Flight plan operators

Coordinators

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Support and Maintenance Personnel

IN THE CONTROL CENTRE:

Operations Room supervisor

Area supervisors

Executive controllers (radar)

Planning controllers

Flow Managers (FMP - Flow Management Position)

Flight plan managers (FDP - Flight data position)

Equipment room supervisor.

IN SIMULATION:

Simulation supervisor

Instructors

Simulation session controllers

Pseudo pilots

Equipment room supervisor.

Basically, a voice communications system consists of a set equipment enabling air

controllers and support personnel to initiate, receive, attend to and maintain

communication by radio or telephone, both in real situations and for training

purposes; in addition, it includes equipment by which operating system support tasks

can be performed.

3.11 AERONAUTICAL FIXED TELECOMMUNICATION

NETWORK (AFTN)

The Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network (AFTN) is a worldwide

system of aeronautical fixed circuits provided, as part of the Aeronautical Fixed

Service, for the exchange of messages and/or digital data between aeronautical fixed

stations having the same or compatible communications characteristics. AFTN

comprises aviation entities including: ANS (Air Navigation Services) providers,

aviation service providers, airport authorities and government agencies, to name a

few. It exchanges vital information for aircraft operations such as distress messages,

57

urgency messages, flight safety messages, meteorological messages, flight regularity

messages and aeronautical administrative messages.

Via the AFTN the following message categories are submitted:

distress messages;

urgency messages;

flight safety messages;

meteorological messages;

flight regularity messages;

aeronautical information services (AIS) messages;

aeronautical administrative messages;

service messages.

3.11.1 CLASSIFICATION OF AFTN SWITCHING SYSTEM

A switching system is an easy solution that can allow on demand basis the

connection of any combination of source and sink stations. AFTN switching system

can be classified into 3 (three) major categories:

1. Line Switching

2. Message Switching

3. Packet Switching.

LINE SWITCHING

When the switching system is used for switching lines or circuits it is called line-

switching system. Telex switches and telephones exchanges are common examples

of the line switching system. They provide user on demand basis end-to-end

connection. As long as connection is up the user has exclusive use of the total

bandwidth of the communication channel as per requirement. It is Interactive and

Versatile.

MESSAGE SWITCHING

In the Message Switching system, messages from the source are collected and stored

in the input queue which are analysed by the computer system and transfer the

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messages to an appropriate output queue in the order of priority.

The message switching system works on store and forward principle. It provides

good line utilization, multi-addressing, message and system accounting, protects

against blocking condition, and compatibility to various line interfaces.

PACKET SWITCHING

This system divides a message into small chunks called packet. These packets are

made of a bit stream, each containing communication control bits and data bits. The

communication control bits are used for the link and network control procedure and

data bits are for the user.

3.11.2AMSS PRINCIPLE

STORE AND FORWARD is the principle on which AMSS system works.

Store and forward is a telecommunications technique in which information is sent to

an intermediate station where it is kept and sent at a later time to the final destination

or to another intermediate station. The intermediate station, or node in a networking

context, verifies the integrity of the message before forwarding it. In general, this

technique is used in networks with intermittent connectivity, especially in the

wilderness or environments requiring high mobility. It may also be preferable in

situations when there are long delays in transmission and variable and high error

rates, or if a direct, end-to-end connection is not available.

This technique originates the delay-tolerant networks. No real-time services are

available for these kinds of networks.

3.12 ADS-BADS-B is radically new technology that is redefining the paradigm of

COMMUNICATIONS - NAVIGATION - SURVEILLANCE in Air Traffic

Management today. Already proven and certified as a viable low cost replacement

for conventional radar, ADS-B allows pilots and air traffic controllers to "see" and

control aircraft with more precision, and over a far larger percentage of the earth's

surface, than has ever been possible before.

A = Automatic - It's always ON and requires no operator intervention

D = Dependent - It depends on an accurate GNSS signal for position data

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S = Surveillance - It provides "Radar-like" surveillance services, much like

RADAR

B = Broadcast - It continuously broadcasts aircraft position and other data to any

aircraft, or ground station equipped to receive ADS-B

3.12.1 OPERATIONFar different from radar, which works by bouncing radio waves from fixed

terrestrial antennas off of airborne targets and then interpreting the reflected signals,

ADS-B uses conventional Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology

and a relatively simple broadcast communications link as its fundamental

components. Also, unlike radar, ADS-B accuracy does not seriously degrade with

range, atmospheric conditions, or target altitude and update intervals do not depend

on the rotational speed or reliability of mechanical antennas.

