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The following report comprises the information collected and conclusions drawn from a four month, fully funded research fellowship to promote the establishment of a National Digital Library of Art, Architecture and Design in Israel. Fellowship research addressed the field of digital documentation from a cultural heritage management perspective. The research applied qualitative methods including interviews with subject matter experts, exhibition observations and the review of over 300 on-line resources and websites.The report was presented on November 2011, to UNESCO Memory of the World Program and the Israeli Memory of the World National Committee. In order for the report to serve as a valuable supplementary resource for the team working on the Memory of The World initiative at Bezalel Academy, the major themes that surfaced during the research were grouped as four major categories and presented with relevant examples. Each category is divided into several topics to enable quick access to relevant information when needed; Project Design & Management Curatorial Processes Technical Requirements Outreach and Audience EngagementAlthough scholarly resources were reviewed for this paper, creating a practical resource required leaving the theoretical discussion aside. Given that this is not an academic exercise, reference is given to specific resources that were used directly or to interviewees who provided unique insight. In many cases an idea was mentioned by several interviewees and therefore specific reference is not provided. The Author wishes to thank the UNESCO Fellowship Programme Section for their generous support of this research. Special gratitude goes to Gregory P. J. Most, the National Gallery of Art and Peggy Pearlstein, the Library of Congress, for hosting the research and providing useful guidance and advice.
Citation preview
F e l l o w s h i p F i n a l R e p o r t
UNESCO Fellowship Program in Support of Program Priorities (2010-2011)
Research on Design from a Cultural Heritage Management Perspective
Supervisor: Gregory P. J. Most, Chief, Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art
Research Fellow: Rae’ut E. Stern
November 2011
1
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s
I would like to thank the UNESCO Fellowship Programme Section for their generous support of this research.
Special gratitude goes to Gregory P. J. Most, the National Gallery of Art and Peggy Pearlstein, the Library of
Congress, for hosting my research and providing useful guidance and advice.
Additional supporters I would like to acknowledge include:
Daniel Bar-Elli, Secretary-General, Israel National Commission for UNESCO
Ann Brener, Hebraic Section at the Library of Congress
Elaine J. Rigas
Boaz Shilo
Ben, Elia and Yaniv Stern
For their kind contribution to the research, I would like to express my gratitude to the individuals who agreed to
share their time and thoughts. Each and every interview provided interesting and useful information.
Arden Alexander Library of Congress John Mahar Library of Congress
Katherine Arrington Library of Congress Adam Metallo Smithsonian Institution
Julie Blake National Gallery of Art Michael Neubert Library of Congress
Sandy Bostian World Digital Library Ford Peatross Library of Congress
Karen Cassedy National Gallery of Art Michelle Rago World Digital Library
Elizabeth Concha National Gallery of Art Herb Rosenbleeth National Museum of American Jewish Military History
Verna Curtis Library of Congress
Peter Dueker National Gallery of Art Vince Rossi Smithsonian Institution
Susan Finkel National Gallery of Art Gail Shirazi Library of Congress
Kenneth N.Fleisher National Gallery of Art Jason Steinhauer Library of Congress
Nahid Gerstein Library of Congress John Tsantes Smithsonian Institution
John Gordy National Gallery of Art Stephen Van Dyk Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum
Cory Grace Smithsonian Institution John Van Oudenaren World Digital Library
Nancy Hartman United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Mary Westly National Museum of American Jewish Military History
Yasmeen Kahn Library of Congress
Erik Landsberg Museum of Modern Art Lindsay Zarwell United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Michael Levy United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Alison Zhang World Digital Library
2
C o n t e n t s
P r e f a c e ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
R e s e a r c h O b j e c t i v e s ................................................................................................................ 4
R e s e a r c h A c t i v i t i e s .............................................................................................................................. 4
F i n d i n g s ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Project Design & Management ................................................................................................................ 8
Establishing Project Mission, Goals and Boundaries ............................................................................ 8
Setting the Pace .................................................................................................................................. 10
Building Alliances ................................................................................................................................ 12
Striving to Offer Value ......................................................................................................................... 20
Curatorial Processes ............................................................................................................................... 22
Technical Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 31
Digitization .......................................................................................................................................... 31
Photography ................................................................................................................................................... 33
Scanning ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
Colour Management ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Three-Dimensional Digitization ........................................................................................................... 40
Digitization Workflow and Digital Asset Management ....................................................................... 47
Cataloguing Digital Content ................................................................................................................ 49
Digital Rights Management ................................................................................................................. 54
Information Preservation and Migration ............................................................................................ 57
Work Force Development ................................................................................................................... 60
Public Outreach and Audience Engagement ......................................................................................... 63
Unidirectional Information Dissemination ......................................................................................... 65
Bidirectional Communication and Participatory Interaction ............................................................. 67
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 72
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................ 74
List of Website references .......................................................................................................................... 78
Appendix A .................................................................................................................................................. 85
Appendix B .................................................................................................................................................. 88
Cover: Detail of Sjoerd Hofstra, All Meadows, 2005 Presented at the Rare books and special collections Reading Room, Library of Congress
3
P r e f a c e
In January 2011 I embarked on a four month fellowship, generously provided by the
UNESCO Program in Support of Program Priorities (2010-2011). The purpose of the
fellowship was intended as supplementary to the research activities of the Memory of the
World Initiative at Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, aimed at establishing a digital library
for design, art and architecture in Israel. For that reason, the fellowship took place in
Washington D.C., at the National Gallery of Art (NGA) and Library of Congress (LC).
The fellowship has proven to be an intense and unique professional experience. This is due
to the ongoing efforts of Gregory P. J. Most, Chief of the Department of Image Collection at
the National Gallery of Art, and Peggy Pearlstein, Head of the Hebraic Section at the Library
of Congress. Both provided continual, attentive and insightful support of my research. They
also introduced me to experts and enabled me to witness activities that I would not have
had access to otherwise.
The opportunity of meeting some of the leading experts in the field of cultural heritage
preservation provided me with both valuable information and with important contacts for
future consultation and knowledge exchange. Each and every encounter provided relevant
information and interesting recommendations.
True to its reputation, Washington D.C is a cultural hub offering continual opportunities to
observe how cultural heritage is presented to different audiences, and experienced by
them. In addition, the city’s large museum community offered me events and educational
meetings I could not have attended without the fellowship.
All of the above have contributed to the success of my fellowship research. The information
accumulated during the fellowship was vast, varied and could not have been attained
otherwise. In the months that have passed since my return to Israel, I witness daily how the
fellowship has contributed to my knowledge and understanding of the challenges posed by
digital libraries of visual content. My ability to plan and promote the establishment of the
digital library has increased considerably with the ability to analyze and foresee the
implications of various decisions within a larger, international perspective.
This document is a final report of the fellowship. As the purpose of the fellowship research
was to acquire applicable knowledge about the actual elements of building a digital library,
the fellowship was not designed as a rigid procedure but rather as an ongoing opportunity
to acquire firsthand advice and examples in lieu with the research objectives. Accordingly,
4
the purpose of this document is not to offer a revision of the available literature but rather
compile the experience, knowledge and insights that were shared by the experts
interviewed, alongside specific examples collected from the observations and literature.
1 . R e s e a r c h O b j e c t i v e s
The goals set for fellowship research were derived from the conclusions of the first stage of
the Bezalel research and focused on learning from the vast experience of leading
institutions in the field. Specifically, Washington DC was chosen as it is home to some of the
largest and most comprehensive cultural heritage institutions in the world.
The field of study was defined as Research on Design from a Cultural Heritage Management
Perspective. The particular areas in which knowledge was to be gained included two
different perspectives:
The role of the digital library as a cultural resource, corresponding with current and
future research needs.
The technical aspects of establishing and managing a digital library as a form of
cultural heritage management. This includes process management in digital
libraries and the strategic aspects of creating a useful and active premium data
base.
2 . R e s e a r c h A c t i v i t i e s
In order to make the best use of the limited time and available resources, several research
methods were implemented with the guidance of the supervisors at both institutes. These
methods were chosen for their potential in serving the applied nature of the research and
due to their ability to ensure exposure to many aspects of the research objectives. The
research methods were as follows:
2.1. Interviews
An initial list of 23 subject-matter experts was compiled according to supervisors’
recommendations. The experts were contacted to request a meeting and interview and
all but five responded positively. A follow-up meeting was scheduled with several of the
experts to discuss additional topics or gain a deeper understanding of a certain topic.
During the interviews additional recommendations were collected and all together 48
meetings were conducted with 36 experts during the fellowship.
5
Interview duration ranged between 45 minutes to 3 hours, and averaged 2 hours. Notes
of the interviews were taken in writing to maintain a flowing and comfortable rapport.
A list of the subject matter experts interviewed can be found in appendix A.
2.2. Observations
To gain a better understanding of the context in which each of the experts performs
their work, contextual information was collected prior to each meeting. This included
both a review of the web resource or website the expert was connected to, and, when
applicable, a visit to the space in which the content was originally or physically
encountered (e.g., museum exhibitions).
Fifteen physical observation sessions were conducted, ranging between 3 to 6 hours. Of
these observations, six sessions took place in institutions in which no expert was
interviewed. These included the Textile Museum, the National Portrait Gallery, the
Museum of Art and Design (NY), the Tenement Museum, the National Geographic
Society, and the Phillips Collection.
Session findings were documented in writing and photographed (when possible).
2.3. Conference Participation
In addition to a field trip to NYC, the fellowship enabled participation in the joint
conference of the Visual Resources Association (VRA) and the Art Libraries Society of
North America (ARLIS/NA) in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The five day conference
organized by two of the leading associations of visual resource management and art
librarianship was a comprehensive and useful learning opportunity. The large variety of
sessions dealt with topics such as visual resource digitization, art and design research
tools, online resources, mobile access to cultural heritage, etc.
The conference also provided an excellent opportunity to make new acquaintances and
inquire about products and services presented by relevant vendors. The list of lectures
and sessions attended can be found in appendix B.
2.4. Review of Online Resources
During the various research activities, many online websites and resources were
encountered. The useful and relevant links were added to a list compiled during the first
stage of the MOW research at Bezalel Academy. The list includes hundreds of links to
various online resources, tagged with keywords. The new resources (over 375) added
6
during the fellowship are tagged fellowship-report and with other keywords and are
available online1.
1 See at http://delicious.com/mow_pilot
Joseph Mallord William Turner, Keelmen Heaving in Coals by Moonlight, 1835 Inspiring Work in progress by unknown artist at the National Gallery of Art, May 2011
7
3 . F i n d i n g s
Corresponding with the initial research objectives, the information gathered and analyzed
addressed the meeting points of Design History, Anthropology, Museum Studies, and
Information Science as they take form in the creation and use of digital collections of design
and decorative arts. Having interviewed different experts in a variety of fields, it was
necessary to present the findings clearly. The two objectives initially described in the
research objectives2 were both addressed in the research. However, since the fellowship
was focused on practice rather than theory, these were not found to be the most efficient
categories through which to present the findings.
During the fellowship a few dominant themes were identified as prevalent. These themes
reflect thoughts that were expressed repetitively in many of the interviews and often were
discussed from the perspective of each field of expertise. In order for this document to
serve as a valuable supplementary resource for the team working on the Memory of The
World initiative at Bezalel Academy, these themes were grouped as four major categories.
Each category is divided into several topics to enable quick access to relevant information
when needed:
Project Design & Management
Curatorial Processes
Technical Requirements
Outreach and Audience Engagement
The four themes are hereby presented with relevant examples. Although scholarly
resources were reviewed for this paper, creating a practical resource required leaving the
theoretical discussion aside. Given that this is not an academic exercise, reference is given
to specific resources that were used directly or to interviewees who provided unique
insight. In many cases an idea was mentioned by several interviewees and therefore specific
reference is not provided.
2 See item 1.
8
3.1. Project Design & Management
Several of the interviews took place with current or past initiators of digitization
projects. Whether these were projects initiated within a large organization or as
independent initiatives, common challenges were often mentioned during the
interviews. While describing the challenges they had faced, and often still do, both
junior and senior management offered me a set of recommendations. These
recommendations were derived from their unique overlook and experience in
establishing, designing and managing a digital resource.
3.1.1. Establishing Project Mission, Goals and Boundaries
One of the most difficult stages of digitization projects is the initial steps towards
establishment of the project. The seemingly endless possibilities offered by
technology in the digital age often create an illusion that everything is possible
and worthwhile. Before long, this misconception shatters in the face of budget
constraints and other limitations such as unavailable technology or inability to
predict technological advancement. Nevertheless, these limitations are actually
an important catalyst in the process of establishing the project goals and
boundaries.
Not all of the digitization projects or departments visited during the fellowship
had officially established the project goals and boundaries. In many cases, the
goals were established ad hoc, derived from an immediate need that later on
evolved in to a larger project. However, several of the managers interviewed
regarded a written Mission Statement or Vision as useful tools to which they
repeatedly referred to during the first stages of establishment.
Useful Mission and Vision Statements usually result from careful analysis of the
circumstances in which a digitization project is created and the purpose it aims
to fulfil. The process in which these statements are created can assist in
developing the communication between all parties involved and should ensure a
clear and agreed upon base for action. According to Jason Steinhauer, Liaison
Specialist at Library of Congress Veterans History Project, the basic statements
can become even more useful when used not only as general guidance but as an
instrument for decisive and consistent decision making. By initially eliminating
certain courses of action, the attention that would have gone to considering
9
them is now spared. An example of a clear and useful Mission Statement for a
digital library was created by the World Digital Library (WDL), a project initiated
by the Library of Congress and developed with UNESCO. The WDL mission
includes a concise definition and lists the principle objectives3. A more elaborate
example, well-crafted and serving a large scale initiative, can be found in the
National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) ten year strategic plan4.
Similar to the WDL Mission Statement, other Mission and Vision Statements of
digital libraries usually address three important aspects. These include the
assumed responsibilities towards documentation and access, the scope and
depth of the content, and the definition of the target audience. The assumed
responsibilities are usually based on those of the establishing parties and reflect
the cultural role of the organizations to which the project is affiliated. This issue
will not be further discussed at this stage. The definition of the scope and depth
of the content are in fact the first steps in the curatorial process which will be
further discussed in item 3.2.
The third aspect, the definition of the target audience, impacts many of the core
decisions and requires attention right at the beginning of the establishment of
project goals and boundaries. Several project managers pointed out that the
desire to create free digital resources that provide information for all often
results in a mistaken definition of the target audience. A digital resource can be
free for all yet still require a clearer definition of the target audience.
According to Stephen H. Van Dyk, Head of the Art Department at the
Smithsonian Institution Libraries, the users of the Cooper-Hewitt National
Museum of Design library comprise mostly scholarly researchers, art and design
curators, designers, art appraisers, design collectors and authors. Understanding
the needs of these users, both in the library and in any digital service provided by
it, enables focusing the efforts of information dissemination effectively.
Two different informal definitions of a target audience were presented during
the interviews. The first definition perceived the target audience as the group of
3 See at http://www.wdl.org/en/about/
4 "Part II What Do We Want To Achieve?." In Preserving the past to protect the future the strategic plan of the
National Archives and Records Administration, 2006-2016.. Revised ed. Washington, D.C.: United States National Archives and Records Administration, 2009. 3-4. http://www.archives.gov/about/plans-reports/strategic-plan/2009/nara-strategic-plan-2006-2016-final.pdf
10
people who are to make the best use of the information to promote human
knowledge in that field (such as scholars, researchers and educators). The
second definition included the groups or individuals who will make any sort of
significant use of the resource (such as practitioners, private collectors, etc.).
Using either definition or both together improves the ability of the digital library
to serve the exact needs of its most dominant users, and perhaps its most
effective knowledge agents as well. By learning whom those users are, the
services provided can be based on suitable curatorial decisions, efficient
technology choices and valuable research tools. Using the endless definition of
the target audience as “everyone” or “the general public” deflates that ability.
Practical goals can be determined once the scope, mission and boundaries are
set. However, since all of these are established in specific circumstances,
changes and re-evaluation may be necessary at times. It is difficult to make
accurate predictions and therefore missions can change and evolve.
3.1.2. Setting the Pace
Once an agreed upon outline has been set, a work plan can be designed and
executed. Each project has its own natural evolution, pace and circumstances.
However, most of the digitization projects reviewed had an initial short stage
dedicated to strategic planning. In this stage, a small team or a manager took the
official or unofficial mission and drew a more detailed, practical plan, including
short and long term action items.
3.1.2.1. Project Planning and Deliverables
Michael Neubert, Supervisory Digital Projects Specialist at the Library of
Congress, stressed the importance of careful planning of a digitization project.
From his experience with many digitization initiatives, the planning stage of a
medium scale digitization project can take approximately a year. However,
during this time he recommended creating deliverables that complement the
strategic plan.
The deliverables should answer two essential objectives. The first objective is
to create the plan based on concrete experience within the specific
environment of the current project. The experience gained will improve the
understanding of the challenges ahead and may also shed light on problems
that were difficult to anticipate.
