Final Report Ayush Khanna

8/8/2019 Final Report Ayush Khanna

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Ramky Enviro Engineers Limited New Delhi

SUMMER INTERNSHIP

PROJECT ON

SUSTAINABILITY OF SOLID WASTE

AND

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

Submitted to- Made by-

Ramky Enviro Engineers Ltd. Ayush Khanna

MBA- ISM

R750209006


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This is to acknowledge with thanks the help, guidance and support that I have received during

the project work.

I have no words to express a deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Digvijay Singh, Assistant Manager,

MSW Department for his esteemed guidance and support.

I would also like to acknowledge Mr. Sanjiv Kumar,GM (Operations) , Mr. Siddhartha Rathi,

AGM (Business Development), Mr. Akshat Sahai for my great help and cooperation.

I am also very grateful to all Employees of Ramky Enviro Engineers Ltd , Mr. Pankaj Malik

and Miss Priyanka Arora( Trainee) who were very cooperative and helpful to me.

AYUSH KHANNA (R750209006)

MBA( INFORMATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT)


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INDEX

About the company5

Introduction6

Solid Waste..................9

Landfill..11

Problems..13

Solutions16

Components of Municipal Solid Waste.17

Liner System21

Landfill Gas Management............23

Construction & Operational Practice.32

Manpower Requirement..37

Waste Management Technology.41

Problems & Constraints in Developing Countries..43

Achieving Sustainability in Solid Waste Management.44

Hazardous Wastes..54

Types of Hazardous Wastes.55

Use of Hazardous Wastes..59

References61


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ABOUT THE COMPANY

RAMKY, founded in the year 1994, today spans into a specialist

multi-disciplinary organization focused in areas of Civil,Environmental & Waste Management infrastructure with specific

emphasis on Public Private Partnership Projects. The corporate

office of the group is located at Hyderabad and the regional

offices are located at Delhi, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Bangalore,

Chennai, Bhopal and Kolkata. The Ramky group has presence in

more than 55 locations within the country in addition to a branch

office located at SAIF Zone, Sharjah, UAE.

Ramky Group is India's leading environmental and waste management organization; the

company behind India's largest number of BOO/BOT projects; developer of JNPC, a uniquepharmaceutical industrial park on BOO basis and amongst the fastest growing

infrastructure companies in the region.

To Ramky Enviro Engineers Ltd. (REEL) goes the credit and distinction of establishing the

countrys first integrated common hazardous waste management, bio-medical waste

management projects and integrated municipal waste management facility on tipping fee

model in India.

RAMKY ENVIRO ENGINEERS LTD (REEL)

RAMKY Enviro Engineers Ltd is a pioneer in all the forms of waste management including

Hazardous (Industrial) waste, Medical waste and Municipal solid wastes. Ramkys

Integrated Waste Management facilities are located across the country. Looking to the

need and importance of Environment Management for sustainable infrastructure

development, REEL has introduced a new concept OneUp Services i.e. one stop solution

to the environmental problems from one platform for sustainable infrastructure

development. REEL offers services in Environmental Infrastructure Development,Integrated Waste Management, Performance Evaluation, Feasibility Assessment etc.

-- The group is today

handling works worth

over Rs. 10000 Millions

with a pan-India

presence.

-- The group employs

over 3000 persons of


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INTRODUCTION

As urbanization continues to take place, the management of solid waste is becoming a major

public health and environmental concern in urban areas of many metro cities. The concern isserious, particularly in the capital cities, which are often gateways to the countries for foreigndiplomats, businessmen, and tourists. Poor visual appearance of these cities will have negative

impacts on official and tourist visits and foreign investment.

Recognizing its importance, a number of developing countries have requested collaboration of

external support agencies, both bilateral and multilateral, in improving solid waste managementin their cities in the last 20 years or so. Although some projects succeeded in providing lasting

positive impacts on the management of solid waste in the recipient countries and cities, manyfailed to continue activities after the external support agencies ceased their support. This

unsustainability of collaborative projects is due to various technical, financial, institutional,

economic, and social constraints faced by both the recipient countries/cities and external supportagencies.

Such constraints vary from country to country and from city to city, as developing countries andcities within them differ in solid waste management problems and they and external support

agencies have different, and often limited, resources available to resolve the problems.Therefore, in order to ensure the sustainability of collaborative projects, the various constraints

of both developing countries and external support agencies should be carefully examined and anapproach be developed to remove such constraints within the context of the collaborative

projects.

Due to rapid urbanization and uncontrolled growth rate of population, municipal solid wastemanagement (MSWM) has become acute in India. MSWM, though an essential service, is givenlow priority.Lack of financial resources, institutional weaknesses, improper choice of technology

and public apathy towards MSW have made this service far from satisfaction. The currentpractices of the uncontrolled dumping of waste on the outskirts of towns/cities have created a

serious environmental and public health problem.

Urbanization is now becoming a global phenomenon, but its ramifications are more pronounced

in developing countries. Natural growth of population, reclassifications of habitation andmigration trends are important in urban population in India. The population of urban India was

285 million as per 2001 census, which accounts for 27 per percent of the total population. Globalexperience shows that when a countrys urban population reaches almost 25% of the overall

population. Per capita waste generation varies between 0.2 Kg to 0.6 Kg per day in cities with population ranging from 1.0 lakh to 50 lakh. An assessment has been made that because of

increasing per capita waste generation of about 1.3% per year, and growth of urban populationbetween 3% and 3.5% per annum, yearly increase in the overall quantity of solid waste in the

cities is about 5%. Waste collection efficiency ranges from 50% to 90%. Urban Local Bodies(ULBs) spend between Rs.500/- to Rs.1500/- per ton on solid waste management, of which 60%

to 70% is spent on collection alone, 20% to 30% on transportation and less than 5% on


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treatment and disposal which is very essential to prevent environmental pollution. Crudedumping is normally resorted to by ULBs without adopting scientific and hygienic approach of

sanitary landfilling.

Most local governments and urban agencies have, time and again, identified solid waste as amajor problem that has reached proportions requiring drastic measures. We can observe threekey trends with respect to solid waste - increase in shear volume of waste generated by urban

residents; change in the quality or make-up of waste generated; and the disposalmethod of wastecollected, by land-fill, inceneration etc.

It is critical to adopt a broad approach in developing a working framework for solid waste

management (SWM). This covers the social, economic, technology, political and administrativedimensions. For example the social dimension of SWM involves waste minimization; the

economic dimension of SWM involves waste recycling; the technology dimension of SWMinvolves waste disposal; and the political and administrative dimensions cuts across all the three

issues of minimization, recycling and disposal.

Waste

MinimizationWaste

RecyclingWaste

Disposal

SOCIAL ECONOMIC TECHNOLOGY

POLITICAL

ADMINISTRATIVE

But SWM is not an isolated phenomena that can be easily compartmentalized and solved with

innovative technology or engineering. It is particularly an urban issue that is closely related,

directly or indirectly, to a number of issues such as urban lifestyles, resource consumptionpatterns, jobs and income levels, and other socio-economic and cultural issues. All these issues

have to be brought together on a common platform in order to ensure a long-term solution tourban waste.

There is a whole culture of waste management that needs to be put in place - from the micro-

level of household and neighbourhood to the macro levels of city, state and nation. The generalassumtion is that SWM should be done at the city-level, and as a result, solutions tried out have

been essentially end-of-pipe ('End-of-pipe' refers to finding solutions to a problem at the finalstage of its cycle of causes and effects. In the case of urban waste, it means focussing on waste

disposalrather than waste recycling or waste minimization). But this approach essentially missesthe forest for the trees, in attempting piece-meal and ad hoc solutions to waste problems, insteadof taking a long-term holistic approach.


