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CHAPTER- I
Introduction
I. Concept of Rājadharma: Dandanīti vs Rājadharma
Dharma in general:
The scope and meaning of the term Dharma is very wide.
Etimologically dharma means ‘dhārana’ (to hold ) from root √
dhr with the affix manin: ‘dharati viśvam iti man’ i.e., that which
holds the universe is dharma. The word dharma denotes in
general all the customs, codes of conduct, education and culture,
tradition and civilization, which hold or control a society. In the
Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata it is said that, dharma upholds
society, people and all creatures of the world; hence it is called
dharma, because of capability of other holding and protecting
everything in it 1.So, it can be assumed that ‘dharma’ involves all
1. dhāranād dharmamityāhurdharmena vidhrtāh prajāh /
yah syād dhāranasanyuktah sa dharma iti
niścayaha //
Mbh. XII, 109.11-13 and also ibid. X.69.58
2
customs, codes of conduct aiming for the welfare of the entire
living being of the world.
Dharma means duty also, when a particular person
performs a particular act due to him/ her then it is called dharma.
The grandsire Bhīşma expresses in the Mahābhārata that, dharma
is created for welfare of all creatures. It gives protection to those,
who are in dangerous situation. Deeds of a person should not
herm anybody but assure welfare for others. Such deeds which are
devoid of animosity are declared as dharma even by Paramesthi
Brahmā for the advancement and growth of all creatures. Again, it
may call dharma, if someone behaves in a deceitfull manner with
a deceit and honestly with an honest.2
Although the Dharmaśāstras require a correct approach to
the meaning of the term dharma but it is difficult to ascertain
what was originally the exact meaning of the term dharma. In the
2. yasmin yathā vartate yo manusya-
stasminstathā vartitavyam sa dharmah /
māyācāro māyayā bādhitavyah
sādhvācārah sādhunā pratyupeyah // Mbh.XII.109.30
3
Vedic literature, the term dharma denotes law and customs.3
According to the Manusmŗti, dharma means the eternal
knowledge, which is found from the supreme spirit or Brahman.
When a learned or wise does righteous act that is called dharma.4
And entire Vedic literature (four Vedas, six Vedāngas, Samhitās,
Brāhmana, Āranyaka and Upanisadic literature) is called
dharma.5
According to the Yājnyavalkyasmrti,6
when a wise
person ( who had the knowledge of four Vedas) expresses one
speech that is called dharma. According to Śukra, the speech of
the thinker of supreme and individual soul, is called dharma.7
In
the various parvan of the Mahābhārata, Ācāra is stated to be a
sign or laksana of Dharma,8
and dharma results from Ācāra, cf.,
‘ācārah phalate dharmah’ Mbh. V.113.15
3. Rg. I, 22,18; 164 , 43 50; III, 3,1; 17,1,10,6; V.26.6;63,7,72,2 etc.
AV. XIV,5,51;VS. X,29;XV,6;XX,9; XXX,6. and TS., III,5,2,2.
[ VS=Vājasaneyīsamhitā and TS= TaittiriyaSamhitā] 4. Vidvadbhih sevitah sadbhirnityamadvesarāgibhih /
hrdayenābhyanujnato yo dharmastam nibodhata //
MS. II.1.
5. ibid. II. 1.6
6. Yāj.S. 1.9
7.‘sabrūteyamsadharmah syādekovādhyātmacintakah’ /
ŚNS. 4. 57
8. ācāralaksano dharmah’
Mbh. XIII.104.9.
4
Thus, the concept of dharma wants some essential requirement,
which prescribe certain duties and Principles of morality for
improving the general conduct of man.