11
The second objective is to develop a small pilot product. This product does
not have to be a full and running system but rather an instrument to illustrate
the direction the project is heading. Furthermore, such a product
demonstrates the progress made during the planning stage to the
stakeholders supporting the project. Being a pilot product, changes and
corrections may be required later as the entire project progresses and
therefore the pilot product should be flexible enough to evolve. In certain
cases it may even be scrapped after its conclusion, having been used solely to
demonstrate the direction and tools of the main project.
Michelle Rago , Technical Director for the World Digital Library at the Library
of Congress, supported this approach and provided an example for such a
pilot product. During the initial stages of building the World Digital Library, a
short promotional video5 was produced. The video illustrated the vision for
the upcoming digital library in a way that was easy for external partners to
understand and relate to. The ambitious goals were appealing and inspired
them to respond and support the initiative. In addition, the process of
creating the video evoked ideas that would later become building blocks of
the information architecture and user interface.
John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, provided another
suggestion for a pilot project. In order to understand and apply best practice,
a case study of a few dozen objects arranged as a database can serve as a
quick yet detailed draft for the project structure. As a draft, the case study
can be built without extensive programming, using widely available and low
budget online tools6.
3.1.2.2. Incorporating Technology
Another aspect of setting the pace for the project is making decisions about
technology. Specifically, questions regarding predictions of future technology
often surface at this stage. In the Digital Age, as the pace of technological
change accelerates, it becomes unclear whether closely following
technological evolution should become a goal in its own. The question is no
5 See at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhBYGI6Tfzo . The video was edited by Joon Yi and soundtrack
produced by Fred Simonton. 6 For example at www.squarespace.com
12
longer What technology should we use? But rather- How can we keep up with
technological change?
Many of the project managers spoke of this dilemma and advised to keep in
mind the declared mission of the project. If the Mission Statement does not
relate to this issue, the across-the-board recommendation is to maintain a
delicate balance between the content and the platform in which it is
delivered. Content may be the core of a digital library but the technology with
which it is documented and delivered influences the digital library’s present
relevance and future existence.
Vince Rossi and Adam Metallo of the Smithsonian Institution point out
technology often moves faster than bureaucracy and therefore proper timing
becomes even more challenging. Planning ahead is advisable but alternative
routes should be created as well to enable prompt response when necessary.
For example, following Google’s footsteps and releasing beta versions is
increasingly more prevalent and can serve as a time saver. A beta version also
allows continual changes and encourages the users to send in their feedback.
3.1.2.3. Maintaining a Balanced approach
Summarizing the process of setting the pace for the project, Alison Zhang,
Metadata Specialist for the World digital Library at the Library of Congress,
suggested asking two important questions: “What do we want to do? and
How do we make it simple?” .
3.1.3. Building All iances
Aside from partners within the organization to which a digital library is affiliated,
fruitful alliances can be developed with external partners as well. Four types of
partners can be identified: content contributors (or suppliers), content
aggregators, knowledge exchange partners, and commercial partners. Alliances
forged with each of these groups can greatly contribute to the project in
different ways.
3.1.3.1. Content contributors
Alliances with content contributors are the most direct way to enrich the
database content and widen the scope of a digital library. The motivation of
13
such partners is usually to be able to gain online exposure to their content or
widen its reach.
An example for such cooperation on a national level can be found at the
United Kingdom Visual Arts Data Service (VADS)7. Based at the Farnham
Campus of the University College for the Creative Arts, the service has built up
a large database of visual art collections from external collections grouped
together. Each collection has its own introductory page and search is available
within a collection or across collections. By collaborating with the various
content contributors across the UK, VADS not only provides a central entry
point to these collections, but has also accumulated knowledge in all aspects
of digital resource management that it may share with partners and entire
visual arts research, teaching and learning communities.
The World Digital Library (WDL) is a fascinating example for collaboration on
an international level. Initiated by the Library of Congress and endorsed by
UNESCO, the WDL offers online access, free of charge to significant primary
materials from around the world, in multilingual format. To do so, the WDL
builds alliances with content contributors from different countries and
cultures. John Van Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library, sees
great importance in developing and maintaining fruitful relationships with all
content contributors. These efforts have resulted in measures taken to ensure
efficiency and positive outcomes for all parties involved.
During the first few years, the agreements between the WDL and the
contributing partners were created individually for each content contributor.
As the number of alliances grew, the agreements were replaced with the
World Digital Library Charter8, accepted by all contributing partners. The
charter states clearly the legal rights, responsibilities and obligations of all
parties, and regulates the ways in which decisions are made. The charter also
ratifies the contributors’ ability to influence and direct the work of the WDL
through the Executive Council, advisory committees and working groups.
7 See at: http://www.vads.ac.uk/index.php
8 See at: http://project.wdl.org/about/org.html
14
Due to the large number of content contributors9 the WDL works with, one of
the biggest challenges is aggregating the varied content into one consistent
and usable database. This requires standardization in both the digital imagery
and the descriptive metadata.
For the digital imagery a set of minimums standards10 is communicated to the
partners alongside file naming guidelines11 . Adherence to these guidelines
enables efficient content transfer and maintenance. Not without humour,
Sandy Bostian, Content Manager for the World Digital Library at the Library of
Congress, referred to this process as file herding. Intervention in the images
themselves is usually not done at the WDL.
Specific requirements were created for the descriptive metadata as well. For
all objects a fixed set of metadata elements12 is used to enhance discovery,
simplify maintenance, and improve search and browse possibilities. The set is
mapable to MARC, Dublin Core and MODS formats. Alison Zhang, Metadata
Specialist for the World digital Library at the Library of Congress explained
that requiring the partners to provide the data within an acceptable standard
enables focusing the efforts on improving the content of the metadata itself.
In many cases, information received from partners includes spelling mistakes,
mixed terminology and other inconsistencies. These demand attention from
the metadata team aiming to provide a seamless search experience across
many items.
Altogether, much communication is required in maintaining a positive
relationship with the content providers. Michelle Rago, Technical Director for
the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress, recommended regulating
the continuous communication with the partners via a listserv. Much of the
information required by one partner is later useful for another and often
questions can be answered by other partners.
Ms. Ragu also pointed out that when projects are built with plans to expand,
it is important to establish the alliances according to what they are to become
9 Standing at 119 partners according to http://www.wdl.org/en/partners/ reviewed during October 2011
10 See at http://project.wdl.org/standards/imagestandards.html
11 See at http://project.wdl.org/standards/filenaming.html
12 See at http://project.wdl.org/standards/metadata.html
15
down the line. Promises made to partners at an early stage may be possible to
maintain with ten or twenty partners but might become impossible when the
number grows to a hundred partners or more.
3.1.3.2. Content Aggregators
Striving to improve worldwide access to digital treasures and promote
digitization in the last few years, mega digitization initiatives have emerged
around the world. These large scale international initiatives serve as either
access points to a large number of collections (on both the collection and item
levels) or actually aggregate collections.
Europeana13, for example, enables exploring the digital resources of Europe's
museums, libraries, archives and audio-visual collections in a multilingual
setting. More than 15 million items can be found using Europeana, including
images (paintings, drawings, maps, photos and pictures of museum objects),
text (books, newspapers, letters, diaries and archival papers), sound (music
and spoken word from cylinders, tapes, discs and radio broadcasts) and video
(films, newsreels and TV broadcasts). The item listings are aggregated to
Europeana from nearly 1500 cultural heritage institution across Europe and
viewed using a link directing to their original location in the appropriate
institution website.
The ARTstor Digital Library14 is a nonprofit resource that includes more than
one million digital images in the arts, architecture, humanities, and sciences
with supporting tools, and meant for teaching and research. The community-
built collections comprise contributions from museums, libraries, photo
archives and private collections. The resource is available by institutional
subscription fees that fund the continual maintenance and development of
the collections and software.
Alliances with mega digital libraries such as ARTstor or Europeana can offer
greater exposure to target audiences and promote knowledge transfer. The
possibility of becoming a contributing partner to a mega digital library should
13 See at http://www.europeana.eu/portal/
14 See at http://www.artstor.org/index.shtml
16
even be considered during the early stages of creating a digital library, since it
may affect the choice of an acceptable metadata schema.
Beyond their social value, alliances with mega digital libraries may open new
financing possibilities. As recognized and large initiatives, funding is
frequently available in support of research, scholarship or specific digitization
projects. Also, as highly complex projects, tools and software are often
custom built for the project, available to the partners at a low cost or even as
open-source software.
Artstor, for example, is developing Shared Shelf15, a web-based image
cataloging and management software service. The service is designed to offer
seamless integration of image collections with the ARTstor Digital Library,
however can be used as a standalone system as well. Shared Shelf service
provides remote hosting of digital assets, cataloging tools, vocabulary tools,
digital asset management options, as well as web publishing and export tools.
3.1.3.3. Knowledge Exchange Partners
An additional type of alliance can grow between two or more organizations
that can benefit from content or knowledge exchange.
Content exchange takes place when separate collections can benefit from
including content derived from the other collection. This way, each collection
can offer a larger database to its users and Increase the public exposure of
the other collection by providing proper reference or a direct link. Content
exchange cooperation in some cases can also become cost effective when the
cost of future digitization projects is shared by the organizations interested in
presenting the items in their digital collections. As always, copy and usage
rights must be addressed in these cases and can usually be resolved.
Founded in 2006, with support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the
New York Art Resources Consortium (NYARC)16 aims to enhance available
resources to research communities through collaboration. The consortium
brought together research libraries of three leading art museums in New York
City: The Brooklyn Museum, The Frick Collection, and The Museum of Modern
15 See at: http://www.artstor.org/shared-shelf/s-html/shared-shelf-home.shtml
16 See at: http://www.nyarc.org/
17
Art. As part of the collaboration, joint digitization projects are executed,
benefiting all of the content exchange partners, and of course the research
community.
Knowledge exchange partnerships offer the possibility to promote or initiate
new possibilities rather than exchange existing content. The purpose of such
alliances is to bring together knowledge or nonmonetary resources held by
either partner for a specific goal or project. The knowledge or resources can
be for example experimental technology, new research tools, theoretical
perspective, etc.
Encouraging such alliances, in 2009 the National Endowment for the
Humanities joined forces with the National Science Foundation and
institutions around the world to create the grant program challenge Digging
into Data17. The purpose of this grant program is to address how the large
quantities of data can change the research possibilities for the humanities and
social sciences using new computationally-based methods. To do so, grants
were awarded to eight international, multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary
research teams, out of nearly ninety that competed.
An interesting example for the potential of such research in the field of visual
culture digitization appeared in the research Digging into Image Data to
Answer Authorship Related Questions (DID-ARQ)18. Proposed by a team of
researchers from different research fields at the University of Sheffield, UK,
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA and Michigan State
University, USA. The group collaboration aimed to discover what salient
characteristics make an artist different from others, and how this information
can first be extracted and then enable statistical learning about individual and
collective authorship. The research focused on three datasets of visual works:
fifteenth century manuscripts, seventeenth and eighteenth century maps,
and twentieth-century quilts.
The Strategic Content Alliance19 was set up by the Joint Information Systems
Committee (JISC), in collaboration with the British Library, the British
17 See at http://www.diggingintodata.org/
18 See at http://isda.ncsa.illinois.edu/DID/
19 See at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/contentalliance.aspx
18
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the British Education Communications and
Technologies Agency (BECTA), the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council
(MLA) and the NHS National Library for Health (NLH). The alliance promotes
the ability of any public sector organization involved in the creation or
management of digital content to share expertise, leverage the most from the
public funding and avoid duplication of effort.
3.1.3.4. Commercial Partners
For digital libraries in the public realm, cooperation with commercial partners
poses legal and ethical dilemmas. Extraneous agendas or conflicting pressures
may arise and interfere with the responsibilities of a public institution.
Nevertheless, with proper consideration, alliances with commercial partners
can enhance the possibilities of a digital library to provide better services or
increase its revenues.
A straight-forward example was discussed during an interview with Susan
Finkel, Collection Information Systems Coordinator, and Elizabeth Concha,
Collection Information Systems Assistant, Office of the Registrar. The National
Gallery of Art began in 2005 a mutually beneficial cooperation with the
company Gallery Systems. By assisting Gallery Systems to improve their off-
the-shelf collection management system, The Museum System (TMS), a
reduced cost was negotiable. Furthermore, the product was upgraded and
adjusted according to the specific and long-term needs of the National Gallery
of Art and thus suited many other museums that comply with NGA standards.
The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is engaged in
several creative collaborations with commercial partners20. One of the
interesting alliances was made with the Generations Network (TGN), parent
company of Ancestry.com. This agreement supports NARA’s mission to
maintain and make available to the public certain historical records and other
documentary materials of the US government by allowing Ancestry.com to
digitize materials at the National Archives for online access. Access to the
materials on Ancestry.com is available via subscription. However, to ensure
continual free public access, the digitized materials are also available in
National Archives research rooms nationwide. In addition, a copy of all
20 For additional examples see http://www.archives.gov/digitization/partnerships.html.
19
digitized content and metadata is donated to the National Archives. Other
limitations appear in the signed agreement, protecting NARA and limiting the
rights of TGN21.
Debuting in 2011, the Google Art Project22 has received high profile public
exposure. Led by Google, a dominant force in the world of digitization, the
project enables users around the world to take a virtual tour through some of
the leading art museums and view high resolution imagery of treasured works
of art.
The Freer Gallery of Art23 at the Smithsonian Institution24 participated in the
project by providing Google with access and a limited amount of staff hours.
Cory Grace, Digital Asset Manager, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler
Gallery, recalled the process of working with Google as an interesting
professional collaboration. The project promoted virtual access for users
around the world to imagery of chosen works of art from the gallery
collection also using the "gigapixel" process, which stitches together multiple
high-resolution images.
Alongside the obvious advantages and public interest, evident drawbacks
surfaced during the collaboration, as in any learning experience. One
weakness was the use of street view technology which was still not suitable
for the space and light conditions of the gallery. Furthermore, the use of
street view did not portray the changing nature of an art gallery.
Another weakness may be viewed in long-term project management.
Sustaining continual public interest requires continual expansion in either
depth or breadth. Perhaps due to the start-up nature of the project, in this
case the future and scope of the project remained unclear during the
collaboration stages, not enabling long term planning.
Commercial partners as exemplified above are often large-scale private-
sector entities. When considering partnerships, it may be useful to look into
21 The full digitization agreement is available at http://www.archives.gov/digitization/pdf/tgn-agreement.pdf
22 See at: http://www.googleartproject.com/
23 See at: http://www.asia.si.edu/
24 See at: http://www.si.edu/
20
other sectors as well. In January 2011 the VIP Art Fair25, an online
international contemporary art fair, took place for the very first time. Nearly
one hundred and thirty prominent contemporary art galleries took part in the
event, showcasing their available works to both collectors and other art
traders.
The success of the event amplified the growing need of galleries to expose
their work to international buyers online. Galleries seek this exposure but can
also offer valuable digital documentation and metadata regarding
contemporary art in their possession. On these grounds, collaboration can
assist a large digital library with documentation of contemporary art in return
for exposure to target audiences.
3.1.4. Striving to Offer Value
Perhaps the most important aspect of project management is the ability to
understand the greater perspective in which the digital library operates and
provides added value beyond basic digitization and online access services.
Although this opinion was voiced repeatedly in interviews, creating a project that
offers profound added value is not an easy task.
One way of defining added value is considering it as an additional factor
justifying the investment. Digital libraries require large investments of funds and
effort over time. There are many reasons for making this investment such as
promoting research, advancing education and providing inspiration, to name a
few. However, even if the purpose is of the highest moral value, investments
usually demand measurable justification or proof. Measurable justification can
be, for example, increased web traffic, new research uses, new audiences or
even public discussion. The added value offered by a digital library ensures that
the information is not only available but also accessed and used in ways that
justify the investment.
The Dorothy and Herbert Vogel Collection: Fifty Works for Fifty States (Vogel
50X50)26 is an inspiring example for a digital collection that offers unique added
value based on the inherent circumstances of the physical collection. Beginning
25 See at: http://www.vipartfair.com
26 See at: http://vogel5050.org/
21
in 1992, The National Gallery of Art, gained stewardship of part of the large art
collection gathered by Dorothy and Herbert Vogel. In 2008, the collection,
encompassing nearly four thousand paintings, objects, drawings, photographs,
prints, and illustrated books, could not be placed in any one institution. Thus
came to life the Vogel 50x50 project in which the treasures of their collection
were shared with museum patrons nationwide. The project has support from the
National Endowment for the Arts and the Institute of Museum and Library
Services, and in 2009 the project website and its digital collection were launched.
Although the 2500 works were distributed to museums nationwide, museum
patrons at the various locations could not view the collection as a whole entity.
The project website and digital collection provided unique added value to its
users by solving this problem and overcoming the geographical barrier. The
digital collection enables viewing the virtual collection as a unified entity in spite
of its fragmented physical reality.
Added value is not an intermittent goal but rather a continual aspiration. As
technological realities change rapidly, the possibility to offer valuable services
changes as well, along with user expectations. Therefore, the search for added
value should not focus only on the inherent circumstances of the digital content
but also review the constant developments in the field of digital information.