The ADS-B capable aircraft uses an ordinary GNSS (GPS, Galileo, etc) receiver to

derive its precise position from the GNSS constellation, then combines that position

with any number of aircraft discretes, such as speed, heading, altitude and flight

number. This information is then simultaneously broadcast to other ADS-B capable

aircraft and to ADS-B ground, or satellite communications transceivers which then

relay the aircraft's position and additional information to Air Traffic Control centers

in real time.

The 978 MHz Universal Access Transceiver ("UAT") variant is also bi-directional

and capable of sending real-time Flight Information Services ("FIS-B"), such as

weather and other data to aircraft. In some areas, conventional non-ADS-B radar

traffic information ("TIS-B"), can also be uplinked as well.

3.12.2 BENEFITSADS-B provides many benefits to both pilots and air traffic control that improve

both the safety and efficiency of flight.

TRAFFIC – When using an ADS-B In system a pilot is able to view traffic

information about surrounding aircraft. This information includes altitude,

heading, speed, and distance to aircraft.

WEATHER – Aircraft equipped with UAT ADS-B In technology will be

able to receive weather reports, and weather radar through flight information

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service-broadcast (FIS-B).

FLIGHT INFORMATION – Traffic Information Service-Broadcast (TIS-

B, not to be confused with FIS-B) transmits readable flight information such

as TFRs and NOTAMs to aircraft equipped with either UAT or 1090ES.

FIGURE 20: ADS-B WORKING

3.13 FLIGHT INFORMATION DISPLAY SYSTEM

A Flight Information Display system (FIDS) is a computer system used in airports to

display flight information to passengers, in which a computer system controls

mechanical or electronic display boards or TV screens in order to display arrivals

and departures flight information in real-time. The displays are located inside or

around an airport terminal . A virtual version of a FIDS can also be found on most

airport websites and tele text systems. In large airports, there are different sets of

FIDS for each terminal or even each major airline . FID systems are used to assist

passengers during air travel and people who want to pick up passengers after the

flight.

Each line on an FIDS indicates a different flight number accompanied by:

the airline name/logo and/or its IATA or ICAO airline designator

the city of origin or destination, and any intermediate points

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the expected arrival or departure time and/or the updated time (reflecting any

delays )

the gate number

the check-in counter numbers or the name of the airline handling the check-in

the status of the flight, such as "Landed", "Delayed", "Boarding", etc.

Due to code sharing, one single flight may be represented by a series of different

flight numbers, thus lines (for example, LH474 and AC9099), although one single

aircraft operates that route at that given time. Lines may be sorted by time, airline

name, or city.

FIGURE 21: FIDS AT JAIPUR AIRPORT

3.14 ATS AUTOMATION SYSTEM3.14.1 GENERAL SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

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One of the main characteristics of the system is its availability, due to the

employment of redundant elements on a distributed scenario, and to the use of

tested and highly reliable commercial equipment. The software architecture of the

system is determined by its modularity and distribution and has been organized

using distributed discrete processes for the different subsystems. At the same time,

the system makes use of communication by messages, both for

intercommunications between tasks and for its synchronicity. In order to assure a

maximum level of maintenance, communications and application tasks have been

isolated. The Operating System used is RED HAT ENTERPRISE LINUX 5. This

system includes all the necessary functionality required in a modern ATC system.

Its main elements are following described:

FIGURE 22: ATS DISPLAY

3.14.2 MAIN COMPONENTS:

FLIGHT DATA PROCESSING (FDP) = It is based on INTEL redundant

computers. It manages the flight plans generated within the System or coming from

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external sources, including the Repetitive Flight Plans (RPLs). It confirms all flight

data inputs, calculates the flights’ progression and keeps all controllers inform by

means of screen displays and flight plan strips printing. The System is designed in

redundant configuration, having an FDP as operative and another one as reserve,

with the possibility to switch them.