According to Manu, the Veda ( four Vedas) is called ‘Śruti’
and dharma ( Dharmaśāstra works) is called ‘ Smrti’. In ancient
Indian works, Śruti, Smrti , good conduct and self satisfaction are
called the important sources of dharma.9
The Mahābhārata frequently speaks of, the Vedas, the
Smrtis and the Sadācāra as the sources of dharma.10
The
Mahābhārata clearly expresses the relative importance of the
Śrutis and the Smrtis, “duties have been laid down for the
respective ages according to the power of human beings in the
respective ages. Therefore all the declarations in the Vedas do not
apply equally to all the ages, the declaration of the Vedas are true
9. vedah smrtih sadācārah svasya ca priyamātmanah /
etaccaturvidham prāhuh sāksāddharmasya laksanam // MS. II
10. vedoktah paramo dharmo dharmaśāstresu cāparah /
śistācāraśca śistānam trividham dharmalaksanam //
Mbh. Vana. 207.821/2
tatah sa dharmam vedoktam tatha sastroktameva ca /
sistacinaim ca dharmam ca trividham cintya cetasa // ibid. Śānti. 353.6
5
is only a popular form of speech indulged in for popular
satisfaction. The scope of the Śrutis and Smrtis are very wide. If
the Vedas be authority for everything, then authority would attach
to the smrtis also for the latter are based on the former. When,
however, the Śrutis and the Smrtis contradict each other, how can
either be authoritative.”11
The Gautama and the ĀpastambaDharmasūtra also
mentioned the Vedas and the Smrtis as the root of dharma.12
According to Vaśistha, the Vedas and the Smrtis are more
important than the ācāra of noble men.13
In the YājnavalkyaSmrti,
the Vedas, the Smrtis and good conduct are mentioned as the
sources of Dharma.14
.
11. anye krtayuge dharmastretāyān dvāpare pare/
anye kaliyuge nrnān yugahrāsānurupatah // Mbh.XII.231.27
Jauhari. M. “ Politics and Ethics in Ancient India”. pp.76-77
12. vedo dharmamūlam / tadvidām ca smrtisīla / G. Dh. I .1-2 and
dharmajnasamayah pramānām vedāśca / Ā. Dh.Sū. I 1.1.2,
13. śrutismrtivihito dharmah / tadalābhe śistācārah
pramānam / śistah punarakāmātmā / Vasistha. Dh. I, 4-6
14. Yāj. S.1.7
6
Dharma in general , from the religious point of view it is
divided into, two viz, Śrauta, i.e. Vedic dharma and the Smārta,
i.e. The dharma prescribed by Dharmaśāstra work mainly smrtis.
The Matsyapurāna15
, the Parāśaramādhaviya etc. speaks of
Śrauta and Smārta dharmas. The Mahābhārata, furnishes a
threefold classifications viz., Deśa-dharma (dharma for a
particular state or place) Jāti-dharma (for a particular caste or
class), and Kula- dharma( dharma in hereditary form)16
.
According to Kullukabhatta, the commentator of the
Manusmrti, ‘Dharma’ divided into fivefold, these are namely,
Varnadharma, Āśramadharma,Varnāśramadharma, Gunadharma
and Naimittikadharma. Varnadharma the rules to be followed by
four castes, viz, Brāhmana, Ksatriya, Vaiśya, and Śudra.
Āśramadharma based on four āśramas.,viz, Brahmacarya,
Gārhasthya, Vānaprastha and Sanyās.
15. MP. 142. 41-42
16. deśajātikulānam ca dharmajnoa’smi janārdana/
Mbh. XII. 54.20 and also . ibid. VIII.3.55
7
That is called Varnāsrama Dharma, where varna and
āśrama are discussed. The qualities of a king, duties of kings
(rājadharma), coronation ceremony, rules for protecting the
kingdom etc.- all are included in Gunadharma.
Naimittika dharma, which is performed only for special
matter. e.g. PrāyaścittaVidhi. The Mitāksarā on Yājnavalkya
smrti, classified Dharma into sixkinds,17
these are viz,
Varnadharma, Āśramadharma, Varnāśrama dharma, Gunadharma,
Nimittadharma and Sādhāranadharma.
The Varnadharma, Āśramadharma and Varnāśramadharma
are dicussed in the Mahābhārata. It emphasises on the primary
meaning of Dharma which denotes truth and virtue with the
reference of trivarga. The duties of a King, administrative rules of
a state, law of punishment are also included in the purview of
Dharma. All these duties lead to moksa (salvation). The
Brhadāranyaka Upanişada18
mensions that nothing is greater than
17. esā dharmasya yo yonih samāsena prakirtitā sambhavaścāsya sarvasya varnadharmān nibodhata//
MS.II.25 (here,Varnadharma
means five bold dharma) and Yāj.S. I.1
18. Br.Ār.Up. 1.4.11-14
8
dharma, it is ever powerful than the Ksatriyas,because a righteous
weak man can defeat an unrighteous strong man. According to
Manu , non- violance and truthful speech may be a dharma but
unpleasent truth can not be a dharma.19
Bhīsma also expresses in
the Mahābhārata, that where falsehood would assume the aspect
of truth, truth should not be spoken there , again, where truth
would assume the aspect of falsehood than falsehood should be
said.20
Again in the Mahābhārata it is mentioned that, in
primitive age or the beginning of the creation of the world, all
people lived on dharma, there was no state, no king , no
chastisement nor chastiser.