Expanding the horizons can be done by participation in the many professional
organizations that try to improve their understanding of the future of cultural
heritage digitization through continual discussion and research. For instance, the
Museum Computer Network27 encourages exploration, discussion and
dissemination of new technology and best practices for the non-profit
organization. Museum3 is a social network dedicated to the future of museums,
galleries, libraries, archives and science centres28.
27 See at: http://www.mcn.edu/
28 See at: http://museum3.org/
22
3.2. Curatorial Processes
A common misconception outside the professional circles is that digital libraries can
and should include “everything”. Whether or not this should be an aspiration remains
debatable. However, not many digital libraries attempt to do so, understanding the
costs, labour and time required. This constraints demand prioritization which can be
developed and implemented as curatorial process29.
Not many curators responded to the request to meet. However, from the interviews
that took place with curators, cataloguers and project managers, it became apparent
that the complex curatorial process should be addressed after answering the following
set of seemingly simple questions: What are we? What do we decide to collect? What
do we collect within a collection? What do we say about an item? Who Is “We”?
3.2.1. What Are We?
Digital libraries that evolved from physical collections owned by libraries,
archives or museums often resemble the mission and functions of the
organization to which they are affiliated. Arguably, differences between
different digital libraries can be identified due to the different purposes their
parent organizations fulfil. For example, digital libraries of library collections
often emphasize the responsibility of a library to organize the information in
meticulous order with thorough consideration of the assigned metadata. Digital
libraries of museum collections often emphasize user engagement and visual
appeal. These differences are becoming more indefinite, yet remain perceptible.
John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, explained that the
answer to the question “Who are we?” directly influences the fundamental
curatorial approach. For example, the answer “museum” may require limiting
the digital collection to mostly “wall-worthy” objects whereas answering
“library” may require creating a digital collection that provides a wider view on
matters. These differences influence basic curatorial decisions. A comprehensive
understanding of the mission of the project prevents it from failing as a result
from unsuitable decisions.
29 Not to be confused with the phrase “Digital Curation” which is further discussed in item 3.2.
23
Even if the digital initiative is not affiliated to a distinct type of collection, the
mission statement should provide an answer to the question “Who are we?”.
The answer does not have to be one type or the other, but may present a
combination of several types such as assuming the responsibilities of an archive
with the services of a library and the actions of a museum.
3.2.2. What Do We Decide to Collect?
A common tool used by museums and libraries alike is the Collection Policy
Statement30 for administering the collection development and related
acquisitions, while providing the curatorial process with a general framework.
The policy outlines the scope of the collection, the level of collecting extent and
goals to be achieved. A detailed and useful booklet providing guidance on writing
a Collection Development Policy from a library perspective31 was published in
2001 by the Section on Acquisition and Collection Development at the
international Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)32.
In order to create the Collection Policy Statement, a philosophical discussion may
be required to clarify the fundamental concepts, assumptions and interpretation
that construct the worldview on which the collection is based. Stephen H. Van
Dyk, Head of the Art Department at the Smithsonian Institution Libraries,
recommended attending to the philosophical questions as part of the
establishment of the curatorial process.
Mr. Van Dyk explained that in the field of Design, collection policies can greatly
vary due to the multifaceted nature of the field. In New York two of the leading
cultural institutes offer viewers fascinating, yet dissimilar collections of design
objects. The Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) holds a collection of design objects
that are included as modern and contemporary art33. Two miles away, the
Cooper Hewitt National Design Museum is the single museum in the United
30 Also titled Collection Selection Criteria, Collection Development Policy.
31 The booklet uses the Conspectus methodology. The Conspectus level indicator is an alpha-numeric code used
per subject to indicate both the existing collection strength (ECS) of what a library already holds, and the current collecting intensity (CCI) in terms of collection-building goals. The Numbers range from 0 – Out of scope to 5 – Comprehensive level. 32
Guidelines for a collection development policy using the Conspectus model. The Hague: IFLA, Section on Acquisition and Collection Development, 2001. http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/cpc.html 33
See the MOMA collections management policy at www.moma.org/docs/explore/CollectionsMgmtPolicyMoMA_Oct10.pdf
24
States devoted entirely to historic and contemporary design. Due to the difference in
philosophical standpoints, parts of the collections are mutually exclusive. One
collection may ask “What are the greatest designs?” and the other may ask
“What great change can design promote?” This is not to say that one collection is
superior to the other, but rather point out the different perspectives the
collections offer.
The Collection Policy Statement attempts to project the philosophical standing
on the actual decisions. Other influences may, in fact, impact curatorial decisions
and should be acknowledged as well. Michael R. Levy, Director of the Digital
Collections at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM),
regarded the effect of trends in research and in public interest as a positive yet
challenging requirement. A trend can promote public interest and new findings.
It may, however, draw the attention and efforts from other important topics that
are not as appealing. Since the USHAMM collections aspire to provide a rich,
wide and accurate historical account, a balanced approach is maintained. This
challenge receives great consideration not only in the curatorial process but in
the construction of the digital platform and metadata as well.
Finding the equilibrium between research trends and a balanced representation
is important for future uses as well. The ways in which materials will be used in
the future are hard to predict, but leaving leeway for unanticipated future
interests requires a wider rather than narrower curatorial approach. In an
interview to the New York Times34 the director of the Papers of Abraham Lincoln,
Daniel W. Stowell, recollected that when the collected published works of
Abraham Lincoln were posted online a few years ago, he expected historians to
be the most frequent visitors to his project’s site. But he was surprised to
discover that the heaviest users were connected to Oxford University Press;
editors of the Oxford English Dictionary had been searching the papers to track
down the first appearance of particular words.
An additional influence on a curatorial process may result from the difficulty to
anticipate the readiness of content for acquisition. The availability of new
content is not always made in accordance with desired priorities, or
34 Cohen, Patricia. "Digital Keys for Unlocking the Humanities’ Riches" . New York Times (NY), November 16, 2010,
NY edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/17/arts/17digital.html?pagewanted=1
25
philosophical standpoints. Ford C. Peatross, Director of the Center for
Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and Photographs Division at the
Library Of Congress, recalled a long list of situations that encourage contribution
of a private collection, many of which are tragic circumstances or the threat of a
natural disaster.
Due to the discrepancy between the available private collections and the
collection policy statement, Mr. Peatross suggested developing a supporting
instrument in the form of a decision tree. The decision tree can be used for
uniform evaluation in support of the curatorial process. The details of the
comparison should enable the curator specialist to assess the value of the new
content, the established importance, the present and future impact, the
resources required to handle the content (e.g. space, metadata and
conservation), the legal rights and the financial value vs. cost. Implementing a
decision tree enables a smooth translation of the collection policy statement into
a well thought-out decision about a specific collection
3.2.3. What Do We Col lect Within a Collection ?
Even the most interesting collection acquired by a museum, archive, library or
digital repository may still include items which are of little or no value. Cases in
which a curator must sift through a collection to make Individual decisions about
thousands of objects may require more time and effort than the investment in
digitization of those items. For that reason, Mr. Peatross recommended
favouring global over individual decisions per collection. This requires attaining a
basic acquaintance with the collection from which a set of priorities and
digitization rules can be generated. The specific nature of the collection dictates
the forms of treatment different types of content receive. Naturally, a collection
from an engineering firm would require a slightly different set of decisions than
would an architecture firm.
The Issue of leeway is relevant for the selection within a collection as between
collections and relates again to the identity of the digital library. A digital library
that assumes the role of a library or archive would require a more flexible
selection than would a museum. The Archives of American Art (AAA)35 at the
Smithsonian Institution are a remarkable example of value that can be found
35 See at: http://www.aaa.si.edu/
26
when grouping information that may have been lost otherwise. The unique
possibility to look in to the peripheral information about art and artists’ lives
exposes not only new information about specific cases but also enables new
interpretations and cross sectional analysis.
Other disciplines of visual culture could also gain from a more holistic approach.
Mr. Peatross stated that in many architecture collections, the historical tendency
was to exclude the technical specifications. Valuable information about
elevation, electricity, plumbing and structural construction was lost. And yet, as
tempting as the idea of digitizing “everything” may be, the fine line between
potential value and no value must be maintained in accordance with the mission
of the digital library.
A surprising perspective on the question of inclusion was offered by Susan
Finkel, Collection Information Systems Coordinator, and Elizabeth Concha,
Collection Information Systems Assistant, Office of the Registrar. On occasion, a
video art instalment includes a device (e.g. television) on which the work is to be
shown. Technically, the video and device can be updated as technology evolves,
according to the digital preservation strategies of the institution. However, in
some cases the device itself is considered an integral part of the work and
requires preservation. Kirschenbaum (2008)36 discusses the importance of
understanding the attributes of technological objects when analysing new
media. His suggestion that a similarity can be drawn between research of books
as physical objects and computer forensics raises a question that is relevant for
any attempt to separate content from medium.
Physical archives have been dealing with this question for several decades.
Digital collections are increasingly facing similar questions as the speed of
technological change accelerates. When dealing within a digital collection with
the above example of a video shown on a specific television the digital surrogate
may require additional documentation. One part would be the video itself and
the other is a video of the operating television instalment. As technology evolves
at an increasing speed, more complex problems may arise.
36 Kirschenbaum, Matthew G.. Mechanisms: new media and the forensic imagination. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Press, 2008.
27
3.2.4. What Do We Say About An Item?
Not to be confused with the curatorial process discussed in this document, the
phrase “Digital Curation” refers to the long-term management and preservation
of digital data including managing data from its creation, through digitization and
documentation, discovery and re-use (Abbott, 2008). Part of this process is the
assignment of metadata to digital objects. Descriptive metadata is the data
which assists users to locate resources, to distinguish one resource from
another, and to discover further information about the subject or content37. The
descriptive metadata requires curatorial involvement regarding accuracy of
information, subject headings and providence of accompanying information.
The World Digital Library team highly values accurate, precise and viable
metadata, which they provide in seven different languages. John Van
Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library, asserted this to be both the
responsibility and the privilege of the WDL as a joint initiative of the Library of
Congress and UNESCO. The metadata is received from the WDL partners and the
WDL team works with the help of subject matter consultants and translators to
guarantee that the information added to the database matches the high
standards that were set.
The quality assurance process at the WDL is costly in terms of time and
expertise. The database includes significant content from about every UNESCO
member country and currently includes over 4000 items. As opposed to the work
done by the WDL, other digital collections that deal with larger volumes use
different strategies to create metadata. In large, fast growing collection, rapid
digitization methods have evolved for certain types of works such as books, fine
art prints and photographic materials (e.g. slides, negatives and prints). Such
strategies include, for example, rapid cataloguing of entire collections by
providing large groups of items within a collection with only basic descriptive
metadata or using crowd sourcing for information tagging.
From the curatorial perspective, the decision to use rapid cataloguing strategies
for descriptive metadata contradicts the aspiration to provide valuable viable
37 A framework of guidance for building good digital collections a NISO recommended practice. 3rd ed. Baltimore,
MD: National Information Standards Organization (NISO), 2007. http://www.niso.org/publications/rp/framework3.pdf
28
information. The rapid cataloguing is criticized as allowing partial, inaccurate or
misleading information. Critics also claim rapid cataloguing does not exert the
curator’s responsibility to share the knowledge and research with the public.
Contrary approaches view rapid cataloguing to be a useful tool for making raw
materials available to the public. To prevent misleading the public with any
inaccuracy, several digital collections add a note to the public regarding the
status of the provided information. The Harvard Art Museums website, for
example, adds the following pink coloured statement alongside some of the
objects: “This record was created from historic documentation and may not have been
reviewed by a curator; it may be inaccurate or incomplete. Our records are frequently
revised and enhanced. Please contact the curatorial department listed above for more
information.”38
Beyond the dilemma of saying a lot on a little, or a little on a lot, the dominance
of text in the descriptive metadata can also be questioned. John Gordy, Web
Manager at the National Gallery of Art suggested rethinking text as the dominant
way to describe an object or inform users of information. Mr. Gordy explained
that textual representation remains important for the access and discovery
environments, and yet users can benefit from other forms of information
delivery such as video, sound or information visualization techniques. If an item
deserves the curatorial attention in terms of knowledge sharing or
interpretation, the various possibilities of providing rich and valuable
information about it should be explored. An historical account of an artist’s
biography, a recorded interview or a video of the artist at work all shed a light on
different aspects of the artist’s creations. By committing only to textual
communication about that artist, supplementary information is left out and
users who prefer to consume information in other ways are alienated.
3.2.5. Who Is “We”?
The decisions made in the curatorial process are intertwined with the complex
and specific circumstances of each digital library. As the preceding set of
questions demonstrated, the curatorial process requires a deep understanding
of both the subject matter and the technical aspects of managing a digital
database. These requirements bring many inexperienced project managers to
38 See for example: http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/collection/detail.dot?id=M9346
29
make misguided decisions when recruiting staff, according to Ford C. Peatross,
Director of the Center for Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and
Photographs Division at the Library Of Congress. Mr. Peatross explained that
project managers often assume that if knowledge in both fields is required, the
most efficient action would be to hire one person that understands both aspects.
These people do exist; however, being a cataloguer and curator are two distinct
professions that require specialized training, experience, and the proper amount
of time to perform their duties. Therefore, hiring one person to tackle both tasks
is not an efficient way to manage the curatorial process. Also, the tasks involved
in either profession are quite dissimilar and as a result, prioritizing and dividing
the time usually eliminates important tasks.
To ensure a balanced management of the curatorial process, Mr. Peatross
recommended setting up the curatorial process as a team effort. For the more
general questions, such as “Who are we?” and “What do we decide to collect”?,
the dialogue should take place between the project leadership, curators, web
managers and other appropriate stakeholders such as a curatorial committee.
The more detailed questions involved in the continuous work can be regulated
as a team process. For a new collection that has been acquired, the curator
investigates the collection content and background to create a document that
provides users with an introduction to the collection, including a historical
account, highlights and appropriate references. Then, in a joint effort with the
cataloguer, they create a detailed list of cataloguing guidelines for the specific
collection (e.g. appropriate subject headings, terms, dates and further details).
After the collection is catalogued according to the guidelines, it can be reviewed
again by the curator for any minor corrections necessary.
The role of the curator can be filled by an individual expert or a committee. In
large and fast growing digital initiatives, one expert is usually not enough and a
team of experts, each in a different field, are required to provide attention to the
possible acquisitions and the content flowing into the collection.
John Van Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library divides the curatorial
process at the WDL into two stages. In the first stage, the collections are chosen
in a bidirectional process with each of the partners. Mr. Van Oudenaren reviews
the collections that the partners are considering sharing and assists them with
appropriate choice. Once the collections have been chosen and transferred,
additional curatorial work is often required to adjust or create the accompanying
30
descriptive metadata. Due to large variety of material received at the WDL, it is
not possible to hire a full-time content expert for each topic. Instead, the WDL
works with project-based consultants.
Mr. Van Oudenaren also pointed out the yet-to-be-fulfilled potential of the
academic world to contribute knowledge through digital libraries. Academic
knowledge is most often shared in the formats, such as journal and book
publications, that promote their creators. Since sharing the knowledge in a
digital library does not offer academic recognition, not as many researchers use
these platforms for knowledge sharing. However, digital libraries are in need of
expert knowledge and lack the funding to fully support it. Therefore, by
providing academic recognition via proper procedures (e.g. peer review)
research in support of digital libraries can be encouraged.
The answer to Who is “We”? seems to already head beyond the professional
world and academia. New-media advocates see the users become increasingly
involved, and claim user participation can actually increase the value of
curatorial judgment (Wright, 2010)39. How exactly this will affect the curatorial
process will unfold in the years to come, however, embracing user participation
while maintaining the objective of providing viable information will ensure a
smooth transition.
39 Wright, Alex. "Online, It’s the Mouse That Runs the Museum." . New York Times (NY), January 19, 2010, New
York edition. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/20/arts/design/20museum.html?pagewanted=1
New Acquisitions presented at the Rare Books and Special Collections Reading Room. Library of Congress
31
3.3. Technical Recommendations
The many aspects of creating a digital collection include digitization of objects,
cataloguing, asset management, information preservation and many other tasks. The
international professional community has created many useful best-practice resources
and guidelines that provide standardized recommendations from leading experts. These
have been partially reviewed in the final report of the first stage of the Memory of the
World (MOW) research at Bezalel Academy40.
Therefore, in this document only the prevailing resources recommended by the
interviewees are listed. In addition, specific titbits of advice are listed as detached items.
Many of these recommendations are part of the accumulated yet undocumented
knowledge from the personal experience of the experts interviewed. To the experienced
reader, they may seem to be stating the obvious. However, these reflect answers to
questions that came up during the first stage of the MOW research at Bezalel.
3.3.1. Digitization
McKenna and De Loof (2009[a] p.6)41 define "Digitisation" as the process of
transformation of original material into digital form. In this context, reproduction
is digitisation aimed at reproducing the original material in digital form, as
accurately as possible. Many digital forms exist, this report will discuss
digitization in to 2D and 3D imagery alone. General information and guidelines
about Digitization can be found in the following resources:
Federal Agencies Digitization Guidelines Initiative (FADGI)42 – Is a joint effort of
federal agencies to provide agreed upon methods, guidelines and practices. The
initiative was created in 2007 and since then focuses on digitization of historical
content in still images and audio visual materials. The FADGI website offers
guidelines and resources update by the working groups that have created them.