SURVEILLANCE DATA PROCESSOR (SDP) = It is based on INTEL

redundant computers. It receives and processes data (primary, secondary and

meteorological) coming from the radar sites. Next, it performs the merge all the

received information to create a coherent airspace picture for controllers’ (SDD)

presentation. It also performs surveillance tasks (STCA, MTCD) between aircraft

and integrates the radar information and the flight plan information in order to get a

precise tracking. The System is duplicated (operative/reserve) being possible to

switch them. Attempting to the Tower type the system shall provide or not the SDP

servers.

RADAR COMMUNICATIONS PROCESSOR (RDCU) = It centralizes the

System radar communications to interpret and convert the received radar formats to

join them. The System is composed of two RDCU units working parallel. It is

possible to carry out the received radar data reproduction during an established

period.

3.14.3 CONTROLLING POSITIONS:

SITUATION DATA DISPLAY (SDD) = It receive data processed by FDP.

Later on, it manages all these information for a coherent displaying at the controllers

screens (SDD). At the same time, it displays additional relevant information such as

geographic maps, meteorological data, radar data, and flight plans presentations

shown on the controller screens and it can show additional information like

geographical maps, airways, meteorological data, etc.

FLIGHT DATA DISPLAY (FDD) = It displays information concerning flight

plans not supplying data display of data on air situation. It allows controllers to

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perform adjustments on flight plans and other significant data. Its aim is to provide a

work environment to the operational personnel of the Air Traffic Control Centre for

flight plans handling. This environment consists of an HMI computer (screen,

mouse and keyboard) connected to the subsystem that manages Flight Plans so that

the entire flight plan related information is easily reachable by the operator. The

FDD Position allows the controller mainly to handle flight plans during the strategic

planning phase. That is, the controller of this position manages future flight plans

(Flight plans received trough AFTN and Repetitive Flight Plans (RPL)).

CONTROL AND MONITORING DISPLAY (CMD) = The Control and

Monitoring Display Position (CMD) is one of the components of the Tower and

Approach Integrated System. Its main aim is to offer help to technical staff in the

Traffic Control Centre, providing a work environment able to monitor the whole

system in an easy but precise way in real time. For that reason, the position is

connected to the other subsystems. Its main element is a computer with screen,

mouse and keyboard. It continuously monitors the whole system and shows its status

in real time. When a components fails or is not working correctly, an operator can

take the appropriate actions on the CMD console. Some system parameters can be

changed trough the CMD to adequate the system configuration to the actual working

conditions, as they can be the VSP parameters or active sectorization.

3.14.4 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT:

COMMON TIMING FACILITY (CTF) = It receives the GPS time, which is

spread to all the subsystem (via LAN) and all clocks (via Terminals) with NTP

protocol.

DATA RECORDING FACILITIES (DRF) = The Data Recording and Playback

Position (DRF) is one of the elements of the Tower and Approach Integrated

Control System. The main duties of this position are the recording of all relevant

data in a convenient order and their subsequent recognition and playback. The DRFs

is a utility for recording and play backing. The information of SDDs is saved on

tapes.

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The process is:

a) SDDs record all data in local files. The data are: Events, monitoring, etc.

This data files are sent to the DRFs each hour automatically.

b) When the DRFs receive the files from the SDDs, these ones are recorded on

tapes.

c) The DRFs displays to technical staff all files received from the SDDs on a

screen as well all files save on tapes.

This component records continuously all the data related to the tracks data, flight

plans data, and the controller actions to allow later playback and analysis.

To reproduce information stored in tape it would be enough with:

To gather the necessary files stored in tape. This operation is carried out by

means of an intuitive graphic interface.

The DRF will take charge loading the above mentioned information in the

SDD specified by the technician for his later reproduction.

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT (DBM)= It provides the necessary facilities the

creation and modification of the adaptation databases to supply the system with the

precise knowledge of its geographical environment to achieve the required

efficiency. From this database, all necessary data to define the control centre

characteristics are defined (fixpoints, aerodromes, airways, sectorization, adjacent

control centres, QNH zones, etc.)

NEPTUNO 4000= The Neptuno 4000 is a multi-channel signal recording. Neptuno

4000 performs the sampling of multiple analogue and/or digital channels, with

variable bandwidth and quality requirements. The sampled signals are stored

digitally, and can be replayed, transmitted, routed or edited.

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