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In reality there are a number of critical actions the need to be taken at each of the levels ofhousehold, neighbourhood, city and nation. Action to be taken can have social, technology,

economic, political or administrative dimensions.

It is important that the right decision/action be taken/carried out at the right level. Thus, action at

the household level are pridominantly social, technology and economic in nature. Similarlyaction to be taken at the state and nation level are pridominantly economic, political andadministrative in nature. Action at the neighbourhood and city levels cuts across all five themes.

The matrix that links the dimensions of decision-making (social, technology, economic, political

and administrative) with the levels of decision-making (household, neighbourhood, city, andnation) - helps in categorizing the decisions, action and related activities to be undertaken. The

Matrix is shown below:

Dimensionsand Levels of

decision-making

Household Neighbourhood City Nation

Social * * *

Technology * * *

Economic * * * *

Political * * *

Administrative * * *

The SWM Matrix


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SOLID WASTE

Municipal solid waste (MSW), also called urban solid waste, is a waste type that includes

predominantly household waste (domestic waste) with sometimes the addition of commercial

wastes collected by a municipality within a given area. They are in either solid or semisolid form

and generally exclude industrial hazardous wastes. The term residual waste relates to waste left

from household sources containing materials that have not been separated out or sent for

reprocessing.

y

Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (can also be recycled).y Recyclable material: paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics, etc.y Inert waste: construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris.

y Composite wastes: waste clothing, Tetra Paks, waste plastics such as toys.y Domestic hazardous waste (also called "household hazardous waste") & toxic waste:

medication, e-waste, paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans,fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.

Definitions-

The waste characterization has been done by keeping in mind 8 parameters or characteristicswhich are generally and mostly found in the Municipal Waste.


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1. Paper:- This consists of paper found in MSW in the form of wrappers on soap bars, newspaper, boxes made out of hard paper, card board etc. These materials have a high calorific

value.

2. Textiles:- This consists of Garments, Kitchen Dusters, Cloth Cuttings, Household Rags,

etc. The maximum amount of textiles that are received are from the areas which have agood concentration of tailor shops like local markets.

3. Leather:- This consists of belts, shoes, bags, purses, etc. and any other product of hide orhide itself.

4. Plastic:- This consists of wrappers, bottles, polythene bags, disposable plates, glasses,etc., and all the other imaginable articles made of plastic. The major concentration of

such plastic waste is from Household waste or from the Market places.

5. Metal:- This consists of screw, utensils, clips, aluminum wraps, odd pieces of metal,

household aluminum railings, bottle caps, etc. There is not much quantity of metal wastefrom households due to its strong nature and the kind of use. Whereas its quantity is

considerably higher in construction debris.

6. Glass:- This consists of broken glass-wares, bulbs, tube lights, window panes, etc.

7. Ash, Fine Earth & Others:- This consists of construction debris, street swept dirt, gravel,

etc., tree leaves, plastics, paper, stones, etc.

8. Compostable Matter:- This consists of fruit and vegetable peel, unused and cooked food,

bones, etc.


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LANDFILLS

Definition-

The term landfill is used for the final disposal of Municipal Solid Waste on land, which is

designed mainly for it and which has minimum impact to the environment by including some

essential components.

The term Sanitary Landfill is mainly characterized by the presence of a

Liner and Leachate Collection System to prevent Ground Water Contamination.

Landfilling of Municipal Solid Waste-

Land filling can be done for the following types of waste-

--Mixed waste not found suitable for waste.

-- Pre Processing and post processing rejects from waste processing sites.

-- Non Hazardous Waste.

Land filling of hazardous waste stream in the municipal waste will be doneat a hazardous waste landfill site; such a site will be identified by the State

Government and is likely to be operated by industries of a district/state.

Land filling of construction and demolition waste will be done in a separateLandfill where the waste can be stored and mined for future use in

Earthwork or road projects.

If the leachate quality is observed to be of poor quality with respect to thelocal ground water quality or with respect to the CPCB norms, steps will be

taken to close the existing landfill site and remedial measures adopted.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND ITS SOLUTIONS-

1- Ground water contamination through Leachate.2- Surface Water Contamination through runoff.

3- Air contamination due to gases, litter, dust, bad odour.4- Other Problems due to rodents, pests , fire, bird ,menace, slope failure, erosion etc.


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Ground water contamination through Leachate-

When rainfall soaks into waste in a garbage tip it slowly drains through the waste under gravity.

As it does so it picks up soluble contaminants from the waste itself. This produces a verystrongly organically contaminated liquid which is called leachate. Most of the contamination is

biological (organic) in nature, but whatever soluble contaminants are present in the landfill, the

leachate will probably also contain them in small quantities. The leachate will also havedissolved methane in it if it comes from a gassing (biogas producing or methanogenic) landfill.

If there is no base lining the leachate will drain away through any reasonably permeable material

which exists under the landfill. Although this material below the landfill may do some filteringand further cleansing of the leachate, it can enter the underground strata still in a highly polluting

condition. Water flowing in subterranean rock, through cracks and fissures and through anypermeable material is called groundwater.

In many parts of the developed ad developing world this groundwater will be used for drinkingand cooking. It will obviously be dangerous to human health for people to imbibe this flow. This

will happen if and when pumped out for use from contaminated strata, or where the groundwateremerges at the surface.

Groundwater moves slowly and continuously through the open spaces in soil and rock. If alandfill contaminates groundwater, a plume of contamination will occur wherever reasonably

permeable material exists below, for example a private property plot.

Any groundwater which gets polluted will still keep flowing underground and although theground may help to naturally filter and biologically treat the leachate, eventually the pollution

flow may grow and the small extent of a polluted area shown initially may later have to beextended if a growing contaminant plume develops, and nearby water resources including water


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supply boreholes can be contaminated. If they do they will probably remain unusable for severalgenerations. Such a loss of something as precious as water is a terrible problem for later

generations.

Arsenic Problems

Arsenic contamination in water is a grave concern in the national and internationalperspective. The problem of arsenic contamination in water in general and in ground water

in particular in some parts of India and other countries has been reported as worlds biggestepisode of arsenic pollution.

Effect of Ground Water contamination

Conservation of sources and management of groundwater quality, therefore, have become

the need of the time. Attempts have been made to present information about arsenicpollution and give a state of art of arsenic pollution. Some remedial measures to overcome

the problem of arsenic pollution have also been discussed.

Redox reactions exert major controls on the occurrence of nitrate, chromate and arsenate inground water. Nitrate levels can be lowered by Denitrification in the presence of soil biota or

by electron donors like pyrite in deep aquifers.

Cr(VI) and As(V) species, on the other hand, are strongly adsorbed an positively chargedsurfaces of iron hydroxide minerals. However, their retention is affected when competing

anions are supplied through increase in salinity or fertilizer application.

Surface Water Contamination through runoff-


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Surface runoff is the water flow that occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and

excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flows over the land.

Runoff flowing into a storm water drain

Surface runoff can be generated either by rain fall or by the melting of snow, ice, or glaciers.

Snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically

snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flowmaxima in rivers affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow orglaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. In high mountain regions, streams

frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason.


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Surface runoff from a hillside after soil is saturated

Environmental impacts of surface water Contamination-

The principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water,

groundwater and soil through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Ultimately theseconsequences translate into human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to

water resources. Some of the contaminants that create the greatest impact to surface watersarising from runoff are petroleum substances, herbicides and fertilizers. Quantitative uptake by

surface runoff of pesticides and other contaminants has been studied since the 1960s, and earlyon contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance phytotoxicity.

In the case of surface waters, the impacts translate to water pollution, since

the streams and rivers have received runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. Whensurface waters are used as potable water supplies, they can be compromised regarding health

risks and drinking water aesthetics (that is, odor, color and turbidity effects).