40 Stern, Rae'ut E.. Preparatory Research for the Establishment of a National Digital Library of Art, Architecture and
Design. Final Report, phase I. Jerusalem: Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, 2010. http://www.bezalel.ac.il/res/about/Bezalel_Final_Report_July_2010.pdf 41
McKenna, Gordon, and De Loof Chris. ATHENA Report on existing standards applied by European museums . eContentplus, 2009. www.athenaeurope.org/getFile.php?id=396 42
See at: http://www.digitizationguidelines.gov
32
The Institute for Museum and Library Services (IMLS)43 - The Institute is the
primary source of federal support for 123,000 libraries and 17,500 museums in
the United States. The Institute works at the national level and in coordination
with state and local organizations to preserve heritage, culture, and knowledge
by enhancing learning and innovation, and supporting professional
development.
Art Librarians Society of North America (ARLIS/NA)44 - is an organization of
individuals devoted to fostering excellence in art and design librarianship and
image management. Founded in 1972, the group aims to foster excellence in art
and design librarianship and image management by providing a forum for ideas,
projects, and programs.
Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)45 – Is a United Kingdom based
resource on information and digital technologies for education and research. The
JISC has expanded its scope of projects and publications to a wide variety of
topics including digitization, digital repositories, and digital preservation amongst
others46.
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)47 – Was
founded in 1927 and has developed in to a global force in the library and
information profession, while empowering libraries to enable their users to have
equitable access to information. Through activities and groups such as the Art
Libraries Section48, publications are provided.
The Visual Resources Association (VRA)49 - Is a multi-disciplinary organization
devoted to advancing research and education in the field of image management
within the educational, cultural heritage, and commercial environments. The
Association develops standards and offers educational tools, publication
programs and educational activities for knowledge advancement and best
practice. The Association promotes discussion of vital concern to the field,
43 See at: http://www.imls.gov/
44 See at: http://www.arlisna.org/index.html
45 See at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/
46 See at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/publications.aspx
47 See at: http://www.ifla.org/
48 See at: http://www.ifla.org/en/art-libraries
49 See at: http://www.vraweb.org/
33
including: preservation of and access to images of visual culture, cataloguing and
classification standards and practices, and intellectual property policy.
Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC)50 - is an international library cooperative
and computer network that enables libraries to share library resources, services
and expertise in order to reduce costs and improve visibility and viability. The
OCLC publishes reports from collaborative research and international
conferences.51
The above resources and others provide a useful starting point for inquires about
digitization. Resources on specific issues are list below along with the advice
provided by interviewees.
3.3.1.1. Photography
Visiting the National Gallery of Art provided a unique opportunity to
observe the outstanding image reproduction facilities in which some of
the world’s finest art is documented. Peter Dueker, Digital Asset
Management Solutions and Kenneth N. Fleisher, Colour Scientist from the
Division of Imaging and Visual Services, provided a review of the detailed
and careful steps taken at the National Gallery of Art to ensure continual
implementation of best practice in image creation and management. This
review was reiterated in the visit to the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA),
NY, where Erik Landsberg, Head of Collections Imaging Department of
Imaging Services, introduced the photographic work done at the MOMA
from the perspective of engagement with the curatorial process. An
unplanned meeting with John Tsantes, Head of Imaging and Photographic
Services at Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, proved
insightful in terms of adjusting equipment and imaging process to budget
constraints.
The scope of this report naturally cannot detail all of the useful
information shared in these meetings. However, excellent resources for
further reference and specific recommendations are listed below.
50 See at: http://www.oclc.org/middleeast/en/global/default.htm
51 See at: http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/default.htm
34
Digital Photography Resources
Many of the general resources provide a basic review of photography
recommendations referring mostly to Image resolution and file types.
However, for institutions who digitize visual culture objects such as
fine art, design and architecture and require updated and detailed
advice three resources were recommended:
Digital Photography Best Practices and Workflow (DPBestflow)52 is an
initiative of the American Society of Media Photographers (ASMP)
funded by the Library of Congress. The initiative website provides
guidelines for refined production workflows, archiving methods, and
best practices for professional digital photography based on a variety
of capture methods and intended image use. A useful Glossary is
included as well53.
Universal Photographic Digital Imaging guidelines (UPDIG)54 – were
created by the UPDIG Coalition UPDIG Coalition, dedicated to
promoting standards for photographic digital imaging. The guidelines
were last updated in 2008 and aim to clarify issues affecting accurate
reproduction and management of digital images. These issues include
establishing photographic standards and practices for the entire
image production process including the photography technicalities
and workflow, digital asset management, colour profiling, and
associated metadata.
ImageMuse55 is a group of museum imaging and publishing
professionals, dedicated to defining guidelines for the creation and
use of digital files for reproduction. ImageMuse participants have
worked together to write shared guidelines for preparing and
handling digital files for fine art reproduction. The group also holds a
52 See at http://www.dpbestflow.org/
53 See at http://www.dpbestflow.org/resources/glossary
54 See at: http://www.updig.org/index.html
55 See at: http://www.imagemuse.org/index.html
35
discussion group56 that offers members the possibility to share and
discuss pressing issues and dilemmas.
Content Considerations:
o To ensure consistence, at the MOMA, all 3D objects (statues,
furniture, etc.) are photographed with a grey backdrop along
with either a black or white backdrop which is chosen with the
respective curator.
o At all the departments visited the graphic intervention is
minimized as much as possible. The only cases in which a
slight intervention is necessary are, for example, when a
highly detailed image is required and therefore patched
together from several smaller images of section, using
appropriate software. Or, when an object cannot be
documented properly due to its reflective features.
o When photographing architecture, photographer John
Margolies57 made a special effort not to include cars or other
distractions. To do so, he would arrive early in the morning at
the site or ask the car owners to move their vehicle away.
Studio and Equipment:
o The average assessment of a fully operational studio ranges
between $80,000-$100,000 dollars. This includes the camera
and related equipment (at certain cases two cameras are
recommended), camera stand, studio lighting gear, railing
systems, backdrops, pc, professional grade screens, editing
software, daylight stand, printing equipment etc.
With noticeable concessions in quality, the list can be reduced
to basic gear ranging at $20,000-$30,000. In both cases the
equipment would require maintenance and some of the items
require replacement every three to five years.
56 See at: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ImageMuse/
57 Margolies, John. "Content and Process: 36 Years on the Road Taking Photographs of American Commercial
Architecture and Design." Lecture, Symposium Exploring Main Street and Roadside Photographs of John Margolies from Prints and Photographs Division at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, March 9, 2011
36
o If a large part of the documentation is to take place on site or
in field conditions, suitable gear is to be purchased. The field
gear should be stored separately and not used for the daily in-
house studio work.
The justification for separating the equipment is to save the
time unpacking and repacking the equipment every time. Also,
the long list of gear will increase the chance of forgetting to
take an item that may hinder a shooting session and waste
valuable time. Field conditions put the gear at a higher risk of
damage and therefore the studio work should not rely on the
availability of the field gear.
3.3.1.2. Scanning
Primary visual documentation equipment can be grouped into contact
(flatbed scanners, transparency scanners) and no-contact equipment
(cameras, book scanners and overhead scanners). The decision which
type of equipment to use relies heavily on the type of object, desired
quality of documentation, dimensions and physical condition of object,
and of course, the available budget.
According to DPBestflow Camera Scanning Guide58, high grade digital
cameras can be used to create high-quality scans of negatives, slides or
print originals as a Rapid Capture Process (RCP). Designating a camera
for this process and purchasing supporting hardware may increase the
budget required in comparison to a scanner. However, using camera
scanning offers certain advantages such as increased quality of
documentation, increased ability to control technical parameters, and the
ability to handle objects varying in size.
In spite of these advantages many of the imaging departments visited
used high quality flatbed desktop scanners for a large part of their
collection when suitable dimensions. Such scanners are easy to operate
and offered a good quality-to-cost ratio. At the United States Holocaust
Memorial Museum’s Photographic Reference Collection, a flatbed
58 See at: http://www.dpbestflow.org/camera/camera-scanning
37
desktop scanner is sufficient for many of the collection requirements.
According to Nancy Hartman, Photo Archivist at the Photographic
Reference Collection of the Curatorial Affairs Division, the large collection
is frequented by many types of users and researchers. However, not
every item in the collection requires digitization beyond the quality
provided by the scanner.
Flatbed scanners cannot properly scan large or bound materials.
Therefore, collections that deal with oversized flat materials such as
maps and architectural plans often use planetary scanners or digital
cameras as described above. For small objects such as negatives and
slides, a wide range of scanners at different costs are available. Beyond
the varying quality of these devices, Ford C. Peatross, Director of the
Center for Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and Photographs
Division at the Library Of Congress pointed out that in many of the
private slide collections, information regarding the content of the slide
was commonly written on the slide’s mounting by the photographer or
Tavatimsa. Eighteenth century accordion-style paper manuscript. Burma. Southern Asian Section, Asian Division, Library of Congress
38
owner. This often offers valuable information regarding dates, locations
and other bits of information that can shed light on the content of the
slide and therefore should be scanned as well.
Led by the success of book digitization, advances in the field of rapid
capture process (RCP) in recent years have progressed both in new
technology and new uses of existing technology. Erway (2011)59 reviewed
nine case studies in which RCP was used in libraries, archives and
museums and offers different examples in which different content
required different strategies.
Peter Dueker, Digital Asset Management Solutions at the National Gallery
of Art anticipates RCP to become more prevalent as the technology
advances. Book scanning cradles that enable half or full automation of
scanning can already be purchased at reasonable cost and RCP solutions
for art prints are following closely.
3.3.1.3. Colour Management
The attempt to create digital surrogates for visual culture artefacts is in a
constant conflict between the desire to provide a perfect substitute and
the inherent inability to do so. While digital surrogates of physical
artefacts may not be able to replace the experience of viewing and
interacting with the artefacts in real life, there are many reasons for
aspiring to do so. A digital surrogate is used not only to enable online
access but also in order to document change over time, illustrate the
effect of restoration, enlarge a detail, uncover unique perspectives etc. In
some cases the digital surrogate is the documentation of an object before
its destruction.
For all these reasons, the ImageMuse experts60 assert that creating and
preparing digital reproductions of artworks entails careful attention to
details and workflow. According to the Image muse contribution to the
UPDIG guidelines, the colours within digital surrogates of artwork should
not be subject to interpretation or individual preference. The
59 Erway, Ricky. Rapid capture faster throughput in digitization of special collections. Dublin, Ohio: OCLC Research,
2011. http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2011/2011-04.pdf 60
See at: http://www.imagemuse.org/2.html
39
reproduction process should aim to produce the same perceived colour
(within physical limitations) as in the original artwork.
The National Gallery of Art puts great effort in achieving this goal by
applying best practices in every step of the digitization and assets
management. Kenneth N. Fleisher, Colour Scientist from the Division of
Imaging and Visual Services at the National Gallery of Art explained the
importance of colour management in digital collections as a means of
ensuring reliable and independent documentation. For that reason,
understanding colour management is a crucial requirement for any
member of the staff handling digital files. A useful and detailed
introductory guide on colour management can be found at the
DPBestflow website61.
Colour management requires not only general awareness, but also
supervision of a colour specialist62 and procedure regulation. Some of the
procedures call for specific devices for the calibration and profiling of
equipment. This is done at fixed intervals and before important projects.
Some of the useful hardware devices include, for example, a colour
rendition chart63 and rulers that are photographed along with all objects
to ensure persistent points of reference for camera profiling. Colorimeter
or Spectrophotometer64 use the parameters set in the monitor
calibration to create a profile for correcting the monitor imperfections. A
lightbooth is a high quality reference light source for examining prints,
indicating the quality of the calibration and profiling.
An additional aspect Mr. Fleisher recommended attending to is the
design of the working environment. To minimize visual distraction a dim,
unchanging light level is suggested. This illumination can originate from
daylight-balanced D50 (or 5,000º Kelvin) fluorescent or filtered halogen
lamps rather than actual day light which shifts and changes throughout
61 See at: http://www.dpbestflow.org/links/31
62 A Color specialist can either be part of the staff or on consultation contract according to the size of the
operation. 63
By its name Macbeth ColorChecker. 64
Commonly referred to as a “puck”.
40
the day. The room’s furniture, walls and ceiling should use neutral
colours such as a neutral light grey of low reflectance.
Finally, if proper colour management cannot be guaranteed, the digital
image metadata should include a comment stating that the image cannot
be verified to be colour managed correctly. This will limit the viewer
expectations from accuracy of the included information.
3.3.1.4. Three-Dimensional Digitization
Cultural heritage digitization efforts are mostly invested in creating two-
dimensional surrogates of artefacts, along with audio and video
conversions. In recent years three-dimensional (3D) technology,
prevalently used in commercial settings, started to infiltrate the field of
cultural heritage. Typically, these efforts are conducted as experimental
projects within large collections or as academic collaborations. Such
projects include, for example, the Rome Reborn65 3D digital models
65 See at: http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/
Students exploring works by Alexander Calder , 1898 -1976 at the National Gallery of Art
41
illustrating the urban development of ancient Rome, and the Scanning
Monticello66 project aiming to create an accurate 3D digital model of
Thomas Jefferson's Virginia home. Less common are larger initiatives
such as CyArk67 that aims to document with 3D technology cultural
heritage sites at risk due to environmental or human threats.
3D digital content can contain either computer generated 3D graphics of
an entity that does not yet exist in a physical form, or detailed geometry
measurements of an actual physical environment or object. In some
cases, digital content contains 3D measurements to which layers of
computer generated 3D graphic are added.
Computer generated 3D graphics are commonly created with commercial
Computer Aided Design (CAD) programs that are widespread in different
fields and for different purposes, such as AutoCAD (Architecture),
SolidWorks, Creo Elements/Pro (Engineering and Design), Rhino, 3DsMax,
Maya (Design and Animation) or the many other available tools. Free
Software such as SketchUp, Blender, Shapeshop, FreeCAD are also
available, yet often do not offer the full range of possibilities of the
commercial products.
Creation of 3D digital documentation of actual physical environments or
objects can be achieved with several types of scanning technology.
Currently the use of these technologies requires two stages and at times,
two sets of software. The first stage is the actual scan in which data is
collected and represented graphically (usually in a form of a point cloud).
The second stage requires transformation of the data collected into a
manageable 3D geometry file.
Currently, 3D digital scanning used by museums is achieved with four
dominant technologies (Metallo & Rossi, 2011)68 : Laser Scanning, White
Light Scanning, Computer Tomography Scanning and Photogrammetry.
66 See at: http://www.cs.virginia.edu/Monticello/
67 See at: http://archive.cyark.org
68 Metallo, Adam , and Vincent Rossi. "The Future of Three-Dimensional Imaging and Museum Applications."
Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 63-69. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2010.00067.x/abstract
42
Laser Scanning is an optical remote sensing technology that can measure
the distance to, or other properties of a target by using pulses from a
laser beam. Its capture size ranges from details of several millimetres to
larger architectural proportions when using together a few devices.
Significant limitations are the inability to measure reflective surfaces and
collect information about colour. The cost of equipment ranges from
$3,000 to $200,000
White Light Scanning projects a pattern of light, rather than a laser beam
pulse, and references the variations with a digital camera to capture
surface geometry. Its capture size ranges according to the ability to
properly project the pattern. A significant limitation is the inability to
measure reflective surfaces. However, colour can be captured to a
certain extent. The cost of equipment ranges from $15,000 to $250,000
Computer tomography (CT) Scanning uses X-ray equipment rotating
around an axis to produce 3D representations of internal and external
components (shape, volume and density). Its capture size can range from
one micron to human scale objects. $200,000 to $2,000,000
Photogrammetry extracts 3D data from 2D photography. Equipment
ranges from point-and-shoot pocket camera to large format digitals but
requires numerous images to collect detailed information. Its capture size
depends on the ability of the camera. The cost of photography
equipment ranges from $200 – $50,000.
All of the above technologies require additional software for processing
and using the information collected. The cost of software ranges from
free to $40,000. The output of these efforts can remain digital or be
turned in to an actual product using a variety of technologies such as
Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) milling or 3D printing of polymer
or metal, depending on the desired result.
The use of 3D digital scans offers more than mere documentation of
existing objects. Creative application of 3D digitization of cultural heritage
artefacts has resulted in new research possibilities and findings. For
example, an international collaboration has enabled the 3D digital
documentation of the Buddhist cave temples of Xiangtangshan that were
once home to an array of sculptures. During the 20th century the
43
limestone caves were severely damaged and their contents were
chiselled away and sold. The ability to create 3D imagery of the caves,
statues and broken objects currently located around the world has
provided the opportunity to research the digital surrogates and even
place them back together, virtually69.