Out of these dharmas , which are already mentioned above,
the Mahābhārata emphasized on Rājadharma. Rājadharma is
greater than all dharmas and all dharma depend on Rājadharma.
Therefore the grandsire Bhīsma, gives a comprehensive definition
on Rājadharma,21
and says that all varnas should depend on
19. MS. 4. 138
20. Mbh. XII.109. 5-6
21. sarve dharmā rajadharmapradhānāh
sarve varnāh pālyamānā bhavanti /
sarvastyāgo rājadharmesu rājan-
styāgam dharmam cāhuragranthan purānana // Mbh. XII. 63.27
9
Rājadharma and all types of penances are included in
Rājadharma. So, it is the superior of all.
Concept of Rājadharma:
The meaning of the term Rājadharma is very wide. It
covers the entire responsibility of a king regarding internal and
external administration. According to the Mahābhārata,
‘Rājadharma’, denotes two different meanings, viz, royal duties
and politics, which denotes duties of a king in both internal and
external. In modern context, it has a wider connotation, which
includes only the duties of a ruler or king but also influenced the
origin of king and the way by which he attains his supreme goal.
In the Mahābhārata , rājadharma has been regarded as the
most important science and as the refuge of all other branches of
knowledge ( Vidyās) cf.
“ sarvā vidyā rājadharmesu yuktāh.”
Mbh.XII.63.29
If it is strictly followed by the ruler, he gains prosperity and
then there will be well-being of the ruler and the ruled.
Literally and historically, Rājadharma means, the duties of
a particular functionary, viz, the crowned king, and
10
Laxicographically, Rājadharma means, rules relating to a king.22
The term Rājadharma or the ancient kingly duty is known
as ‘Kşātradharma’, because, kşatriyas were the ruling class. The
Pitāmaha Bhīsma opines that the dharmas of all āśramas will
disappear if the ksātra dharma is abandoned. c.f.
“ ksātre tyakte rājadharme purāne”.
Mbh.XII. 63.28
The ksatriyas are regarded as the healer of the wounds of the
Brāhmanas., cf
‘brahmanānām ksatatrānāt tatah ksatriya ucyate’
Mbh.XII.59.126
In the Rgveda the primary meaning of the term ‘ ksatra’ is given
as the ‘rule’ or ‘dominion’ or ‘rulers’. It is worth mentioning that,
the word ‘rājā’ is used in place of ‘Ksatra’ and it has two
meanings , viz, rule or ruler . Warfare is very important duty of a
ksatriya .23
22. Apte. V.S., “ Sanskrit English Dictionary” p.467 and the ‘Sanskrit
Hinduism Dictionary’
23. Mbh. XII. 60.18
11
In Indian conception, the head of the state should be a
ksatriya, the position might go to other varnas also, but even then
the duties of the head of the state will still devolve on him. And
the duties of administration devolve on him, who is put at the
head of a state.
In the Yājnavalkyasmrti,24
the term ‘ narādhipa’ (king) is
used instead of rājā, i.e, the head of a state , which is frequently
used in Smrtis in the sense of a ‘king’. The duties which is plain,
productive of great happiness, evident in respect of their results,
free from deceit, and beneficial to the whole world are imposed
upon rājadharma or ksatriyas25
.
In Buddhist tradition, the terms ‘Khattadharma’ and
‘Khattavijiā’ is taking unanimously as the science of royal duties
and the science of polity. And the ancient Indian scriptures or
Śāstras in which these science of royal duties or rājadharma are
explained called Rājaśāstra or Rājanītiśāstra,26
Dandanītiśāstra,
24. Yāj.S. Mitāksarā, I.13.311
25. Mbh. XII. 64.5
26. ibid. XII. 58.3
12
Nītiśāstra27
and Arthaśāstra etc. Some Indian writers of modern
time has used the term ‘rājadharma’, in the sense of polity or
rājanīti28
.