Air contamination due to gases, litter, dust, bad odour-

Air pollution is the presence of high concentration of contamination, dust, smokes etc., in the

general body of air man breaths. Dust is defined as particulate matter as any airborne finelydivided solid or liquid material with a diameter smaller than 100 micrometers. Dust and smoke

are the two major components of particulate matter. Car emissions, chemicals from factories,dust, pollen and mold spores may be suspended as particles.

Ozone, a gas, is a major part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air pollution, its also called smog. These materials come from various sources, such as, various


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industrial processes, paved and unpaved roadways, construction and demolition sites, parkinglots, storage piles, handling and transfer of materials, and open areas. Some air pollutants are

poisonous. Inhaling them can increase the chances of health problems. In fact, dust when inhaledcan increase breathing problems, damage lung tissue, and aggravate existing health problems. In

addition to health concerns, dust generated from various activities can reduce visibility, resulting

in accidents. Therefore, every federal Govt. has stringent regulations which require prevention,reduction and/or mitigation of dust emissions.

Thus, prime sources of air pollution are the industrial activities or processes releasing largequantity of pollutants in the atmosphere. These pollutants are mainly:

(a) Smoke comes out from various industries like, power plants, chemical plants, other

manufacturing facilities, motor vehicles, etc.

(b) Burning of wood, coal in furnaces and incinerators.

(c) Gaseous pollutants from Oil refining industries.

(d) Dust generated and thrown to general atmosphere by various industries such as cement

plants, ore / stone crushing units, mining industries due to rock drilling & movements of miningmachineries & blasting etc.

(e) Waste deposition for landfills which generate methane.

(f) Toxic / germ / noxious gasses and fumes generated from military activities and explosivesblasting in mines.

Other Problems due to birds,

pests and Rodents-

Proper management of solid waste produced by households is one of the biggest challenges facedby humanity today. This is especially true in cities across India, where poor land use planning

providing community level solid waste management treatment facilities and poor managementpractices are creating havoc in local neighborhoods and at dumpsites.

Insects, rodents, birds, etc, are frequently attracted to an improperly managed landfill and thus

easily aid in spreading various kinds of highly infectious diseases. Regular contact of skin with

these wastes could result in skin infections. Those living closeby are particularly vulnerable to

these diseases. Cattle, sheep and goats also easily contract diseases as they frequently bitten by

vicious packs of dogs and other rodents who are everywhere.

A major problem with municipal solid waste is the high volume of plastics. Coloured plastics

especially contain pigments made from heavy metals like Cadmium, Copper, Lead, Cobalt, etc.

which are highly toxic in nature. Organic matter constitutes a major chunk of the weight of


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household wastes, decompose easily and attract insects in the process. It is hence essential to

keep organic wastes separate from non compostable and recyclable wastes, like plastics, which

can easily be recycled and reused. If composted, the organic wastes, can be used productively as

fertilizers and will no longer be waste.

Solutions-

The solution to management of Municipal Solid Waste is simple: segregate waste at source.

Segregation of wastes will help in ensuring similar kinds of wastes are collected together and

become a resource. Organic waste can thus easily be converted to compost in local

neighbourhoods, households and even in a regional scale in every layout. Space required for this

need not be extensive, as the composted waste is manure, which is easily picked up by gardens

and farmers.

Once the organic waste is out of the waste stream, the remaining plastics can easily be

compacted and recycled. This will add value to hundreds of families who live of this income,

and it would be an act of simply generosity, if families across Bangalore simply handed over

segreated plastics and other metals to families depending on recovery of such valuable resources

from what is perceived as waste.

Post segregation appropriate treatment of the remaining waste, which is likely hazardous, or non-

recyclable, must only be undertaken in scientifically developed landfills.

MINIMISATION-

1- Isolation of waste through containment.

2- Controlled collection and treatment of products of physical, chemical and biologicalnature.

3- Environmental monitoring till the waste becomes stable.


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ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS

The seven essential components of a MSW landfill are:

(a) A liner system at the base and sides of the landfill which prevents migrationof leachate or gas to the surrounding soil.

(b) A leachate collection and control facility which collects and extracts

leachate from within and from the base of the landfill and then treats theleachate.

(c) A gas collection and control facility (optional for small landfills) which

collects and extracts gas from within and from the top of the landfill andthen treats it or uses it for energy recovery.

(d) A final cover system at the top of the landfill which enhances surface

drainage, prevents infiltrating water and supports surface vegetation.

(e) A surface water drainage system which collects and removes all surfacerunoff from the landfill site.

(f) An environmental monitoring system which periodically collects and

analyses air, surface water, soil-gas and ground water samples around thelandfill site.

(g) A closure and post-closure plan which lists the steps that must be taken to

close and secure a landfill site once the filling operation has beencompleted and the activities for long-term monitoring, operation and

maintenance of the completed landfill.


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SITE SELECTION

Selection of a landfill site usually comprises of the following steps, when alarge number (eg. 4 to 8) landfill sites are available: (i) setting up of a location

Criteria; (ii) identification of search area; (iii) drawing up a list of potential sites;(iv) Data collection; (v) selection of few best-ranked sites; (vi) environmental

Impact assessment and (vii) final site selection and land acquisition.

However, in municipalities where availability of land is limited, theSelection process may be confined to only one or two sites and may involve the

following steps: (i) Setting up of location criteria; (ii) Data collection; (iii)Environmental impact assessment and (vi) Final site selection.

SITE INVESTIGATION AND SITE CHARACTERISATION

The data collected during site selection is not sufficient for landfill design.To be able to undertake detailed design of a landfill at a selected site, it is essential

to characterize the landfill site and evaluate the parameters required for design. It

is necessary that all data listed on Data Collection is collected for site characterization. If somedata has not been collected, the sameshould be obtained before site investigations are undertaken for site

Characterization.

A proper site investigation programmed comprises of subsoil investigation,ground water/hydro geological investigation, hydrological investigation, topographical


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investigation, geological investigation, environmental investigation, traffic investigation andleachate investigation.

LANDFILL PLANNING AND DESIGN

A Landfill Design Life will consists of an operational period and a closure period.The operational period will consists of a lifetime of about 10 to 25 years while the closure and

post closure for the which the landfill will be maintained will be around 25 years.

WASTE VOLUME AND LANDFILL CAPACITYThe volume of waste to be put into the landfill will depend upon the current

generation of waste per annum and the increase in generation of waste on the basis of pastrecords.

The density of waste depends upon large variations in waste composition, degree

of compaction and state of decomposition. Density of Landfills may vary from 0.40 t/cu.m. 1.25t/cu.m.

LANDFILL LAYOUTA landfill area will comprise of area where the waste will be filled as well

as some additional area for other facilities. Within the area to be filled, work may proceed inphases with only a part of the area under active operation.

The following facilities must be located in the layout:

(a) access roads; (b) equipment shelters; (c) weighing scales; (d) office space; (e)location of waste inspection and transfer station (f) drainage facilities (g) location of leachate

treatment facilities.

LANDFILL SECTIONLandfills may have different types of sections depending on the topography of the

area. The landfills may take the following forms: (a) above ground landfills (area landfills); (b)below ground landfill (trench landfills); (c) slope landfills; (d) valley landfills (canyon landfills);

and (e) a combination of the above.


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PHASED OPERATIONBefore the main design of a landfill can be undertaken it is important todevelop

the operating methodology. A landfill is divided in phases because itallows the progressive use of the landfill area, such that at any given time a part of

the site may have a final cover, a part being actively filled, a part being prepared to

receive waste, and a part undisturbed.

The term phase means the small area of the landfill. A phase consists of cells,

lifts , daily cover, liner and leachate collection systems, gas control facility and final cover of thesub area. Each phase is typically made for a period of 12 months. They are generally filled from

the base to the top and leaving the temporary space. It must be ensured that each phase reachesthe final cover level at the end of its construction period and that is capped before the starting of

monsoons.