Another useful application of 3D digitization of cultural heritage artefacts
is currently being developed at the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory at the University of California. Lead by the physicists Carl
Haber, have developed IRENE/3D (Image, Reconstruct, Erase Noise, Etc.)
a machine which uses 3D imaging of the grooves on old lacquer records
and wax to reproduce the sound they contain.70
Amongst the leaders of 3D application in the Museum environment is the
Smithsonian Institution with the experimental work done by Vince Rossi
and Adam Metallo from the Digitization Program Office. A visit to the 3D
digitization studio at a Smithsonian facility provided a special insight into
the many ways 3D digitization can contribute to digital efforts in the field
of visual culture.
69 See at: http://xts.uchicago.edu/
70 See at: http://irene.lbl.gov/
Cory Grace, Digital Asset Manager at the Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution, presenting 3D representation of Buddha Hand on a touch screen at the “Echoes of the Past: The Buddhist Cave Temples of Xiangtangshan” at the Sackler Gallery
44
The variety of 3D digitization experiments and projects conducted at the
Smithsonian Institution71 is constantly growing and much affected by the
diverse assortment of materials the Smithsonian museums and research
centres deal with. According to Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo the primary
use of 3D digitization is for preservation purposes. This, for example, is
achieved by collecting 3D measurements to create an identical model of
a statue using 3D laser printers, or by scanning objects such as mummies
to gain information about their interior parts, without damaging the
exterior72.
The impending opportunities for visual culture projects is exciting and in
its very early stages of development. Architecture history research for
example could greatly benefit from some of the technologies already
applied in archaeology, and new implementations such as scans of as-
built structures or 3D scans of cardboard models could be added as
information for analysis.
Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo regarded the required resources and technical
expertise as preventing accelerated adoption of 3D technology in
museums and cultural heritage institutions. The cost of applying 3D
digitization on a regular basis requires not only funds for hardware and
software but also many staff hours, since of the processes require
complicated set up and post production. In addition, no single technology
is suitable for all types of projects and therefore creating a digitization
department necessitates considerable funds for purchasing a variety of
tools.
In terms of technical expertise, most projects require a team effort of
technology experts and content experts (art historian, physician,
anthropologist, etc.). These types of corporations are not difficult to
create, however the problem of interdisciplinary cooperation has deeper
roots. Many of the researchers have not received in depth training in
regard to the possibilities offered by 3D digitization and therefore do not
seek out ways to apply it in their research. The high cost of 3D processing
71 See at: http://www.si.edu/
72 For additional examples and samples of the ongoing work at the Smithsonian's Digitization Program Office See
http://www.facebook.com/3d.si.edu?sk=wall
45
and analysis programs, also prevents researchers
from learning to use those programs for their needs.
In spite of these considerable challenges, Mr. Rossi
and Ms. Metallo pointed out that many of the open-
source or low cost 3D digitization tools offer the
opportunity to experiment with 3D digitization
technologies as a learning process prior to obligating
to a costly purchase. Shoestring budgets can make
use of the many available tools for 3D
measurements, data processing and even printing.
For 3D measurements, basic laser scanners are
available for small scale objects, such as the
NextEngine73 3D desktop scanner offered at
approximately $3000. Alternative low budget
options to laser scanning are constantly explored
around the world. The Microsoft product X-Box 360
Kinect includes advanced gesture-sensitive sensor
system. Since its launch in November 2010,
numerous developers around the world have
started to create applications of Kinect that go
beyond the initial intended purpose of a gaming
console. These include using Kinect as a portable, 3D
digitization device74.
Since Photogrammetry extracts 3D data from 2D photography, the
equipment requirements can be limited to a mid-range digital camera for
most small scale objects. For large scale documentation of buildings or
sites, crowd sourcing can be implemented. Photocity75 is a game-like
platform encouraging users to take pictures of building exteriors for
reconstructing the world in 3D.
73 See at: http://www.nextengine.com/
74 Eaton, Kit. "Zoolander Meets Dr. Evil: Kinect Hack Prints Out a Model Mini-You." Fast Company, April 1, 2011.
http://www.fastcompany.com/1744069/forget-passport-photos-kinect-hack-lets-you-print-out-a-little-model-you 75
See at: http://photocitygame.com/
Adam Metallo (left) and Vince Rossi at the Smithsonian Institution 3D Studio
46
The clear advantage of using crowd sourcing for photogrammetry is the
ability to collect large quantities of information in a short period of time.
It also can support outreach efforts as discussed in item 3.4. If choosing
to pursue one of the low budget projects, Mr. Rossi and Ms. Metallo
recommended attending to details such as unchanging lighting to prevent
patchwork appearance.
An additional resource on 3D digitization for cultural heritage is provide
by Cultural Heritage Imaging (CHI)76, a California based non-profit
organization promoting development and adoption of tools and
methodologies for creation of interactive, 3D digitization by cultural
heritage institutions. CHI offers online resources, demonstration videos
and real-life training opportunities. For further updates about
technological innovation and new uses and equipment, Mr. Rossi and Ms.
Metallo recommended following websites that discuss 3D use in other
fields such as the movie and gaming industry or medical and archaeology
research.
Processing the collected data can also be done with freely available tools.
Photosynth77 is a Microsoft website that offers users the ability to upload
images from which 3D data is extracted using photogrammetry and like
tools. Meshlab78 is an open-source software for processing and editing of
unstructured 3D triangular meshes.
Digital libraries may not require printing 3D object as part of their
services but should earnestly consider a future demand by users to
receive information that can be used and manipulated as 3D. RepRap79
and Makerbot80 are opensource desktop 3D printers capable of printing
polymer, metal and ceramic objects and also parts for constructing
additional printers as self-replicating machines. Shapeways81 and
Ponoko82 are companies that provide 3D printing and CNC milling
76 See at: http://www.c-h-i.org/index.html
77 See at: http://photosynth.net/default.aspx
78 See at: http://meshlab.sourceforge.net/
79 See at: http://reprap.org/wiki/Main_Page
80 See at: http://www.makerbot.com/
81 See at: http://www.shapeways.com/
82 See at: http://www.ponoko.com/
47
services. The impact of these technological developments is yet to be
foretold, however it will surly effect issues such as digital rights
management and information preservation and migration, as discussed in
items 3.3.4 and 3.3.5 respectively.
3.3.2. Digitization Workf low and Digital Asset Management (DAM)
A digital library that digitizes content on a regular basis often has a complex
behind-the-scene database. According to Peter Dueker, Digital Asset
Management Solutions at the National Gallery of Art, the assets managed in the
collection include a variety of files for nearly every object documented. The files
were created for different purposes and include, for example, original raw files,
colour editing files, publicity files, scans, etc. Many of the objects have been
documented several times throughout the years, adding to the volume of the
database.
Ensuring sustainability of file creation, storage, search and retrieve strategies
requires an administrative tool that allows users organizational control and
management of various file types and their associated metadata. A properly
employed digital asset management system is supervised by system
administrators and interacts with other systems used by the institution.
(Newman & Dueker, 2006)83
Peter Krogh (2009)84 offers a comprehensive guide to Digital Asset Management
for professional photographers. Krogh explains that the system administrator
has a crucial role in ensuring that the system is used properly. Proper use of the
DAM system aims to protect and enable access to images. This includes
preventing information from getting lost, enabling swift and intuitive discovery,
making sure images look right, and ensuring future compatibility regardless of
software.
In addition to the common DAM requirements, digital libraries that aggregate
items from content contributors face additional challenges. Sandy Bostian,
83 Newman, Alan, and Peter Dueker. "Digital Image Asset Management at the National Gallery of Art (US)." RLG
DigiNews 10, no. 6 (2006) http://worldcat.org/arcviewer/1/OCC/2007/08/08/0000070519/viewer/file1650.html#article2 84
Krogh, Peter. The DAM book: digital asset management for photographers. 2nd ed. Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly, 2009.
48
Content Manager for the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress,
identified two types of DAM related challenges that arise from the vast amount
of content contributors the World Digital Library partnered with. One type of
problem is the inherent inconsistencies between collections. Collections were
often created and catalogued without consideration of an international varied
audience. For these cases, specific requirements85 were created for Image file
formats and descriptive metadata. Another type of challenge relates to the
actual transfer of information, and the need to confirm that it was not altered
during transfer. For this purpose, the Library of Congress uses software tools
such as Bagger86 for validation and transfer of data that conforms to BagIt
specifications.
Due to the scope of this document, DAM will only be further addressed through
the other topics it involves, such as colour management discussed in item
3.3.1.3, digital rights management discussed in item 3.3.4, and metadata and
information migration discussed in item 3.3.5.
85 See at: http://project.wdl.org/standards/content.html
86 Available at: http://sourceforge.net/projects/loc-xferutils/files/loc-bagger/
African and Middle Eastern Division Reading Room at the Library of Congress
49
3.3.3. Cataloguing Digital Content
Consistency is perhaps the most important demand when creating metadata for
a digital library. In interviews with both cataloguers and project managers,
consistency was the most common recommendation, as a vital condition for the
resource’s sustainability and interoperability over time. The second most
important demand was compliance with international standards. Both metadata
schemas (data structure standards) and controlled vocabularies (data content
standards) have been formally dealt with by international organizations, offering
tools and regulations. Even if the available standards may not seem like the
perfect solution for a specific database, choosing a standard and adhering to it as
much as possible can enable interoperability with other databases and continual
upgrade to new data management systems.
The importance of consistency influences the information architecture from the
very early stages of its design. Michelle Rago , Technical Director and Alison
Zhang, Metadata Specialist, for the World digital Library at the Library of
Congress highly recommended designing the metadata according to the planned
user interface. The user interface is the gate in to the database and should
reflect the user needs and expectations87. According to the anticipated
information the user interface is planned to detail, a standard schema can be
chosen and perhaps slightly altered or added.
Murtha Baca (2008)88 points out that there is no single metadata scheme perfect
for all databases and therefore Institutions must carefully choose the
appropriate suite of metadata schemas and controlled vocabularies. Different
metadata schemes have been developed over the years for different purposes:
MARC (Machine Readable Cataloguing)89 for bibliographic items, CDWA
(Categories for the Description of Works of Art)90 for art objects, VRA Core
(Visual Resources Association Core)91 for visual surrogates of works of art and
87 These user needs may include being exposed to new information that was not searched for, however this can be
defined as a need and dealt with accordingly. 88
Baca, Murtha, and Tony Gill. Introduction to metadata. Online ed. Los Angeles, Calif.: Getty Research Institute, 2008. http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/standards/intrometadata/index.html 89
See at: http://www.loc.gov/marc/ 90
See at: http://www.getty.edu/research/publications/electronic_publications/cdwa/ 91
See at: http://www.loc.gov/standards/vracore/
50
architecture, and Dublin Core92 for Web resources. At times, collections choose
to work with Dublin core as a default choice for mapping diverse information
resources. However, selecting an inappropriate metadata scheme can cause
much confusion and misrepresentation.
An interesting example of overcoming the differences in metadata schema can
be seen in Metadata for Architectural Contents in Europe (MACE)93 is a European
initiative aimed at integrating and connecting vast amounts of content from
diverse repositories that use different technologies, different metadata structure
and values. MACE attempts to solve this problem by becoming a central store to
which metadata is aggregated and enriched, pointing the users to the different
collection. As part of the metadata collection and enrichment, the cataloguing of
architecture was revised, offering as a focal point the Real World Object (RWO)
which is a building, object, architect or other item not stored in the database but
rather an empty placeholder to which related items can be related to. Different
data from different resources about RWOs can be stored as metadata, such as
names, designer/architect, location or other information. People and buildings
can be related to locations (geo-positions) and to particular dates (timestamps)
to gain a better understanding and analysis capabilities (Boeykens,2009)94.
Another large initiative, Visual Arts Data Service (VADS)95, is an online resource
for visual arts in the United Kingdom, previously mentioned in item 3.1.3.1. VADS
created a national scale database of visual art collections. The database includes
over 100,000 freely available images that are copyright cleared for use in
learning, teaching and research in the UK. A large portion of the digitization is
managed by the VADS eliminating much of the need in mapping metadata
schemas. Due to the variety of visual arts content from different partners, the
metadata schema chosen by VADS was VRA Core. The choice of VRA Core over
Dublin Core enables using together discipline-specific data elements such as
separate fields for artist, printer and publisher for graphic design or
manufacturer for industrial design.
92 See at: http://dublincore.org/
93 See at http://portal.mace-project.eu/ and http://www.mace-project.eu/index.php
94 Boeykens, Stefan. "Connecting digital architectural archives with MACE." Lecture, Hybrid Architectural Archives
Conference from Netherlands Architecture Institute, Rotterdam, June 11, 2009. http://conference.nai.nl/papers_and_presentations 95
See at: http://www.vads.ac.uk/
51
Regardless of which standard is chosen, when applying the chosen metadata
schema, Karen Cassedy, Library Systems Manager at the National Gallery of Art,
recommended limiting the amount of data elements to a manageable number.
The ability to provide a detailed description using data elements is tempting and
in theory it enables quick discovery and interesting data mining options.
However, increasing the number of data elements requires more effort on behalf
of the cataloguer and complicates the ability to provide consistent content. John
Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, supported this approach and
drew attention to cases in which resources for cataloguing are scarce or not
prioritized. In those cases, Mr. Gordy recommended to make sure the most basic
data elements for the name of the object, the date it was created, the collection
it belongs to and the internal identifier (especially important for physical
collections) are included and fed manually or even automatically.
Paying close attention to early decisions on metadata schema and consistency
may save much effort in the years to come. At the United States Holocaust
Memorial Museum a collection management system for the photo reference
collection has been in use for many years. Nancy Hartman, Photo Archivist at the
Photographic Reference Collection of the Curatorial Affairs Division explained
that the system was tailor-made for the collection needs, and the choice of
MARC element set was appropriate for their content and users all along. Only
recently changes have been considered since the technology used was becoming
obsolete and could no longer suit their needs. This was an opportunity to
reassess the use of MARC and perhaps consider mapping the database to a
different element set.
Beyond Data structure standards, the consistency and quality of cataloguing can
be greatly improved by using data content standards that provide guidelines for
the format and syntax of the data values. Peter Dueker, Digital Asset
Management Solutions at the National Gallery of Art recommended as a broad
guideline the Cataloguing Cultural Objects (CCO)96 standard. The CCO book97,
which is now freely available online, is a useful and popular manual for
describing, documenting and cataloguing cultural heritage works and their digital
96 See at: http://cco.vrafoundation.org/
97 Baca, Murtha. Cataloging cultural objects: a guide to describing cultural works and their images. Online Edition
ed. Chicago: American Library Association, 2006. http://cco.vrafoundation.org/index.php/toolkit/cco_pdf_version/
52
surrogates. The focus of CCO is art and architecture, including but not limited to
paintings, prints, sculpture, installations, manuscripts, photographs, built works
and other functional objects.
Nahid Gerstein, Acting Team Leader for the Israel/Judaica catalogers at the
Library of Congress, emphasized the importance of data value tools such as
controlled vocabularies. Dealing with a multi-lingual cataloguing challenge,
maintaining consistency cannot rely on memorized rules but rather use of Name
Authorities that assist with the Romanization of Hebrew letters. The Library of
Congress offers a subscription service to a useful compilation of documentation
resources in an integrated, online system named Cataloger’s Desktop. The long
resource list includes resources such as; Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules
(AACR2), All Movie Guide, American Antiquarian Society Catalog, Art &
Architecture Thesaurus (Getty Institute), Cataloging Cultural Objects (Visual
Resources Association), Hebraica Cataloging: A Guide to ALA/LC Romanization
and Descriptive Cataloging, Hebrew Cataloging (Princeton University) and many
more useful tools.
Another useful online tool is the Virtual International Authority File (VIAF). VIAF
is supported by the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), as a joint project of
several national libraries to increase the utility of library authority files by
matching and linking widely-used authority files and making the result available
online. At the World Digital Library a seven language thesaurus was provided by
the Library of congress and is used to make the information available at those
languages, saving considerable time in terms of translation.
Meticulously maintained content can enable not only long term benefits but also
certain styles of user interface design. The Yale University Office of Digital Asset
and Infrastructure has created Cross Collection Discovery (CCD)98 to enable
searching across the many Yale collections that include 1,500,000 records of
250,000 digital assets. Searching for a keyword brings up both the results and a
side menu that enables refining the search according to specific data elements
that are fed using controlled vocabularies. Not having used a controlled
vocabulary, the rate of cataloguing error would have risen, not enabling applying
98 See at: http://discover.odai.yale.edu/ydc/
53
this option. This user interface style has been prevalent in commercial websites
for many years; however, few cultural heritage digital libraries apply this option.
Not contradicting this approach, Alison Zhang, Metadata Specialist, for the
World digital Library at the Library of Congress suggested including in any chosen
metadata schema a content description data element. Such elements are often
neglected or disregarded as unnecessary because the image can “speak for
itself”. However, a free style description data element enables a certain amount
of cataloguing flexibility, and more important, it assists in making content
accessible for people with visual disabilities.
Another recurring topic when discussing cataloguing was the issue of using
crowd sourcing for cataloguing purposes, also known as collaborative tagging,
social tagging, and social indexing. This issue will be further discussed in item
3.4.2 due to the current perception of social tagging as a means of engaging
audiences rather than substantial cataloguing assistance.