In the Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata, the grandsire
Bhīsma presents a discourse on ‘rājadharma’ as requested by
Yudhisthira. He elaborates the essential qualities, duties,
education system, administrative abilities of a King. According to
him, a king should have knowledge about Purusārthas, scriptures,
he should punish unrighteousman, who had done bad works and
reward the honest person. The knowledge of four castes, āśramas
and strategy of war, foreign affairs etc. are included in the
rājadharma. The main duty of a king is the protection of subjects
and kingdom, and ready to die in the battle field. All these are
depicted in the Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata in detail from
which one can have full knowledge about rājadharma.
Dandanīti vs Rājadharma:(Origin of Dandanīti)
It is stated in the Mahābhārata that, Brahmā has composed
a Nītiśāstra consisting of one lakh chapters and it contains rules
27. ibid . XII. 59.78 and also , 59. 29 ½ 28. Aiyangar. K.V. Rangaswami: Rājadharma. p.67
13
for different means to be observed by morals on this earth. It also
contains knowledge about Vedatrayī, Ānviksiki (Philosophy),
Vārtā(economics) as well as Dandanīti (politics). The term
‘danda’ is used in the sense of dandanīti, which indicates the
rules of punishment or the rules for maintaining the subjects in a
right path. The danda or the ‘Punishment rod’ helps a king for
maintaining the balanace of good and bad deeds of the inhabitants
of a state, So, Arjuna opines that, danda governs and protects all
the people, remains allert even at night when the whole world is
asleep. Therefore, wise regards, danda as the dharma of a
King.29
The Policies related to these affairs is called dandanīti or
rājanīti and rājadharma is another term used in the same sense.
So the Mahābhārata opines-- according to Brahmās Nītiśāstra,
because of danda this world is established in a good path or a
king can control his subjects with danda; Therefore, this nīti
(Vidyā) is known as dandanīti and it will expand in three
world.30
. .
29. dandah śāsti prajāh sarvā danda evābhiraksati /
dandah suptesu jāgarti dandan dharman vidurbudhā // Mbh. XII.15.2
30. dandena nīyate cedam dandam nayati vā punah /
dandanītiriti khyātā trilokānabhivartate //Mbh. XII.59.78
14
In the Nītiśāstra, composed by Brahmā, there are
description of dharma, artha and kāma and this portion which
contains these descriptions is known as trivarga. This trivarga is
meant for protecting the riches , increasing the persons those who
are in true path and destruction of the wicked. cf.,
‘sthānan vrddhih ksyayaścaiva trivargaścaiva dandajah’
Mbh.XII.59.31
So far as the origin of Dandanīti is concerned the
Mahābhārata, speaks of two types of origin, these are namely,
‘divine’ and ‘human’.
According to divine origin of Dandanīti, there was no king ,
no state , no chastisement and chastiser in the begining of the krta
yuga. The people lived happily and protected each other by their
own virtue. But in course of time, the situation was changed.
Unrighteousness prevailled and disorder crept in. In this condition
people approached to Brahmā and requested him to remove the
chaotic condition and to rescue the world. Then lord Brahmā
composed a great treatise, consisting of 1,00000 chapters , with
the title Nītiśāstra. This treatise gradually came down to different
authorities like,Śiva, then it was known as Vaiśālāksa, when it
15
goes to Indra, his treatise was known as Bāhudantaka, then it goes
to Brhaspati and his treatise is known as Bārhaspatya and Śukras
treatise is as Kāvya. Gradually these treatises were summarised
for the benefit of the human beings for the coming ages. These are
composed in 10,000; 5,000; 3,000 and 1000 chapters31
. Hence, the
Dandanīti is older than even the state.
The another account of the divine origin of Dandanīti is
found in the Śāntiparva itself. Therein Bhīsma refers to the
dialogue, between the great king Vasuhoma and Māndhātā.