CALCULATION OF LEACHATE QUALITY AND QUANTITY

Leachate is generated on account of the infiltration of water into the lower part of the ground through waste as well as the squeezing of waste due to the self weight.

Leachate is a contaminated liquid that contains a number of dissolved and suspended materials.

The important factors which influence leachate quality include waste,composition, elapsed time, temperature, moisture and available oxygen. In

general, leachate quality of the same waste type may be different in landfillslocated in different climatic regions. Landfill operational practices also influence

leachate quality. Study of Leachate Quality may be used for (a) whether the waste is hazardousor not (b) to choose a landfill design (c) to design or gain access to leachate treatment plant. (d)

to develop a list of chemicals for the groundwater monitoring program.

A landfill may not be provided a liner if and only if the followingconditions can be satisfied:

(a) If the waste is predominantly construction material type inert waste without

any undesirable mixed components (such as paints, varnish, polish etc.) andif laboratory tests (such as TCLP tests) conclusively prove that the leachate

from such waste is within permissible limits; and

(b) If the waste has some biodegradable material, it must be proven throughboth laboratory studies on fresh waste and field studies (in old dumps) that

the leachate from such waste will not impact the ground water in all the phases of the landfill andhas not impacted the ground water or the subsoil so far in old dumps.

LINER SYSTEM

Liner systems comprise of a combination of leachate drainage andcollection layers and barrier layers. A competent liner system should have low permeability,

should be robust and durable and should be resistant to chemical attack, puncture and rupture.


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There are three types of liner systems. They are-

Single Liner System: Single liner system system comprises of a single primary barrieroverlain by a leachate collection system with an appropriate

separation /protection layer. A system of this type is used for a low

vulnerability landfill.

Single Composite Liner System: A composite liner systems consists of two barriers, placed in

closed contact with each other to provide a beneficial effect of both the barriers. Singlecomposite liner system are often the minimum specified liner system for non-hazardous wastes

such as MSW.

Double Liner System- In a double liner system, a single liner system is placed twice, one overthe other. The top barrier (called the primary barrier) is overlaid by a leachate collection system.

Beneath the primary barrier, another leachate collection system is placed followed by a secondbarrier (the secondary barrier).

Leachate Drainage, Collection and Removal-

A leachate collection system consists of a drainage layer, a perforated pipecollector system, sump collection system, and a removal system. The leachate drainage layer is

usually 30 cm thick, has a slope of 2% or higher and permeability of greater than 0.01 cm/sec.

Leachate is removed from the landfill by (a) pumping in vertical wells or chimneys, (b) pumpingin side slope risers, or (c) by gravity drains rough the base of a landfill in above -ground andsloped landfills.


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Leachate Management-

Discharge to waste water treatment system- Landfills which are close to waste water treatment

plant, leachate should be sent to these plants after some pretreatment. Reduction in organiccontent is required for pretreatment.

Recirculation The another method for managing the leachate is to recirculate it through the

landfill. This has two advantages- (i) the process of landfill stabilisation is accelerated and (ii)the constituents of the leachate are attenuated by the biological, chemical and physical changes

occurring with the landfill.

Evaporation of leachate- One of the techniques used to manage leachate

is to spray it in lined leachate ponds and allow the leachate to evaporate.

Treatment of Leachate- The treatment of leachate is required to reduce the concentration ofdegradable and non-degradable materials, specific hazardous constituents, ammonia and nitrate

ions, sulphides and odorous compounds and suspended solids.

Landfill Gas Management- The three plans followed by gas management are-

1- Controlled passive venting.

2-

Uncontrolled release.

3- Controlled collection and treatment/reuse.


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Controlled passive venting and Uncontrolled release -

The need for gas movement control is primarily to prevent the gas from damaging plants

and property or causing injury to people. Methane generated in landfills has killed

vegetation; it displaces oxygen from the root zone.

More importantly, gas has accumulated in buildings and, if methane concentrations

exceed the lower explosive limit of 5%, there is danger of a methane gas explosion.

If one suspects methane gas has accumulated in a building, the fire department should be

alerted immediately. Most fire departments have explosive-gas detection equipment.

Methane gas entry points into a building may be through cracks, construction joints, sub

surface utility service openings, and almost any other weak spot in the basement wall or

building floor.

Methane, being lighter than air, will tend to accumulate near the ceiling. If the source of

the methane cannot be controlled immediately, venting of the building should continue,an alarm system should be sounded, and the building evacuated.


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Controlled collection and treatment/reuse-Active gas collection systems remove the

landfill gas under a vacuum from the landfill or the surrounding soil formation, with the

gas being literally pumped out of the ground.

These systems may provide migration control or recover methane for energy purposes. Bothapproaches employ gas recovery wells and vacuum pumps. A pipe network is built to

interconnect wells and blower equipment.


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Final Cover System- A landfill cover is usually composed of several layers, each with a specificfunction. The final cover system enhances the surface drainage, minimize infiltration, vegetation

and control the release of landfill gases. The landfill cover system to be adopted will depend onthe gas management plan.

Site Infrastructure Facilities- The following site infrastructure facilities should be provided at

the site-

1- Site Entrance and Fencing.2- Access roads.

3- Waste Inspection and sampling facility.4- Equipment Workshops and garages.

5- Water Supply.6- Lighting.

7- Vehicle cleaning facility.8-

Firefighting equipment.

Some other facilities which should be included are-

(a)A permanent wide entrance road with separate entry and exit paths.

(b) Sufficient length inside the entrance gate till the weighbridge to prevent queuing ofvehicles outside the entrance gate.

(c)Proper direction signs and lighting at the entrance gate.(d) Full time security guard at the site.

Landfill equipment- Following equipments are required at landfill site-

(a)Dozers- for spreading waste and daily cover.

(b) Landfill compactors- for compactors of waste.(c)Backhoes and front end loaders.

(d) Tractor trailors for internal movement of waste or daily cover soil.

Design of Environmental Monitoring System-

The objective of environmental monitoring systems is to find outwhether the landfill is performing as per its design and to ensure that the landfill is

conforming to the regulatory environmental standards.

Monitoring at a landfill site is carried out in four zones: (a) on and within thelandfill; (b) in the unsaturated subsurface zone (vadose zone) beneath and around the landfill; (c)

in the groundwater (saturated) zone beneath and around the landfill and (d) in theatmosphere/local air above and around the landfill.


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CLOSURE AND POST-CLOSURE MAINTENANCE PLAN-

Some possible uses of closed landfill sites near urban centres include parks, recreational areas,

golf courses, vehicle parking areas etc.

A closure and post-closure plan for landfills involves the following

Components:

(a)Plan for vegetative growth over the final landfill cover.(b) Plan for management of surface water run-off with an effective drainage system.

(c)Plan for periodical inspection and maintenance of landfill cover and facilities.


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Waste Acceptance Criteria- Some points to be considered are as follows-

(a)All waste should be routinely accepted if the truck/tipper contains the authorizeddocuments.

(b)All waste coming in authorized trucks from non-confirming areas will be visually

inspected at waste inspection facilities and sampled randomly.(c)Non-hazardous small quantity waste may be accepted from industrial zones if certified asnon-hazardous by the by the regulatory authority.

(d) Liquid wastes and sludges with high water content will not be accepted at MSW landfillsites.

(e)Large quantity non-hazardous industrial solid waste should not be accepted at a MSWlandfill.

Design and construction of landfill liners-

The liner system at the base and sides of a landfill prevents ground water contamination. Designand construction procedures of two elements of the liner system the compacted clay/amended

soil and the geo-membrane are given below.