Wheelchairs avialable for use by patrons visiting the National Gallery of Art
54
3.3.4. Digital Rights Management (DRM)
Learning about the legal aspects of managing a digital library of art architecture
and design was not the goal of the fellowship. However, the issue of digital rights
management affects much of the work within a digital library and hence requires
attention at all times. Therefore, the purpose of this section is to provide useful
resources for further research. This section does not aim to deal with details of
complying with specific legislation in the USA as Israeli law is a mixed legal
system resembling the laws of the former British Mandate.
At the very beginning of the first interview with John Gordy, Web Manager at the
National Gallery of Art he stated clearly that although difficult at times, digital
projects must be undertaken with a full understanding of ownership rights and
with full recognition that permissions are necessary for converting materials that
are not in the public domain. Establishing the legal status of a collection is
essential to digitization work as it cannot begin without clarifying the related
issues.
In the United States, the Artist Right Society (ARS)99 represents the intellectual
property rights interests of visual artists and estates of visual artists from around
the world in the United States. The society provides information and negotiates
on the behalf of artists with clients in a variety of issues of copyright (publishing,
merchandise, advertising, etc.). The active role the society has taken since its
establishment in 1987, has effectively caused all visual culture institutes and
firms to rigorously and properly manage the copyright issue.
Other issues of concern are situations in which copyright holders cannot be
traced, and the creations are considered orphaned works. Also, in certain cases a
collection is purchased with limited rights that changed along the years. Michael
Levy, Director, Digital Collections at the United States Holocaust Memorial
Museum pointed out that in many cases the USHMM receives digital content
from collections of partners around the world in which copyright issues are
difficult to define. At times the organizations that contributed the information
99 See at: http://www.arsny.com/index.html
55
are unaware of the copyright holder or even of the importance of determining
ownership.
David Green (2010)100 provides a detailed guide to DRM best practice, focusing
on the four major steps in the DRM workflow:
IP audit: clarifying the rights and restrictions status of all works in a
collection
Recording and managing object and image rights information
Licensing: managing the licensing of the images of objects to third
parties
Rights enforcement: tracking, protecting and policing those images.
Additional useful information can be found at the Copyright Advisory Office at
Colombia University Libraries Information Services101, Lawyers' Committee for
Cultural Heritage Preservation102 and in the report by Brown & Crews (2009)103
titled Control of Museum Art Images: The Reach and Limits of Copyright and
Licensing.
Taking these precautions as a regulated part of the digital asset management
workflow can prevent many confusions and mistakes. And yet, the field is very
dynamic as visual culture institutes constantly attempt to find balance between
the rights of copyright holders and the duty to make works available for visitors
and on-line users. To do so, several actions are commonly used in the various
institutes. In the past, watermarks were used as a deterrent in low budget
collections. More common are pan and zooming tools such Openzoom104 and
Zoomify105 that enable inspecting details without releasing a high resolution
image. Inserting a statement about copyrights that requires an acknowledgment
before viewing a high resolution image ensures exposure to the information. In
100 Green, David. A Museum Guide to Digital Rights Management. Canadian Heritage Information Network, 2010.
http://www.pro.rcip-chin.gc.ca/gestion_collections-collections_management/GND-DRM/gestion_numerique_droits-digital_rights_management-eng.jsp 101
See at: http://copyright.columbia.edu/copyright/2011/06/27/copyright-museums-and-licensing-of-art-images/ 102
See at: http://www.culturalheritagelaw.org/ 103
Brown, Melissa A. and Crews, Kenneth D. "Control of Museum Art Images: The Reach and Limits of Copyright and Licensing." Lecture, Annual Congress of the International Association for the Advancement of Teaching and Research in Intellectual Property (ATRIP), Vilnius: Lithuania, December 13, 2009. 104
See at: http://www.openzoom.org 105
See at: http://www.zoomify.com
56
these cases the copyright information should be added to the metadata of the
item in a way that enables automatic update.
In cases in which all attempts made to identify and contact a copyright holder
were in vain, adding a comment that status is unclear is also helpful. The
comment should include contact information in case a copyright holder would
like to claim ownership. This can help create a trusting relationship with
copyright holders and ensure that immediate actions are taken to satisfy all
parties.
In spite of the seemingly clear steps a visual culture institute should take to
guard copyrights, Brown & Crews (2009) detail cases in which a museum
protecting copyrights was argued to be acting in ways that betray its public
service mission by preventing access and use of the images. At the same time,
initiatives such as the Flickr Commons106 encourage institutions to share images
from their collections with the usage rights attribution “No Known Copyright
Restrictions,” in order to promote free access and use.
The difficulties with DRM will most probably not be solved in the near future.
With the addition of 3D digitization new problems will arise. The available
technology enables visual culture consumers to easily document and replicate
images and objects in ways that were not possible in the past.
Currently, some misuse occurs in academic settings by visual arts student, who in
the future will require protection as artists. Their lack of understanding of the
copyright meaning leads to mistakes otherwise preventable. Investing efforts in
educating users at the beginning of their career can assists in maintaining a
balanced approach.
106 See at: http://www.flickr.com/commons/
57
3.3.5. Information Preservation and Migration
In spite of the long history of computation, the seemingly short history of
computers can be traced to the end of the 18th century with rapid development
beginning only during the 20th century following WWII107. Since WWII, ever-
increasing technological development is under constant change and
improvement. The fast pace of this evolution has cast away many technologies
that were used for a short period of time before being replaced and becoming
obsolete. Much of the information that was associated with the obsolete
technologies was lost as well. During the 1990s, organizations such as the
Coalition for Networked Information (CNI)108, the Australian Preserving Access to
Digital Information (PADI)109 and The Internet Archive110 were established. Since
then, many other organization have joined the effort of raising the awareness to
short lifecycle of digital information and acting upon the need to vigorously
implement preservation as an on-going process.
Peter Dueker, Digital Asset Management Solutions at the National Gallery of Art
recalled that in the past, digitization was perceived as a preservation strategy on
its own. Digitization using photography was expected to be a single project, done
once and for ever. This perception has changed as technology offers continually
improving possibilities, demanded by stakeholders. Also, the cost of digital
preservation often exceeds that of conservation. For institutes that hold in their
possession the original artefact, creating a digital surrogate every few years
relies on the condition of the original item and the available funds to re-digitize
it.
In many cases however, the original artefact is not available. Michael Levy,
Director, Digital Collections at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,
has come across several cases in which information was provided to the USHMM
stored in obsolete software with no possibility to locate the original artefacts or
migrate to new software. In addition to the concern of digital obsolescence,
physical deterioration of digital storage hardware, threats of natural disaster and
107 Kelly, Martin, and William Aspray. Computer a history of the information machine. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.:
Westview Press, 2004. 108
See at: http://www.cni.org/ 109
See at: http://www.nla.gov.au/padi/ 110
See at: http://www.archive.org/
58
human aggression pose a budding concern when attempting to preserve the
digital content and its availability.
Thorough resources about digital preservation and migration are easily available
online and constantly updating. Generally, recommendations for creating a
preventive digital preservation and migration policy include: assessing the needs
and risk of the collection, assessing the technical possibilities of long term
preservation and developing a workflow and preservation tactics accordingly.
Detailed resources about creating a preventive digital preservation and
migration policy can be found at the National Digital Information Infrastructure
& Preservation Program111 led by the Library of Congress; the British Library
Digital Preservation program112; the Archives and Library Information Centre at
the National Archives113: the Digital Curation Centre (UK)114; and at the above
PADI and CNI.
Katherine Arrington, Digital Conversion Specialist for the Prints and Photographs
Division at the Library of Congress pointed out that in spite of the general
awareness and actions taken by institutions to ensure digital preservation and
migration, some challenges have yet to be met. Specifically relevant to visual
culture documentation, 3D vector graphic files have yet to receive proper
attention. Most apparent is the growing gap in documentation of architectural
firms. In the past, firms would preserve at least a few printed documents such as
sketches, blue prints and facade illustrations for the customer. The growing use
of CAD software has decreased the preservation of printed documentation. As
part of the market forces, CAD software is commonly updated making the old
versions obsolete, at times not enabling even viewing the old files.
Due to this documentation gap, the Prints and Photographs Division at the
Library of Congress currently does not rely on digitally born documentation and
accepts only printed matter. This does not enable them to make the most of the
viewing possibilities in 3D; however, as long as the architectural firms do not
111 See at: http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/
112 See at: http://www.bl.uk/aboutus/stratpolprog/ccare/introduction/digital/index.html
113 See at: http://www.archives.gov/research/alic/reference/virtual-library.html
114 See at: http://www.dcc.ac.uk/
59
demand from software companies the possibility to preserve information, those
companies do not have the incentive to do so.
Recognizing this problem, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
Libraries along with the School of Architecture and Planning initiated the
research project Future-proofing Architectural Computer-Aided Design
(FACADE)115 in attempt to promote the preservation of CAD architectural models
over archival timeframes. The project promoted the awareness to the problem
among the professional circles and also provided tools for curatorial work within
archives. The complexity of reliance on privet companies was not solved in the
research but it provided ground for continual work.
Vince Rossi and Adam Metallo of the Smithsonian Institution regarded the use of
point-cloud representation as an easily maintained form of 3D representation.
The basic information in point-cloud documentation is presented as a Cartesian
coordinate system for a three-dimensional space and can be described in a text
document that includes the x, y, and z coordinates for each point. Text
documents are already manageable and therefore information in the manner
can be preserved.
Yasmeen Kahn, Sr. Rare Book Conservator at the Library of Congress,
emphasized the importance of backing up information in more than one way.
Regions that are at risk of natural disasters or human aggression require specific
attention to these matters. Electricity generators, fire extinguishers and flooding
prevention are all important as well. In certain cases, organizations that cannot
afford or support such efforts can use external services. The Hathi Trust is a
partnership of major research institutions and libraries around the world that
preserves content and provides access to public domain works to participating
institutions. Hathi Trust was planned to provide efficient and effective storage
for the digital materials contributed by partnering libraries and to provide
secure, reliable, long-term preservation for deposited materials. The work done
in this aspect has certified Hathi Trust as a trustworthy digital repository by the
115 See at: http://facade.mit.edu/
60
Centre for Research Libraries (CRL) as part of the Trustworthy Repositories Audit
and Certification (TRAC) assessment program116
Whether the high cost of digital preservation is supported by the institution itself
or some other institution, the cost to society is high. The Final report of the Blue
Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access (BRTF-SDPA)117
stressed the importance of taking a critical stand prior to engaging in digital
preservation efforts and asking What is to be preserved?, By whom?, How is it to
be sustained continually?, How can the return on investment be measured?
Based on the answers to these questions and others, the report recommends
deciding in favour of content expected to be used the most for the longest time.
Since digitization without preservation is of little value, these are questions that
are to be addressed in any digitization process, involving content experts.
Finally, according to the BRTF-SDPA report, executing a preventive digital
preservation and migration policy should include four levels of operation. In the
first level are the organizational actions that ensure knowledge, economic and
organization support from within the organization and from partners. The
second level is the technical actions required to executing the plan with the
lowest acceptable cost and curatorial support. The third level is the public policy
action creating legal and financial support for the preservation efforts. The
fourth level is the education and public outreach to encourage public use and
support of the resource and awareness of the urgency to take action.
3.3.6. Work Force Development
A different perspective on managing technical aspects of digital library was the
influence of building and developing a professional workforce. Evolution of
digital libraries tends to resemble other start-up initiatives. In that sense, the
initial stages in the digital library is often formed by a small group of individuals
that attends to many different tasks. At that stage, Michelle Rago , Technical
Director for the World Digital Library at the Library of Congress, recommended
building a team from multitalented staff that are not only capable of learning
116 See at: http://www.crl.edu/archiving-preservation/digital-archives/certification-and-assessment-digital-
repositories 117
Sustainable economics for a digital planet: ensuring long-term access to digital information; final report of the Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access.. La Jolla, CA: Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access, 2010. http://brtf.sdsc.edu/biblio/BRTF_Final_Report.pdf
61
new things quickly, but also have a positive approach to tackling problems. As
the project evolves, the team evolves as well and includes in addition to project
administrators also experts in metadata, documentation, content, information
technology, as well as developers. The role of developers is often understaffed in
smaller initiatives; however Ms. Rago reminded that developers enable continual
growth and active response to user requirements.
Yasmeen Kahn, Sr. Rare Book Conservator at the Library of Congress pointed out
that in digitization projects the important objective to minimize the intervention
of the camera should also include minimizing the unintended intervention of the
photographer. The photographer in cultural heritage initiatives fills an important
role that can highly affect the quality of the content created. Pursuing this role
requires comprehensive technical understanding, acquaintance with information
science along with personal diligence. Since many photographers enjoy using
photography as an expressive art form, it is important to make sure the
photographer on staff can draw clear lines between artistic and documentary
photography.
In order to accelerate photo-shoots Ms. Kahn also recommended including an
on-sight assistant that can help with carrying and moving delicate items in
addition to any other needs. Planning photo-shoots in advance can improve the
understanding of the preservation concerns and necessary equipment. Also
discussing the importance of team work, John Tsantes, Head of Imaging and
Photographic Services at Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery
recommended creating a work process in which decisions are made as a team,
preferably with the curator as well.
If 3D digitization is to be included in the work of the documentation team, tech-
savvy staff, committed to finding the right workflow for digitizing specific objects
or collections should be sought after (Metallo & Rossi, 2011)118. Experience with
vector graphics and a general interest in 3D digitization can perhaps shorten the
learning curve for each new technology.
118 Metallo, Adam , and Vincent Rossi. "The Future of Three-Dimensional Imaging and Museum Applications."
Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 63-69. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2010.00067.x/abstract
62
Metadata in digital libraries must be managed by staff with proper training. In
the United States and Canada a Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS)
is the master's degree required for most professional librarian positions, slowly
replacing the Master of Library Science (MLS(. Admission to MLIS programs
normally requires holding a bachelor's degree in any academic discipline. These
degrees are accredited by the American Library Association (ALA)119 and can
have specializations within fields such as archiving, records management,
information architecture, public librarianship, academic librarianship, or a
specific field of librarianship (e.g. law, medicine, art history).
The MLIS degrees also encourage their applicants and students to pursue an
additional master’s degree in the field in which they would like to work. This is
recommended not only due to the competitive nature of these positions but also
due to the information science requirements in many of the digitization projects,
libraries are now leading. According to Alison Zhang, Metadata Specialist for the
World digital Library at the Library of Congress, a digital library team requires a
metadata specialist from the very beginning of planning the information
architecture. The daily work also requires the metadata specialist to maintain
the compliance of the cataloguing with the set parameters and architecture.
In order to deal with low budgeted projects or understaffing, Ms. Zhang
recommends hiring additional staff as Copy Cataloguers. Explicit cataloguing
instructions can be provided regarding the purpose of each data element,
spelling and thesauri tools. The cataloguing work is supervised by the certified
cataloguer who also adds the appropriate subject headings.
An additional important aspect of work force development is the continual need
to be updated with current technological changes and future trends. In each
field, professional organization provides year-long learning opportunities and
annual conferences. A well informed team member can prevent costly mistakes,
make appropriate choices and use a professional network for consultation.
Therefore, planning a project budget should take in to account annual
participation in conferences and encourage making use of the yearlong learning
opportunities. Beyond conferences, project management can do so by creating
various learning opportunities. These, for example can be monthly gatherings for
119 See at: http://www.ala.org/
63
all to share general professional updates or encouraging or occasional group
participation in of the many online learning opportunities.
3.4. Public Outreach and Audience Engagement
Creating a digital library requires a great deal of thought, effort and resources. After
having planned the project, arranged the settings, created alliances, built a database,
documented and catalogued items and uploaded them to provide online access, the
project seems to be complete. And yet, with the proliferation of digital databases, the
simple possibility of accessing information online is no longer a novelty. The abundance
of available resources and information requires visual culture digital libraries to actively
promote their content, appeal to new audience and perhaps revise their entire role as
now active knowledge agents rather than passive resources.
This understanding was predominant in most all of the interviews and presented as a
great opportunity to provide added value, as previously discussed in item 3.1.4. For
Museums, the transition from the maintaining a relationship with museum patrons to
maintaining a relationship with website users was a natural evolution. However, for
libraries the transition often requires changing a mind-set and at times, breaking old
traditions. John Van Oudenaren, Director of the World Digital Library, views this
transition as emphasizing a user driven approach, based on the assumption that people
are tired of seeking but not tired of finding.
Especially in the field of visual culture, the idea of a collection of (digital surrogates of)
art and design artefacts can easily be associated with the concept of a museum.
Therefore, digital libraries that are not affiliated to a museum can still adopt some of
the strategies and concepts used in museums and museum websites to create and
maintain a relationship with the digital library. This does not have to contradict with
the original mission of the digital library, whether affiliated to an academic library, to
an archive or to any other form of institution.
For a digital platform, actively providing added value can be achieved in many creative
ways. The ever progressing possibilities of information consumption promoted by new
applications and hardware can enable inspiring interaction, as will be further discussed
below. However, although tempting, technology requires moderate use. While
64
discussing the use of technology in exhibition design in museums, Wyman et al.