Compacted Clays and Amended Soils-

The selection of materials to be used as a soil barrier layer will depend on the availability ofmaterials either at site or at nearby areas. Different types of clay used are as-

1- Natural clay which is used as a mineral component of a liner system where suitable clay

is available at site or nearby places.2- If clay is not available, but there are deposits of silts or sands, then formation of good

quality bentonite enhanced soil/amended soil, may prove to be useful.

Compacted Clays: Wherever suitable low permeability natural clay materials are available, theyprovide the most economical lining material and are commonly

used. The basic requirements of a compacted clay liner is that it should havepermeability below a pre-specified limit (10-7 cm/sec) and that this should be

maintained during the design life.

Amended Soils: When low-permeability clay is not available locally, in-situ soilsmay be mixed with medium to high plasticity imported clay, or commercial clays

such as bentonite, to achieve the required low hydraulic conductivity. Soil bentonite ad mixturesare commonly used as low permeability amended soil liners.


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Specifications

A competent barrier made of compacted soils - clays or amended soils - is

normally expected to fulfil the following requirements:

(a)hydraulic conductivity of 10-7 cm/sec or less;

(b) thickness of 100 cm or more;

(c) absence of shrinkage cracks due to desiccation;

(d) absence of clods in the compacted clay layer;

(e) adequate strength for stability of liner under compressive loads as well asalong side slopes; and

(e)minimal influence of leachate on hydraulic conductivity.

Design Process-

The Design process for a compacted liner system consists of the following steps-

1- Identification of area or borrow material- in situ or nearby.2- Laboratory studies on liner material ( from in-situ or nearby locations) compromising

of soil classification tests, soil compaction tests, permeability tests, strength tests,shrinkage tests and leachate compatibility tests.

3- Identification of source of additive, if natural soils does not satisfy liner requirements-natural clays from not too distant areas or commercially available clay such as

bentonite.4- Laboratory studies on soil- additive mixes using different proportions of additive to

find minimum additive content necessary to achieve the specified requirements.

Construction Aspects-

Compacted Clays: The typical sequence of construction for compacted clay liners

is as follows:

(a) Clearing of borrow area by removal of shrubs and other vegetative growth.(b) Adjustment of water content in the borrow area - sprinkling or irrigating for

increasing the water content and ripping and aerating for lowering the watercontent.

(c) Excavation of material.(d) Transportation to site in haulers or through conveyor systems (short

distance).(e) Spreading and levelling of a thin layer (lift) of soil (of thickness about 25

cm).(f) Spraying and mixing water for final water content adjustment.


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(g) Compaction using rollers.(h) Construction quality assurance testing.

(i) Placement of next lift and repetition of process till final thickness isachieved.

The two fold objectives of soil compaction are (a) to break and remould theclods into a homogeneous mass, and (b) to densify the soil.

Amended Soils: The process of construction of amended soil liners issimilar to that for compacted clay liners with the modification that the additive is

introduced into the soil after the excavation stage. Additives such as bentonite canbe introduced in two ways - by in-place mixing or by central plant method. In the

latter technique, soil and additive are mixed in a pugmill or a central mixing plant.Water can also be added in the pugmill either concurrently with bentonite or in a

separate processing step.

Construction Control-

During construction, quality control is exercised to ensure that theConstructed facility meets the design specifications.

Borrow area material control and amended soil control involves the

following tests: (a) grain size distribution; (b) moisture content; (c) Atterberg'slimits; (d) laboratory compaction tests; and (e) laboratory permeability tests. The

Frequency of testing varies from one test per 1000 cu.m, to one test per 5000 cu.m.

Compacted soil liner control involves the following tests: (a) in-situ densitymeasurements; (b) in-situ moisture content measurements; (c) laboratory

permeability tests on undisturbed samples; (d) in-situ permeability tests.

Geomembranes

A High Density Poly ethylene (HDPE) geomembrane of minimum

thickness of 1.5 mm is to be laid over the compacted clay/amended soil with nogaps along the surface of contact.

Specifications

The geomembrane is normally expected to meet the followingRequirements:

(a) It should be impervious(b) It should have adequate strength to withstand subgrade deformations and

Construction loads(c) It should have adequate durability and longevity to withstand

environmental loads(d) The joints/seams must perform as well as the original material.


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Design AspectsThe following components have to be designed/checked for in the case ofGeomembranes:

(a) Anchor trench

(b) Sliding along slopes(c) Allowable weight of vehicle

(d) Uneven settlement(e) Panel layout plan


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CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATIONAL PRACTICE

The construction and operation of a landfill consists of the following steps:

(a) Site Development

(b) Phase Development(c) Phase Operation(d) Phase Closure

(e) Landfill Closure

Site Development-

The following construction activities are undertaken during sitedevelopment:

(a) Construction of perimeter fence and entrance gate

(b) Construction of main access road near the entrance gate with parking area(c) Construction of main access road along the perimeter of the site and well as

construction of arterial load to tipping area of the first phase(d) Acquisition and installation of weighbridges

(e) Construction of weighbridge room/office; administrative office and site

Control office(f) Construction of waste inspection facility, equipment workshop and garage,vehicle cleaning area

(g) Installation of direction signs, site lighting, fire fighting facilities,communication facilities

(h) Construction of water supply and waste water/sewage disposal system.(i) Construction of gas collection pipe and treatment facility.


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Phase Development-

Phase Development Stages are:-

(a) Clearing the area of all shrubs and vegetation

(b) Excavation (if required)

(c) Stockpiling of excavated material and material imported from borrow area

(d) Leveling of base and side slopes of landfill and achieving desirable grades

at the base of the landfill

(e) Construction of embankment and temporary terms along the perimeter ofthe phase.

(f) Construction of temporary surface water drains

(g) Installation of monitoring instruments

(h) Liner construction

(i) Leachate collection and removal system.

Phase Operation-

At the design stage the phases of a landfill are clearly demarcated. Operation of a phase requires

planning and execution of daily activities daily waste filling plan and demarcation, wastedischarge and inspection, waste placement, waste compaction, daily covering of waste,

prevention of pollution and fires.

Daily Waste Filling Plan and Demarcation at Site-

On the completion of a phase and before the start of a new phase, a waste

filling plan for daily cells must be evolved . A study of the landfillbase contour maps and the final cover levels of the phase allows such a plan to be

developed. If a phase is to be operational for 365 days, all 365 cells must bemarked in plan and in sectional drawings.

Waste Discharge and Inspection-

Waste must be discharged by tipping at the working area of a landfill,

within the area demarcated for the cell. Every discharged load should be visuallyinspected by a designated operator. Working area personnel should be trained and


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competent at waste identification in order that they can recognize waste whichmay be non-conforming. In the event of reasonable doubt as to the waste

acceptability, the operator should inform the waste reception facility and/or thesite manager immediately and the consignment should be isolated pending further

inspection.

Waste Placement (Spreading)-

Once waste has been discharged it must be spread in layers and compactedin a well defined manner to ensure that the completed slopes of a daily cell are at

the designed gradients.

Waste placement (spreading) can be done by the following methods-

(a) Face tipping method: Waste is deposited on top of existing surface andspread horizontally by tipping over an advancing face.

(b) Inclined layering method (onion skin tipping): Similar to (a) but inclined

layering (gentle slope) done instead of advancing of face.

(c) Working upwards: Waste is deposited on the lower surface and pushed

Upwards.

Daily Cover

The advantages of using daily cover are primarily in preventing windblown

litter and odours, deterrence to scavengers, birds and vermin and in improving thesites visual appearance. It is also advocated as a means of shedding surface water

during the filling sequence, thereby assisting in leachate management by reducinginfiltration, although its effectiveness in this respect is doubtful.

It is important that site location and waste inputs are taken into account when considering the

type and application of daily cover. Soils used as daily coverwill give a pleasing uniform appearance from the site boundary. To achieve this a

thickness of about 150 mm is usually adequate and should be adopted. About 300m.m. needs to be used to avoid paper, etc being seen from close proximity. This is

excessive for other purposes and the visibility of waste through daily cover shouldnot be regarded as the sole criterion of effectiveness.

Landfill Fire Management

Fires in waste on landfill sites are not uncommon and it is important for siteoperators to be aware of the dangers, how to treat fires and to address the problems

associated with them. All fires on-site should be treated as a potential emergencyand dealt with accordingly.


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All sites should have an emergency tipping area set aside from the immediate working area

where incoming loads of material known to be on fire or suspected of being so can be deposited,inspected and dealt with.

Waste that is burning on delivery should be doused with water or morepreferably covered progressively with adequate supplies of damp soil/coverfollowed by cooling and finally removal to its disposal point. It should not

normally be allowed to burn itself out as this will give rise to nuisance from smokeand odour and may constitute a health risk. Fire fighting techniques should be

appropriate for the waste type.

Phase Closure

After the last set of cells of a phase are placed (on the highest lift), anintermediate or final cover is constructed. If another phase is to be placed over the

just completed phase, an intermediate cover is provided. However if the justcompleted phase has reached the final height of the landfill, the final cover system

and surface water drainage system is provided.

An intermediate cover is made of locally available soil (preferably low permeability) and is 45 to60 cm thick. It is compacted with smooth steel drum

rollers and provided a suitable gradient (3 to 5%) to encourage surface water torun-off from the cover and thus minimise infiltration. The side slopes of the

intermediate cover are compacted by the crawler tracked dozer moving up anddown the slope.

Final cover construction and quality control issues are similar to those for

liner construction and therefore will not be discussed here. The layer below thelow-permeability layer, referred to as the grading layer or gas venting layer,

should be constructed using poorly graded sand. A grain size analysis for every400 cu.m of material used is recommended for quality control purposes. The layer

should be compacted to above 75% relative density to provide a firm sub-base forthe low-permeability layer above. The density should be tested at 30 m grid points.

Landfill Closure

As each phase is completed and as the final cover level is reached insuccessive phases, the following interconnectivities are established:

(a) The leachate collection system of each phase is sequentially connected (if so

designed)(b) The surface water drainage system at the cover of each phase is sequentially

connected (if so designed)(c) The temporary surface water drainage system constructed at the base of each


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completed phase is dismantled.(d) The gas collection system (if provided) of each phase is sequentially

connected.

Upon completion of all phases a final check is made of the proper

functioning of all inter connected systems.

An access road is provided on the landfill cover to enable easy approach for

routine inspection of the landfill cover.

POST-CLOSURE STABILISATION, OPERATION AND CARE

Long-Term Vegetative Stabilisation

If a landfill cover is intended to be used for a specific purpose e.g. park or

golf course or vehicle parking area, then the cover will be stabilised in such amanner that the end-use is achieved.

However, if no specific end-use is envisaged, then long-term vegetative

stabilisation will be undertaken to return the land to its original and naturalvegetative landform.

Vegetation is by far the most common and usually the preferred stabilisation option after closure

of landfills. If a self-perpetuating vegetative cover can be established, not only can wind andwater erosion be minimized, but also the

landfill can be returned to some semblance of its original appearance and land use.In favourable climates, re-vegetation may require only modest effort or may occur

by natural process during a reasonably short period of time. However, in aridclimates or a harsh environment, establishment of vegetation may be a lengthy,

difficult and costly process.

Operation after Closure

The following facilities will be operated routinely after closure:

(a) Leachate management system.(b) Surface water management system.

(c) Environmental monitoring system.(d) Cover rehabilitation and repair.


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LANDFILLING COSTS

The total cost of landfilling can be broken into the following components:

(a)

Initial Costs

(i) Site acquisition cost

(ii) Site selection and environmental impact assessment studies cost(iii) Site investigation and characterization costs

(iv) Design and detailed engineering costs (including laboratory studies)(v) Site development (construction) costs (including infrastructure

facilities and leachate/gas treatment facilities)(vi) Landfill equipment costs (if purchased and not hired).

(b)Operative period-yearly costs (one year phase)

(i) Phase development costs (including liner and leachate collection

system costs)(ii) Phase operation costs

(iii) Phase closure costs(iv)Interconnectivity of phases costs.

(c)Closure and Post Closure period-yearly costs

(i) Vegetative stabilisation costs

(ii) Operation costs(iii) Monitoring costs

(iv) Maintenance and Repair costs.

MANPOWER REQUIREMENT

The organisational and administrative structure for municipal solid wastemanagement in a city depends upon the size of the municipal agency. Landfilling

activity should be the responsibility of an independent sectional authority whichshould report directly to the Director/Chief Engineer/Head of Solid Waste

Management.

A senior engineer should be incharge of landfilling activity. He should besupported by assistant engineer(s), junior engineer(s), foremen, technicians and

workers. The level of the engineer incharge will be dependant on the scale of work(i.e. waste received at the landfill and the following is recommended.

Waste Received at Landfill (tons/day) Engineer Incharge of Landfilling.

U pto 200 Junior Engineer200 to 500 Assistant Engineer


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500 to 1000 Executive Engineer

A bove 1000 Superintending Engineer

The number of supporting officers and staff for the Engineer Incharge

should be evaluated as per CPWD norms for earthwork projects of similar

magnitude.

Landfill Operation and Monitoring System Manpower and Equipment for Operation

The landfill operation shall follow the guidelines stipulated in the implementing rules and

regulations of the Republic Act 9003. This includes the recording of the volume of waste, tippingto the landfill cell, spreading of waste, compacting, and covering the waste with soil and/or other

suitable inert materials.

Manpower / Personnel requirement

During the landfill operation, skilled and unskilled personnel are needed to ensure properoperation and compliance of the standard operating procedure. The minimum requirements tooperate the facility are as follows:

y Landfill manager/administrator (1 pax)

y Secretary / Recorder (1 pax)y Bulldozer / backhoe operator (1 pax)

y Heavy equipment technician / operator (2 pax)y Site maintenance personnel (2 pax)

y Security personnel (1 pax)

These personnel will be provided with training and a manual of operation to ensure smoothand uninterrupted operation of the landfill site.

In addition to the personnel required in the operation of landfill, another set of personnel areneeded to operate the Materials Recovery Facility. With the projected bio-waste input of 4 tons

per day, the MRF would require 1 supervisor and around 6 other MRF personnel who will be

involved in the processing and composting.

Equipment Requirement-

To ensure compliance and efficient operation of the sanitary landfill, the following heavy

equipment is needed:

y 1 unit compactor / loadery 1 mini dump truck

The MRF shall have another set of equipment for its operation as follows:

y 1 shredder


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Today the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solidwastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site,

residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion ofsolid waste, compost or other substances from various solid waste processing facilities. A

modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid

wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as thebreeding of insects and the contamination of ground water.

QUANTITY & CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN MUNICIPAL WASTE

Urban India produces about 42.0 million tons of municipal solid waste annually i.e. 1.15lakh metric tons per day(TPD), out of which 83,378 TPD is generated in 423 Class-I cities.

Waste generated in 423 Class-I cities works out to 72.5% of the total waste generated each dayand this needs to be tackled on priority.

Municipal solid waste comprises 30% to 55% of Bio-degradable (organic) matter, 40% to 55%

inert matterand 5% to 15% recyclables.

Composition of waste varies with size of city, seasonand income group.

Possible Waste Management Options

At least 50% to 55% of municipal solid waste is also a valuable resource which can berecovered profitably using different technologies through following processing options:

I. Wealth from WasteOrganic fraction of municipal solid waste contains bio-degradable matter ranging

from 30% to 55% which can be profitably converted into useful products likecompost (organic manure), methane gas (used for cooking, heating, lighting,

production of energy) etc. through the following processes:-

(a) Waste to Compost(i) Aerobic / Anaerobic Composting

(ii) Vermi-Composting

(b) Waste to Energy

(i) Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) / Pelletization

(ii) Bio-methanation

(iii) Incineration

(iv) Pyrolysis / Plasma Gasification

II. Recycling of Waste (Plastics, paper, glass, metal etc.)Recyclable materials like paper, cardboards, plastics, polythene bags, pieces of

metals and glass are recycled to recover useful resource.