(2011)120 make a suggestion that can be more generally applied, proposing to use a
little technology well rather than a lot of technology poorly. Jason Steinhauer, Liaison
Specialist at Library of Congress Veterans History Project added to this, asserting that
creating added value does not always require bells and whistles. A well curated
exhibition, a unique event or well-conveyed information can do great service to
museum patrons and website users alike, whereas in certain cases bells and whistles
can actually alienate users that do not possess the required skills.
Another limitation of technology was pointed out by John Gordy, Web Manager at the
National Gallery of Art. The desire to produce an identical surrogate is often mistaken
for a desire to replace the experience of encountering the original object. This
exaggerated expectation from digital collections does not take in to account the
limitations of the medium. Expecting to provide added value by offering replacement of
reality is therefore futile. As with any medium, the aspiration should be to make the
most of the advantages in spite of existing downsides. The Internet excels at collecting
large quantities of information and promoting communication. Cultural heritage
representation can greatly benefit from these qualities that enable arranging
information about reality, providing context and advancing the understanding of them.
In spite of the limitations of the Internet, technological innovation can be applied in
many ways and offer a variety of opportunities for a digital library to collect and
disseminate information, to advance human knowledge and to remain valuable for a
long time. Putting together the examples collected in interviews, in observations and in
website reviews helped identify two levels of public outreach, implemented by digital
libraries: unidirectional information dissemination, bidirectional communication and
participatory interaction.
120 Wyman, Bruce, Scott Smith, Daniel Meyers, and Michael Godfrey. "Digital Storytelling in Museums:
Observations and Best Practices." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 4 (2011): 461-468.
65
3.4.1. Unidirectional Information Dissemination
From the moment a collection offers access to its content it can be described as
engaged in unidirectional information dissemination. The most basic stages start
as unidirectional because the user can receive information but not engage in any
further communication with the digital library. Even in this stage a digital library
can use technology to reach out to the public and offer added value.
Beyond offering online access to all users, the user experience provided by the
information architecture and user interface can offer added value. Varied in their
needs, users can be offered different access styles to information described by
John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art as skim, swim and dive.
These can be offered either by creating different platforms or by designing the
interface to include different types of retrieval tools and results. To provide
useful options, a good acquaintance with the different users is required. For this
purpose, Mr. Gordy recommended using both qualitative and quantitative
research to gain better understanding of the variety of users, the dominant
groups within them and their specific needs.
After realizing who the users are, along with which additional users are desired,
straight forward tactics can be implemented in a visual culture digital library.
Content wise, offering additional representation of the artefacts and related
information, using video 3D documentation and other tools can enrich the
content provided. An interview with the artist, documentation of the studio and
other such resources offer different insights, even if produced within constraints
of a low budget. For example, at the University of Manitoba Fort Garry Campus,
the architecture and fine arts library linked the outdoor art collection of the
university to a Google earth map and an online catalogue listing using signs
presenting QR codes121. Translating descriptive metadata can also add value to
new audiences that can now overcome the language barrier.
Wyman et al. (2011)122 discuss the rising demand from museums to apply
engaging interaction installations. To answer this demand, the authors
recommend maintaining a focus on storytelling by framing content and making it
121 See at: http://valmesta.wordpress.com/
122 Wyman, Bruce, Scott Smith, Daniel Meyers, and Michael Godfrey. "Digital Storytelling in Museums:
Observations and Best Practices." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 4 (2011): 461-468.
66
desirable. This approach is also relevant to outreach efforts in digital libraries.
The European Library for example, created digital exhibitions123 in which
highlighted content from the collections can be viewed. The exhibitions are not
curated as fine art but borrow the traditional concept of an exhibition to
function as a preface to the available content.
In recent years, the proliferation of smartphones in affluent societies has opened
a new possibility for museums to enrich the exploration experience of the
collections. By combining digital content and a portable communication device, a
variety of applications (apps) are offered at little or no cost.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, released a free app named MetGuitars,
dedicated to one of its exhibitions, Guitar Heroes124, which examined the history
and craftsmanship of Guitars. The app provided not only textual information but
also enabled watching short videos of a known musician playing on the
instrument exhibited and listening to interviews125. In many cases, such apps
offered by large institutions provide additional information that was already
available prior to the app launch. However, the new platform reduced the
demand from the user to actively seek and access the information. The added
value is entailed in providing the information exactly when desired or when it
can make the best impact.
For academic visual culture digital libraries, advancing information dissemination
can make use of apps, but in any case requires dealing with a more pressing
issue. Anna Simon (2011)126 of Indiana University explored the information
literacy and seeking strategies among studio students. Her findings suggest that
many students do not feel comfortable in a library setting and therefore avoid
making use of it and of the digital resources it provides. Students that are not
required to develop information literacy skills do not make use of such resources
later as professionals and perpetuate the problem when becoming instructors.
123 See at: http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/exhibition/
124 See at: http://blog.metmuseum.org/guitarheroes/
125 Grobart, Sam. "Multimedia Tour Guides on Your Smartphone." New York Times (NY), March 16, 2011.
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/17/arts/design/apps-give-museum-visitors-multimedia-access.html?_r=2 126
Simon, Anna. "Studio Students and The Art Library: Demystifying Information Seeking and Supporting Artistic Practice." Lecture, VRA + ARLIS/NA 2nd Joint Conference, Minneapolis, MN, March 25, 2011. http://www.arlisna.org/news/conferences/2011/ses_inside_simon.pdf
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In this context apps could perhaps assist in enabling creative ways to consume
information. However, this tactic should not replace the importance of providing
students with information literacy skills.
3.4.2. Bidirectional Communication and Participatory Interaction
The second level of public outreach resulted from accumulative changes that
occurred in the uses of the Internet and rise of Web 2.0 and social media.
Whether a result of public demand or an independent initiative, many
institutions develop or experiment with a new type of communication with
users127. Changing from the previous unidirectional monologue to a dialogue,
digital collections are now required not only to provide information but also
respond to questions, comments and requests. Furthermore, this dialogue is
encouraging users to become collaborators as well.
The initial awkwardness of communicating with users perhaps resulted from the
questions “Why should there be communication?” and “How should it be done?”
John Gordy, Web Manager at the National Gallery of Art, explained that without
a specific purpose beyond the simple act of communication, engaging in
communication will not be beneficial to anyone. Offering users the ability to
engage in discussion does not always offer value and therefore the cases in
which communication is enabled should be chosen carefully as they require
attention and resources.
At the Smithsonian Institution the aspiration to provide a valuable lifelong
learning environment is combined with attempts to create an active social
environment. The Smithsonian Commons128 prototype complies with the
objective of the Smithsonian Web and New Media Strategy to offer an updated
digital experience and a new learning model. The plans for the commons
environment will allow greater use and interaction with the information
provided by the Smithsonian. Yet, being adjacent to the Smithsonian Web site
rather than replace it, draws a line between the social interaction and the official
authority.
127 See at Peters, Isabella, and Paul Becker. Folksonomies indexing and retrieval in Web 2.0. Berlin: De
Gruyter/Saur, 2009. 128
See at: http://www.si.edu/commons/prototype/
68
Archives are facing the demand to interaction as well. Archive users have come
to expect that to interact with that content and obtain research help if
necessary, while they are engaged with the content. Understanding that
Archivists need to actively experiment with Web 2.0, the Society of American
Archivists (SAA)129 has developed a resource including case studies and examples
of Web 2.0 implementations named The Interactive Archivist130.
With the fast pace of interaction supported by available technology, the ability
to communicate soon evolved in to institution-user collaboration. Out of the
variety of interesting examples of participatory Interaction as a form of outreach,
an outstandingly successful example is the Flickr Commons131. The Flickr
commons is a designated zone within the commercial photo sharing service
Flickr where cultural heritage institutions such as the Library of Congress (LC) can
share photographs that have no known copyright.
The now international zone started in 2007 as a joint collaboration between the
Office of Strategic Initiatives and the Prints and Photographs Division, both at the
Library of Congress. Looking to create a pilot project that would explore the
potential of social networks in providing exposure to collections and enabling
crowd sourcing, the Library of Congress approached Flicker and established a
framework for cooperation. While choosing a suitable partner for this initiative,
the LC set forth certain demands that were to be met. These demands were
aimed to ensure free access, exclude commercial content, set a non-exclusive
liaison, provide LC the ability to moderate content and state clearly the copyright
status and source of content. The choice to engage with Flickr was also affected
by the large image focused community that already existed within the network
(Springer et al.)132.
Since the establishment of the Flickr commons, many institutions around the
world have joined the initiative. Arden Alexander, Cataloguer Specialist for
Pictorial Collection, Prints and Photographs Division shared the thoughtful
129 See at: http://www2.archivists.org/
130 See at: http://interactivearchivist.archivists.org/
131 See at: http://www.flickr.com/commons?GXHC_gx_session_id_=6afecb2055a3c52c
132 Springer, Michelle, Beth Dulabahn, Phil Michel, Barbara Natanson, David W. Reser, Nicole B. Ellison, Helena
Zinkham, and David Woodward. For the common good the Library of Congress Flickr pilot project. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, 2008. http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/flickr_report_final.pdf
69
details that make the Flickr commons a continual success. Rather than share
sporadic images from different collections, two target collections in the public
domain were selected, offering appealing historical content in both colour and
black and white photography. Ms. Alexander recalled that although the
collections had been digitized and available long before the Flickr pilot, many of
the users were unaware of the large digitization efforts by the LC and regarded
this as novelty.
As the project continued, additional collections were added, often in connection
with public interest and annual themes. The content management required
establishing a workflow in which content is supervised and communication is
reciprocated. A team of LC cataloguers provides these services by rotation, in
addition to their daily responsibilities, using a comments browser designated to
assist in quick management of comments. Many of the user comments express
appreciation or interest, however some of the comments offer information or an
inquiry that cataloguers respond to.
In spite of the concern that many of the comments will be considered
inappropriate, the overall experience in this matter has been positive. Ms.
Alexander explained that as a community, Flickr users apply self and group
discipline. Also, a comment and posting policy133 is available at hand.
Along with the added visibility, collaboration with Flickr users provided at times
new information about the photographs. Any new information provided by users
is accepted and updated in the LC database only after the users provide evidence
supporting their claim which is then examined by the LC staff. This process has
resulted in successful updates, diminishing some concerns about the erosion of
authoritative status of crowd sourcing initiatives in other organization pilot
projects. Developing a dialogue with clear boundaries prevented any erosion of
the LC status.
Ms. Alexander summed the collaboration in the Flickr project as having
generated exciting results and new possibilities. The weekly image upload on
Fridays has become an anticipated event by a large group of users who enjoy the
collaboration, offer their knowledge in return and continue to disseminate the
photographs in other venues such as Wikipedia. The collaboration has also
133 See at: http://www.loc.gov/homepage/commentspolicy.html
70
increased traffic to the LC website and furthered awareness of the available
treasures there.
Another interesting institution-user collaboration that focused on social tagging
can be seen for example in the New York Public Library “What’s on the
menu?”134 project, in which documentation of historical restaurant menus is
transcribed by users. This concept could perhaps be applied to architectural
plans that currently hold valuable information transcribed on them but are not
suitable for optical character reading (OCR).
A problem that seems to arise with tagging projects is the ability to create
accurate and useful metadata. Some of the criticism directed at the use of social
tagging discusses the lack of a standard set of conditions, the structure which
does not organize tags hierarchically and the prevalence of spelling errors.
Different social tagging projects deal with this problem. Flickr automatically
normalizes tag spelling when it aggregates a tag, allowing the user to maintain
his unique spelling for his personal use. Capitalization of tags is ignored and
special characters are also changed to the closest English equivalent135. In many
projects, multiple classifications are used to assess the reliable they are.
The Galaxy Zoo136 project and the British Your Paintings Tagger137 are examples
in which users undergo a short tagging training process to improve the quality
and accuracy of metadata. Galaxy Zoo requests users to classify galaxy images
drawn from NASA's Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) according to their shapes. The
classification uses human perception qualities that currently irreplaceable by
computational processes. The Your Paintings Tagger provides a highly structured
tagging process in which tags are created with the guided process. Prior to
entering tags to the database, users are requested to undergo a short training
process in which the tags are not collected.
The Your Painting Tagger, however, may suffer from another problem that
occurs in social tagging initiatives. The successful tagging projects, such as Flickr,
Ravelry138, and Delicious139, often accumulate tags as a bi-product of the service
134 See at: http://menus.nypl.org/
135 Peters, Isabella, and Paul Becker. Folksonomies indexing and retrieval in Web 2.0. Berlin: De Gruyter/Saur, 2009.
136 See at: http://www.galaxyzoo.org/
137 See at: http://tagger.thepcf.org.uk/
138 See at: http://www.ravelry.com
71
provided. In Flickr the service is photo sharing, in Ravelry knitting patterns are
shared and in Delicious webpage bookmarks are stored. Your Painting Tagger
however, offers users the joy of viewing fine art but this can be argued as a
pastime that few can afford. Unlike Galaxy zoo that offers the opportunity to be
the first to discover astronomic phenomena, the Your Paintings Tagger requires
selfless initiative on behalf of taggers.
The potential of participatory interaction has yet to be fulfilled, specifically in the
world of digital libraries. Future applications can assist with translation in cases
where bilingual thesauruses have not been created or cannot be applied.
Documentation could perhaps be assisted as well. Public participation should be
considered when creating and managing a visual culture digital library as it offers
not only visibility and public relations but also potential for actual involvement.
Further involvement can also include participatory design of the services
themselves and perhaps certain curatorial decisions.
139 See at: http://www.delicious.com
72
4. C o n c l u s i o n s
This report aimed to discuss the information gathered during a four month fellowship
provided by UNESCO to research design from a cultural heritage management perspective
and specifically, the meeting points of Design History, Anthropology, Museum Studies, and
Information Science as they take form in the creation and use of digital collections of design
and decorative arts.
Due to the generous efforts of Gregory P. J. Most, Chief of the Department of Image
Collection at the National Gallery of Art, and Peggy Pearlstein, Head of the Hebraic Section
at the Library of Congress, the fellowship exceed all expectations and proved to be an
incomparable learning experience. Mr. Most’s and Ms. Pearlstein’s advice and direction
were crucial to the success of the fellowship and without the opportunities they afforded
me I could not have had access to the interesting and relevant interviewees.
The choice of Washington D.C. enabled expanding the scope of the fellowship to include
some of the world’s leading cultural heritage institutions. Spending time at a central cultural
metropolis that attracts so many visitors annually demonstrated in the clearest way how
important cultural heritage is to mankind and that it should be protected and shared at the
same time.
Due to the limitations of this report and the purpose it is to serve, I did not detail all of the
data collected, including site observations and book reviews. I decided to focus on the core
resource that was made available to me during the fellowship. This unique resource was
direct access to the individuals who exercise their expertise on a daily basis, promoting
cultural heritage preservation and digitization. The knowledge kindly shared with me was
attained from their vast experience and I am grateful for their willingness to do so.
The different conclusions are detailed in the above items; however, several important
conclusions were derived from the entire experience. Creating a visual culture digital
resource is remarkably complex. It involves a team effort comprising many different
professions in a fast and ever changing technological environment. Four major elements can
be identified as involved in the creation and existence of a digital library: the project
management, the curatorial process, the technological realization and the public outreach.
Each of these important elements can hinder the effort of creating a valuable resource.
Effective project management can ensure the success of a project if effort is made to
promote the collaboration of all parties involved and the integration of all their efforts.
73
Another important aspect in the creation of digital libraries is the establishment of a long-
term sustainable plan. The large effort and funds required should be invested in a way that
ensures longevity both for the content and the service. Without a steady and continual
advancement, a resource can quickly become irrelevant. This again can result from the
efforts and initiatives from all the above elements. The curatorial process can ensure
relevant content, the technological elements can provide a suitable platform or initiate a
new one, and the public outreach can maintain a close relationship with the audience,
inviting participation and ensuring best service.
I hope to continue applying the knowledge that was shared with me. Since my return to
Israel, I have shared my experience in a few lectures and have also passed on the
information to members of my team in the Memory of the World initiative at Bezlael
Academy of Art and design. The design of this report was created to enable a quick and easy
reference for my team when facing new challenges and contemplating how to deal with
certain situations.
I would like to conclude this report by expressing again my deep gratitude to all that were
involved in making this fellowship possible. I could not have been more pleased with this
opportunity and am humbled by the knowledge and unique places I was exposed to.
National Gallery of Art, East Building, Main Hall Interior
74
5. B i b l i o g r a p h y
A framework of guidance for building good digital collections a NISO recommended practice.