III. Sanitary Landfilling

Rejects from compost plants, recycling and other inorganic materials like construction debris

in Municipal Solid Waste are sent to scientifically engineered landfills.


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6. Technology Options for Waste Processing

The quantity and quality of garbage generation varies from city to city

keeping in view the standard of living of citizens, industrial or non- industrial city and

commercial & economic activity therein. Therefore, various technology options are available for

processing the municipal garbage.

Towns Generating Garbage:

U pto 50 Metric Tons/Day(MT/Day) = Vermi-Composting

Between 50 MT and 500 MT / Day = Vermi-Composting +

Mechanical Composting

More than 500 MT / Day = Mechanical Composting andWaste-to-Energy through

Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)keeping in view the type of city ( industrial or non-

industrial) and suitability of quality and quantity of garbage available.

Bio-methanation technology can also be used for treatment of garbage as decentralized

plants for treating limited quantity of municipal garbage. Till date, there is no success story oftreating large quantities of municipal garbage through bio-methanation route.

While selecting waste-to-energy technologies, suitability / success of each technology vis--vis

quality and quantity of garbage in a particular city should be got verified and ULBs should

ensure that the selected technology has successfully treated the municipal garbage in largequantities before adopting any technology.

POSSIBLE WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY

At least 50% to 55% of municipal solid waste is also a valuable resource which can be recoveredprofitably using different technologies through following options.

1. Wealth from WasteThe organic fraction of municipal solid waste contains bio-degradable matter ranging

from 30% to 55% depending upon the size of the city, income levels of citizens,eating habits of the population and ongoing economic activity. This organic matter

can be profitably converted into useful products like compost (organic manure),

methane gas (used for cooking, heating, lighting, production of energy) etc. throughthe following processes:-


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(a) Waste to Compost

(i) Aerobic / Anerobic Composting

Composting is a process of conversion of bio-degradable waste into stable mass by aerobic / anerobic decomposition producing Carbon-di-oxide, Nitrogen,

Phosphorous, Potassium etc. useful for soil fertility.

(ii) Vermi-CompostingOrganic waste is stabilized through consumption by earthworms into worm

castings which is known as vermi-compost and which is used as organic manurein agriculture.

(b) Waste to Energy

(i) Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) / PelletizationPelletization involves segregation of incoming waste into high and low

calorific value materials, shredding them separately to uniform size, reducing itsmoisture content, mixing them together and making into pellets / briquettes which

are used for producing thermal energy.

(ii) Bio-methanationSegregated garbage undergoes anaerobic digestion producing methane gas and

effluent sludge. Bio-gas production ranges from 50 M3

100 M3

/ MT of wastes.The gas is utilized for heating applications / dual fuel engines / steam turbines for

generation of power.

(iii) Pyrolysis

The process of thermal decomposition of organic waste for energy recovery using

plasma arc torch producing temperatures between 50000

C and 140000

C for heating of waste and

converting into gaseous form. The process is cost-intensive and can be used for hazardous waste/ bio-medical waste only.

2. Sanitary LandfillingMunicipal waste contains 40% to 55% of the inert matter depending upon the type of

city and ongoing infrastructure development activity. This inert material cannot beconverted into any useful product and needs to be managed in the scientific and

hygienic manner in order to prevent pollution of underground water reservoirs orsurface sources in the vicinity of the town. Therefore, the residuals / unutilized / inerts

from the waste processing facilities like compost / waste-to-energy plants are put intothe scientifically engineered landfills to prevent environmental pollution.

3. Recycling of Waste (Plastics, paper, glass, metal etc.)

The municipal solid waste contains 5 to 15% recyclable matter like plastics, glass, paper, metalsetc. which can be easily recycled and reused by the community. The recyclables are collected by


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kabadis at household level and by informal sector from compost plants and dump yards and sentto recycling industries for conversion into useful products.

However, segregation of waste at source is key to the success of all the options and

technologies available within the country and abroad.

PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A typical solid waste management system in a developing country displays an array of problems,including low collection coverage and irregular collection services, crude open dumping and

burning without air and water pollution control, the breeding of flies and vermin, and thehandling and control of informal waste picking or scavenging activities. These public health,

environmental, and management problems are caused by various factors which constrain the

development of effective solid waste management systems. They can be categorized intotechnical, financial, institutional, economic, and social constraints. Each of these constraints isdiscussed, in relation to the sustainability of solid waste collaborative projects, below.

(a) Technical Constraints

In most developing countries, there typically is a lack of human resources at both the national

and local levels with technical expertise necessary for solid waste management planning andoperation. Many officers in charge of solid waste management, particularly at the local level,

have little or no technical background or training in engineering or management. Withoutadequately trained personnel, a project initiated by external consultants could not be continued.

Therefore, the development of human resources in the recipient country of external support isessential for the sustainability of the collaborative project.

Another technical constraint in developing countries is the lack of overall plans for solid wastemanagement at the local and national levels. As a result, a solid waste technology is often

selected without due consideration to its appropriateness in the overall solid waste managementsystem. In some cases, foreign assistance is given to a component of a solid waste management

system for which the use of resources may not be most cost-effective. For instance, an externalsupport agency provided its support to improve a general disposal site. However, the coverage of

solid waste collection service is so low that solid waste generated is dumped at manyundesignated sites (e.g., open areas, water channels, streets, etc.). As a result, improving the

disposal site, although it may not be a bad project, would have little impact on the overall solidwaste management effectiveness. In such a case, the low collection coverage is a bottleneck in

the overall solid waste management system in the city, and it would be most cost-effective toprovide resources to upgrade the collection service.

Research and development activities in solid waste management are often a low priority in

developing countries. The lack of research and development activities in developing countriesleads to the selection of inappropriate technology in terms of the local climatic and physical


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conditions, financial and human resource capabilities, and social or cultural acceptability. As aresult, the technology selected can never be used, wasting the resources spent and making the

project unsustainable. Several guides/manuals on appropriate solid waste managementtechnologies in developing countries are available in the literature, and the selection of

technology could be made sometimes based on these guides/manuals. However, in most cases,

these guides/manuals must be modified to the local conditions prevailing in the country, andtherefore local studies are normally still needed. Such studies can be relatively easilyincorporated into a collaborative project and, to the extent possible, should involve local research

institutions.

(b) Financial Constraints

In general, solid waste management is given a very low priority in developing countries, exceptperhaps in capital and large cities. As a result, very limited funds are provided to the solid waste

management sector by the governments, and the levels of services required for protection ofpublic health and the environment are not attained.

The problem is acute at the local government level where the local taxation system isinadequately developed and, therefore, the financial basis for public services, including solid

waste management, is weak. This weak financial basis of local governments can besupplemented by the collection of user service charges. However, users' ability to pay for the

services is very limited in poorer developing countries, and their willingness to pay for theservices which are irregular and ineffective is not high either. An effective strategy for raising

funds needs to be searched in any collaborative project to ensure its sustainability.

In addition to the limited funds, many local governments in developing countries lack goodfinancial management and planning. For instance, in a town in a developing country, over 90%

of the annual budget provided for solid waste management was used up within the first sixmonths. The lack of financial management and planning, particularly cost accounting, depletes

the limited resources available for the sector even more quickly, and causes the solid wastemanagement services to halt for some periods, thus losing the trust of service users.

(c) Institutional Constraints

Several agencies at the national level are usually involved at least partially in solid wastemanagement. However, there are often no clear roles/functions of the various national agencies

defined in relation to solid waste management and also no single agency or committeedesignated to coordinate their projects and activities. The lack of coordination among the

relevant agencies often results in different agencies becoming the national counterpart todifferent external support agencies for different solid waste management collaborative projects

without being aware of what other national agencies are doing. This leads to duplication ofefforts, wasting of resources, and unsustainability of overall solid waste management

programmes.


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The lack of effective legislation for solid waste management, which is a norm in mostdeveloping countries, is partially responsible for the roles/functions of the relevant national

agencies not being clearly defined and the lack of coordination among them. Legislation relatedto solid waste management in developing countries is usually fragmented, and several laws (e.g.,

Public Health Act, Local Government Act, Environmental Protection Act, etc.) include some

clauses on rules/regulations regarding solid waste management. The rules and regulations areenforced by the different agencies. However, there are often duplication of responsibilities of theagencies involved and gaps/missing elements in the regulatory provisions for the development of

effective solid waste management systems. It should be also noted that legislation is onlyeffective if it is enforced. Therefore, comprehensive legislation, which avoids the duplication of

responsibilities, fills in the gaps of important regulatory functions, and is enforceable is requiredfor sustainable development of solid waste management systems.

Because of a low priority given to the sector, the institutional capacity of local government

agencies involved in solid waste management is generally weak, particularly in small cities andtowns. Local ordinance/by-laws on solid waste management is not also well developed. These

weak local government institutions are not provided with clear mandates and sufficient resourcesto fulfill the mandates. In large metropolitan areas where there are more than one local

government, coordination among the local governments is critical to achieve the most cost-effective alternatives for solid waste management in the area. For instance, the siting of a solid

waste transfer station or disposal facility for use by more than one local governments is cost-effective due to its economy of scale. However, as these facilities are usually considered

unwanted installations and create not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndromes among the residents,no local government is willing to locate them within its boundary. The lack of a coordinating

body among the local governments often leads to disintegrated and unsustainable programmesfor solid waste management.

(d) Economic Constraints

Economic and industrial development play key roles in solid waste management. Obviously, anenhanced economy enables more funds to be allocated for solid waste management, providing a

more sustainable financial basis. However, by definition, developing countries have weakeconomic bases and, hence, insufficient funds for sustainable development of solid waste

management systems.

Local industry which produces relatively inexpensive solid waste equipment and vehicles willreduce, or in some cases could eliminate totally, the need for importing expensive foreign

equipment/vehicles and therefore foreign exchange. Such local industry can also supplyassociated spare parts, lack of which is often responsible for irregular and insufficient solid waste

collection and disposal services. However, the lack of industry manufacturing solid wasteequipment and spare parts and a limited foreign exchange for importing such equipment/spare

parts are the rule rather than exception in developing countries.

Also in small developing countries, waste recycling activities are affected by the availability of

industry to receive and process recycled materials. For instance, the recycling of waste paper ispossible only when there is a paper mill within a distance for which the transportation of waste


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paper is economical. The weak industry base for recycling activities is a common constraint forthe improvement of solid waste management in developing countries, such as those in the Pacific

region where a large volume of package waste is generated.

(e) Social Constraints

The social status of solid waste management workers is generally low in both developed and

developing countries, but more so in developing countries then developed countries. This owesmuch to a negative perception of people regarding the work which involves the handling of

waste or unwanted material. Such people's perception leads to the disrespect for the work and inturn produces low working ethics of laborers and poor quality of their work.

Because of insufficient resources available in the government sector, collaborative projects oftenhave attempted to mobilize community resources and develop community self-help activities.Results are a mixture of success and failures. Failed projects with inactive communities usually

did not provide people in the community with economic as well as social incentives toparticipate in activities. The social incentive is based on the responsibility of individuals as part

of the community for the improvement of the community, and is created by public awareness andschool education programmes. The lack of public awareness and school education about the

importance of proper solid waste management for health and well-being of people severelyrestricts the use of community-based approaches in developing countries.

At dump sites, transfer stations, and street refuse bins, waste picking or scavenging activities are

common scenes in developing countries. People involved have not received school education andvocational training to obtain knowledge and skills required for other jobs. They are also affected by limited employment opportunity available in the formal sector. The existence of waste

pickers/scavengers creates often an obstacle to the operation of solid waste collection anddisposal services. However, if organized properly, their activities can be effectively incorporated

into a waste recycling system. Such an opportunistic approach is required for sustainabledevelopment of solid waste management programmes in developing countries.

CONSTRAINTS OF EXTERNAL SUPPORT

External support provided to solid waste management in developing countries has its own

limitations and constraints.A

s constraints in developing countries, they can be divided intotechnical, financial, institutional, economic, and social constraints and are discussed below.

(a) Technical Constraints

Industrialized countries, which provide external support to developing countries, usually havetechnical expertise and human resources suitable for solid waste management in these countries.

Their school and university education and subsequent on-the-job training are targeted for the


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technologies of solid waste management applicable to these countries. However, there is the lackof human resources with sufficient experiences and knowledge of solid waste management in

developing countries. Opportunities to learn solid waste management problems and practices indeveloping countries through regular training programmes and seminars are rarely provided in

industrialized countries.

The lack of knowledge and experience in solid waste management situations in developingcountries leads to a tendency to support and provide the technologies available in the donor

country regardless of their applicability to the developing country situation. In some cases, thesolid waste management equipment and facilities, which are obsolete and outdated in the donor

country, are provided as foreign aid to the recipient country.

Communication between consultants provided by the external support agency and the localcounterpart in the developing country sometimes becomes a constraint in implementing an

effective collaborative project. The communication difficulty occurs in two different situations:(i) no common spoken language exists between the external consultants and the local

counterpart; and (ii) the local counterpart does not understand technical terms. Efforts by bothsides to improve communication ability are being made in a number of countries.

As mentioned earlier, the lack of an overall plan for solid waste management leads to a solidwaste management system which is not cost-effective. It also encourages a piece-meal approach

by the external support agency. Referring to the earlier example of support for improvement of adisposal site, it can be easily seen that the external support agency made the decision to support

without sufficient consideration to other components of solid waste management. Piece-meal, ornot comprehensive approaches taken by external support agencies, often result in unsustainable

solid waste management projects.

(b) Financial Constraints

Obviously, all donor agencies have their own upper limits to financial support. Solid waste

management is one of many sectors for which an external agency provides its resources. Forsome donor agencies, solid waste management may not be a priority sector for support. As a

result, there is a finite (and often limited) amount of funds that can be allocated to the sector.

Because of its inherent nature, solid waste management does not render itself to an operationwhich can easily generate revenues. This is particularly true in developing countries where the

willingness and ability to pay for solid waste management services are low. For external lendingagencies, this means that the risk of providing a loan to such a project is generally high. The high

risk of loan projects can be lessened by building into the projects revenue raising systems (e.g.,user charges, sales of recycled materials).

(c) Institutional Constraints


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External support agencies have their own organizational mandates and structure that limit theiractivities to certain operations such technical cooperation, loan/lending of capital funds, training,

and so on. Even in the same donor country, there are usually different external support agencies,each specializing in one area of support. The extent of their geographical coverage is also limited

to certain countries for their support. These organizational mandates and operational coverage of

external support agencies determine the levels and types of resources provided to solid wastemanagement projects in developing countries.

As mentioned above, in many cases their support is piece-meal and not comprehensive asindividual projects to be effective in introducing substantial and lasting impacts on solid waste

management in the recipient countries. There is also lack of coordination among the variousexternal support agencies to complement each other's efforts, although it is gradually improving

recently. With better coordination and communication among them, the sustainability of solidwaste management projects in recipient countries will be improved.

(d) Economic Constrai

Documents

Final Report Ayush Khanna