3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: National Information Standards Organization (NISO), 2007.
http://www.niso.org/publications/rp/framework3.pdf
Abbott, Daisy. What is Digital Curation? Edinburgh, UK: Digital Curation Centre, 2008.
http://www.dcc.ac.uk/resources/briefing-papers/introduction-curation/what-
digital-curation
Baca, Murtha. Cataloging cultural objects: a guide to describing cultural works and their
images. Online Edition ed. Chicago: American Library Association, 2006.
http://cco.vrafoundation.org/index.php/toolkit/cco_pdf_version/
Baca, Murtha, and Tony Gill. Introduction to metadata. Online ed. Los Angeles, Calif.: Getty
Research Institute, 2008.
http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/standards/intrometadata/ind
ex.html
Bearman, David, and Jennifer Trant. "Do You Know Who Your Users Are? The Role of
Research In Redesigning sfmoma.org." In Museums and the Web 2007 proceedings.
Toronto, Ont.: Archives & Museum Informatics, 2007.
http://www.archimuse.com/mw2007/papers/mitroff/mitroff.html
Boeykens, Stefan. "Connecting digital architectural archives with MACE." Lecture, Hybrid
Architectural Archives Conference from Netherlands Architecture Institute,
Rotterdam, June 11, 2009.
Brown, Melissa A. and Crews, Kenneth D. "Control of Museum Art Images: The Reach and
Limits of Copyright and Licensing." Lecture, Annual Congress of the International
Association for the Advancement of Teaching and Research in Intellectual Property
(ATRIP), Vilnius: Lithuania, December 13, 2009.
Cohen, Patricia. "Digital Keys for Unlocking the Humanities’ Riches" . New York Times (NY),
November 16, 2010, NY edition.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/17/arts/17digital.html?pagewanted=1
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Eaton, Kit. "Zoolander Meets Dr. Evil: Kinect Hack Prints Out a Model Mini-You." Fast
Company, April 1, 2011.
http://www.fastcompany.com/1744069/forget-passport-photos-kinect-hack-lets-
you-print-out-a-little-model-you
Erway, Ricky. Rapid capture faster throughput in digitization of special collections. Dublin,
Ohio: OCLC Research, 2011.
http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2011/2011-04.pdf
Green, David. A Museum Guide to Digital Rights Management. Canadian Heritage
Information Network, 2010.
http://www.pro.rcip-chin.gc.ca/gestion_collections-collections_management/GND-
DRM/gestion_numerique_droits-digital_rights_management-eng.jsp
Grobart, Sam. "Multimedia Tour Guides on Your Smartphone." New York Times (NY), March
16, 2011.
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/17/arts/design/apps-give-museum-visitors-
multimedia-access.html?_r=2
Guidelines for a collection development policy using the Conspectus model. The Hague: IFLA,
Section on Acquisition and Collection Development, 2001.
http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/cpc.html
Kelly, Martin, and William Aspray. Computer a history of the information machine. 2nd ed.
Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004.
Kirschenbaum, Matthew G.. Mechanisms: new media and the forensic imagination.
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008.
Krogh, Peter. The DAM book: digital asset management for photographers. 2nd ed.
Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly, 2009.
Margolies, John. "Content and Process: 36 Years on the Road Taking Photographs of
American Commercial Architecture and Design." Lecture, Symposium Exploring Main
Street and Roadside Photographs of John Margolies from Prints and Photographs
Division at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC, March 9, 2011.
Metallo, Adam , and Vincent Rossi. "The Future of Three-Dimensional Imaging and Museum
Applications." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 1 (2011): 63-69.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2010.00067.x/abstract
76
Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET) Guitar Heroes Exhibition
http://blog.metmuseum.org/guitarheroes/
McKenna, Gordon, and De Loof Chris. ATHENA Report on existing standards
applied by European museums . eContentplus, 2009.
www.athenaeurope.org/getFile.php?id=396
Newman, Alan, and Peter Dueker. "Digital Image Asset Management at the National Gallery
of Art (US)." RLG DigiNews 10, no. 6 (2006)
http://worldcat.org/arcviewer/1/OCC/2007/08/08/0000070519/viewer/file1650.ht
ml#article2
"Part II What Do We Want To Achieve?". In Preserving the past to protect the future the
strategic plan of the National Archives and Records Administration, 2006-2016..
Revised ed. Washington, D.C.: United States National Archives and Records
Administration, 2009. 3-4.
http://www.archives.gov/about/plans-reports/strategic-plan/2009/nara-strategic-
plan-2006-2016-final.pdf
Peters, Isabella, and Paul Becker. Folksonomies indexing and retrieval in Web 2.0. Berlin: De
Gruyter/Saur, 2009.
Simon, Anna. "Studio Students and The Art Library: Demystifying Information Seeking and
Supporting Artistic Practice." Lecture, VRA + ARLIS/NA 2nd Joint Conference,
Minneapolis, MN, March 25, 2011.
http://www.arlisna.org/news/conferences/2011/ses_inside_simon.pdf
Springer, Michelle, Beth Dulabahn, Phil Michel, Barbara Natanson, David W. Reser, Nicole B.
Ellison, Helena Zinkham, and David Woodward. For the common good the Library of
Congress Flickr pilot project. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division, 2008.
http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/flickr_report_final.pdf
Stern, Rae'ut E.. Preparatory Research for the Establishment of a National Digital Library of
Art, Architecture and Design. Final Report, phase I. Jerusalem: Bezalel Academy of
Art and Design, 2010.
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Sustainable economics for a digital planet: ensuring long-term access to digital information;
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Access.. La Jolla, CA: Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and
Access, 2010.
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Wright, Alex. "Online, It’s the Mouse That Runs the Museum." . New York Times (NY),
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Wyman, Bruce, Scott Smith, Daniel Meyers, and Michael Godfrey. "Digital Storytelling in
Museums: Observations and Best Practices." Curator: The Museum Journal 54, no. 4
(2011): 461-468.
78
6. L i s t o f W e b s i t e r e f e r e n c e s
American Library Association (ALA)
http://www.ala.org/
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS)
http://www.isprs.org/
Archives of American Art
http://www.aaa.si.edu/
Artist Rights Society (ARS)
http://www.arsny.com/index.html
Art Libraries Society of North America (ARLIS/NA)
http://www.arlisna.org/index.html
Artstore Digital Library
http://www.artstor.org/index.shtml
Artstor Shared Shelf
http://www.artstor.org/shared-shelf/s-html/shared-shelf-home.shtml
Blue Ribbon Task Force on Sustainable Digital Preservation and Access (BRTF-SDPA)
http://brtf.sdsc.edu/biblio/BRTF_Final_Report.pdf
British Library Digital Preservation program
http://www.bl.uk/aboutus/stratpolprog/ccare/introduction/digital/index.html
Cataloguing Cultural Objects (CCO)
http://cco.vrafoundation.org/
Cataloguing Cultural Objects (CCO) A Guide to Describing Cultural Works and Their Images,
Online Edition http://cco.vrafoundation.org/index.php/toolkit/cco_pdf_version/
Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA)
Centre for Research Libraries Certification and Assessment of Digital Repositories
http://www.crl.edu/archiving-preservation/digital-archives/certification-and-
assessment-digital-repositories
Coalition for Networked Information (CNI)
http://www.cni.org/
79
Copyright Advisory Office at Colombia University Libraries Information Services
http://copyright.columbia.edu/copyright/2011/06/27/copyright-museums-and-
licensing-of-art-images/
Cultural Heritage Imaging (CHI)
http://www.c-h-i.org/index.html
CyArk
http://archive.cyark.org
Delicious
http://delicious.com
Digging into data
http://www.diggingintodata.org/
Digging into Image Data to Answer Authorship-Related Questions (DID-ARQ)
http://isda.ncsa.illinois.edu/DID/
Digital Curation Centre
http://www.dcc.ac.uk/
Digital Photography Best Practices and Workflow
http://www.dpbestflow.org/
Dublin Core
http://dublincore.org/
European Library Exhibition Foyer
http://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/exhibition/
Future-proofing Architectural Computer-Aided Design (FACADE)
http://facade.mit.edu/
Flickr Commons
http://www.flickr.com/commons/
Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, The Smithsonian Institution
http://www.asia.si.edu/
Galaxy Zoo
http://www.galaxyzoo.org/
80
Google Art Project
http://www.googleartproject.com/
Harvard Art Museums
http://www.harvardartmuseums.org/home/
Institute of Museum and Library services (IMLS)
http://www.imls.gov/
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
http://www.ifla.org/
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Art Libraries Section
http://www.ifla.org/en/art-libraries
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Guidelines for a
Collection Development Policy Using the Conspectus Methodology
http://www.ifla.org/en/publications/guidelines-for-a-collection-development-policy-
using-the-conspectus-model
Internet Archive
http://www.archive.org/
IRENE Sound Reproduction
http://irene.lbl.gov/
Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)
http://www.jisc.ac.uk/
Lawyers' Committee for Cultural Heritage Preservation
http://www.culturalheritagelaw.org/
Library of Congress
http://www.loc.gov/index.html
Library of Congress and RLG Conspectus Collecting Levels
http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/cpc.html
Library of Congress Comment and Posting Policy
http://www.loc.gov/homepage/commentspolicy.html
81
Machine Readable Cataloguing (MARC)
http://www.loc.gov/marc/
Makerbot 3D printer
http://www.makerbot.com/
Meshlab
http://meshlab.sourceforge.net/
Metadata for Architectural Contents in Europe (MACE)
http://portal.mace-project.eu/
http://www.mace-project.eu/index.php
Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) Collection Management Policy
www.moma.org/docs/explore/CollectionsMgmtPolicyMoMA_Oct10.pdf
Museum3
http://museum3.org/
National Archives (NARA) Archives and Library Information Centre
http://www.archives.gov/research/alic/reference/virtual-library.html
National Archives (NARA) Digitization Partnerships
http://www.archives.gov/digitization/partnerships.html
National Archives (NARA) Preserving the Past to Protect the Future: The Strategic Plan of
the National Archives and Records Administration 2006-2016.
http://www.archives.gov/about/plans-reports/strategic-plan/2009/nara-strategic-
plan-2006-2016-final.pdf
National Archives (NARA) The Generations Network (TGN) Agreement
http://www.archives.gov/digitization/pdf/tgn-agreement.pdf
National Digital Information Infrastructure & Preservation Program
http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/
New York Public Library (NYPL( What’s on the Menu?
http://menus.nypl.org/
New York Art Resource Consortium (NYARC)
http://nyarc.org/
82
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
http://www.oclc.org
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) Rapid Capture: Faster Throughput in Digitization of
Special Collections
http://www.oclc.org/research/publications/library/2011/2011-04.pdf
Openzoom
http://www.openzoom.org
PhotoCity
http://photocitygame.com/
Photosynth by Microsoft
http://photosynth.net/default.aspx
Ponoko
http://www.ponoko.com/
Preserving Access to Digital Information (PADI)
http://www.nla.gov.au/padi/
Public Art at the University of Manitoba Fort Garry Campus
http://valmesta.wordpress.com/
Ravelry
http://www.ravelry.com
RepRap 3D Printer
http://reprap.org/wiki/Main_Page
Rome Reborn
http://www.romereborn.virginia.edu/
Scanning Monticello
http://www.cs.virginia.edu/Monticello/
Shapeways
http://www.shapeways.com/
Smithsonian Institution
http://www.si.edu/
83
Smithsonian Commons
http://www.si.edu/commons/prototype/
Society of American Archivists (SAA)
http://www2.archivists.org/
Society of American Archivists (SAA) The Interactive Archivists
http://interactivearchivist.archivists.org/
Squarespace
http://www.squarespace.com/
Strategic Content Alliance
http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/contentalliance.aspx
VIP Art Fair
http://www.vipartfair.com/
Visual Arts Data Service
http://www.vads.ac.uk/index.php
Visual Resource Association (VRA)
http://www.vraweb.org/
Visual Resource Association Core (VRA Core)
http://www.loc.gov/standards/vracore/
Vogel 50x50
http://vogel5050.org/
World Digital Library (WDL)
http://www.wdl.org/en/
World Digital Library (WDL) Charter
http://project.wdl.org/about/org.html
World Digital Library (WDL) PR video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhBYGI6Tfzo
Xiangtangshan Cave Project
http://xts.uchicago.edu/
84
Yale Digital Content
http://discover.odai.yale.edu/ydc/
Your Paintings Tagger
http://tagger.thepcf.org.uk/
Zoomify
http://www.zoomify.com
85
A p p e n d i x A
Subject Matter Experts Interviewed (Alphabetically)
Name Surname Title Institute Meeting focus Meetings
Arden Alexander Cataloger Specialist for Pictorial Collection, Prints and Photographs Division
Library of Congress
Cataloging 2
Katherine Arrington Digital Conversion Specialist, Prints and Photographs Division
Library of Congress
Digital preservation
2
Julie Blake Archivist, Gallery Archive National Gallery of Art
Overview 1
Sandy Bostian Content Manager World Digital Library
Overview 1
Ann Brener Hebraic Area Specialist, African & Middle Eastern Division
Library of Congress
Overview continual
Karen Cassedy Library Systems Manager National Gallery of Art
Overview 1
Elizabeth Concha Collection Information Systems Assistant, Office of the Registrar
National Gallery of Art
Cataloging 1
Verna Curtis Curator, Prints and Photographs Division
Library of Congress
Curatorial processes
1
Peter Dueker Digital Asset Management Solutions
National Gallery of Art
Documentation 1
Susan Finkel Collection Information Systems Coordinator, Office of the Registrar
National Gallery of Art
Cataloging 1
Kenneth N. Fleisher Color Scientist, Division of Imaging and Visual Services
National Gallery of Art
Documentation 1
Nahid Gerstein Acting Team Leader for the Israel/Judaica catalogers
Library of Congress
Cataloging 1
John Gordy Web Manager National Gallery of Art
Strategy 2
Cory Grace Digital Asset Manager, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery
Smithsonian Institution
Overview 1
Nancy Hartman Photo Archivist, Photographic Reference Collection, Curatorial Affairs
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Cataloging 1
86
Yasmeen Kahn Sr. Rare Book Conservator Library of Congress
Preservation 1
Erik Landsberg Head of Collections Imaging, Department of Imaging Services
Museum of Modern Art
Documentation 1
Michael Levy Director, Digital Collections
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Overview 1
John Mahar Book Exchange Program Library of Congress
Acquisition 1
Adam Metallo 3D Digitization, Office of the Chief information Officer
Smithsonian Institution
Documentation 1
Gregory P. J.
Most Chief, Department of Image Collections
National Gallery of Art
Fellowship Research Supervision
Continual
Michael Neubert Supervisory Digital Projects Specialist
Library of Congress
Overview 1
Peggy Pearlstein Head, Hebraic Section at Library of Congress
Library of Congress
Fellowship Research Supervision
continual
Ford Peatross
Director, Center for Architecture, Design and Engineering, Prints and Photographs Division
Library of Congress
Curatorial processes
1
Michelle Rago Technical Director World Digital Library
Overview 2
Herb Rosenbleeth Nation Executive Director. Colonel, U.S. Army (Ret)
National Museum of American Jewish Military History
Overview 1
Vince Rossi 3D Digitization, Office of Exhibits Central Model Making Unit
Smithsonian Institution
Documentation 1
Gail Shirazi African/Middle Eastern Acquisitions Section in the Order Division
Library of Congress
Acquisition 1
Jason Steinhauer Liaison Specialist, Veterans History Project
Library of Congress
Strategy 2
John Tsantes Head/Imaging & Photographic Services, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery
Smithsonian Institution
Documentation 1
Stephen Van Dyk Head, Art Department, Smithsonian Institution Libraries
Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum
Overview 1
John Van Oudenaren
Director World Digital Library
Strategy 2
Mary Westly Assistant Administrator National Museum of American
Overview 1
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Jewish Military History
Lindsay Zarwell Archivist, Steven Spielberg Film and Video Archive, Curatorial Affairs
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Cataloging 1
Alison Zhang Metadata specialist World Digital Library
Cataloging 1
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A p p e n d i x B
VRA + ARLIS/NA 2011 full schedule at vraarlis11.sched.org
E Event | M Meeting | I Session | P Special Interest Group - User Group
March 24 • Thursday
M 2:00pm – 3:00pm ARLIS/NA Architecture Section Meeting
P 3:00pm – 4:00pm Cataloging Issues Discussion Group
P 3:00pm – 4:00pm Future of Art Bibliography
March 25 • Friday
I 9:00am – 10:30am Case Studies II
E 10:00am – 5:00pm Exhibits Hall
I 11:00am – 12:00pm Opening Plenary: Works and Fair Use: Can Bridges Be Built Between Educational Users and Copyright Owners?
I 1:30pm – 3:00pm Images Unleashed: Expanding Beyond Traditional Disciplines
I 3:15pm – 4:45pm Inside Out: Examining Studio Artists’ Perceptions, Representations, and Actual Use of the Fine Arts Library
March 26 • Saturday
I 8:30am – 10:00am Case Studies IV
E 10:00am – 12:00pm Vendor Slam, part I
E 12:00pm – 1:30pm Joint VRA+ARLIS/NA Buffet Lunch
I 3:30pm – 5:00pm Engaging New Technologies
March 27 • Sunday
I 9:45am – 11:15am More Than Meets the Eye? Retrieving Art Images by Subject
M 11:15am – 12:15pm ARLIS/NA Art and Design School Libraries Division Meeting
I 1:30pm – 3:00pm Paving the Way for an Uncertain Future
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