Māndhātā was asking Vasuhoma about the origin of Dandanīti,
then he conveyed the following myth where in the origin of
Dandanīti has been attributed to Sarasvatī. Once upon a time,
Lord Brahmā wanted to perform a sacrifice, but he could not find
a perfect priest (rtvik). Then (for performing the sacrifice) he gave
birth to a child from his head and he is known as ksup. As the
sacrifice begins the danda of Brahmā disappeared. Consequently
arised a great confusion, unrighteousness, disorder and unrully
situation in the society. Seeing theseunexpected situation,Brahmā
31. Mbh. XII.59.80-85
16
worshiped the eternal god Visnu and went to Śiva with a request
to remove this chaotic situation. Then, Śiva transformed himself
to a Danda. From that form of Śiva , the goddess Sarasvatī created
Danda-nīti ( the science of chastisement ).32
In these two accounts of the divine origin, Danda and
Dandanīti, have been deified respectively as Visnu, Nārāyana,
Prabhu ( the great Purusa) and Sarasvatī. On the otherhand,
Dandanīti has also been called Laksmī, Vrtti, Sarasvatī and the
daughter of Brahmā.33
The origin of Dandanīti is depicted in the
Bhāgavata and the BrahmāndaPurāna also. 34
Human Origin:
The seven sages, such as , Marici , Atri, Angira, Pulastya,
Pulah, Kratu and Vasistha seems to have attributed to the human
origin of Dandanīti. In the Mahābhārata it is told that, they have
composed a treatise on the mount Meru for the welfare of the
whole world and it was compared with the four Vedas. After
.…..
32. ibid. XII.122.25 33. dando hi bhagavānvisnuh dando nārāyanah prabhuh /
śaśvad rupam mahad vibhran mahān purusa ucyate //
tathoktā brahmakanyeti laksmīrvrttih sarasvatī / dandanītirjagadhātrī dando hī bahuvigrahah // Mbh. XII. 121.23-4
34. Bhā. P.III.12.44; Brh. P.II 29.8-9; 32,40; 35,195.
17
completion, they eulogised Nārāyana so that the treatise be
approved. Nārāyana too was highly pleased to see that useful
work and gave boon to those seven sages, telling them it (the
science) would be powerful for a long period. That the science
composed by those seven sages in one lakh slokas was known as
Dandanīti. Nārāyana, further opined that the treatise would prove
to be important source of information for the treatise of Manu,
Brhaspati and Śukra.35
.
From the above discussion of the origin of Dandanīti,
Human and Divine, it may be said that, it is originated for the
establishment of peace and order in the society. It was created by
Brahmādeva for protection of whole world from evil power. A
king should protect his subjects by use of Danda. so, learned
opines that, ‘ danda’ is the highest duty ( dharma) of a king.36
Its
necessity was felt for prosperity, happiness and welfare. The king
is to be impartial to everybody. He should never become a despot.
A ruler cannot use the Danda, if he has no knowledge of
Rājanītiśāstra. The ancient Indian thinkers believed this divine
. .
35. Mbh. XII. 335.27-55
36. ibid. VII. 18
18
origin and human origin of Dandanīti, because the god Nārāyana
approved this treatise. In these context Modern scholar C.V.
Vaidya rightly observed, “by thus assigning a divine origin to
Dandanīti of the rules of government, the Indians tried to put a
check on the absolutely unfettered will of their monarchs.”37
The term Dandanīti is commonly used in the Kautilyas
Arthaśāstra , Manusmrti, Purānas and the later works like the
Kāmandakīa Nītisāra and the Śukra Nītisāra .38
Literally, Dandanīti means the science of coercion (danda)
or the policy ( nīti) of punishment. But, the scope and contents of
Dandanīti is very wide; it deals with all the aspects of state and
government. As a whole, it is best rendered as the science of
government.
According to Kautilya, Danda is the means for acquisition
and protection of the ‘Ānvīksikī (philosophy), ‘Trayī’( the three
Vedas) and Vārta ( economics). The rules related to danda is
37. Jauhari M. “Politics and Ethics in Ancient India.” p.41
38. Aś.I.2,5-16; MS.VII.43, Ag.225.21;238,8,9; MP.41;
Visnudharmottara. 2,71,13; KNS. II. 1-5, 7-9,15 and 44 and also
ŚNS. I.151 and 156.
19
called Dandanīti.39
Kāmandaka, expresses his opinion as follows, Danda
means restraint (damah), Danda is the king, since it resides in
him, the direction (nīti) of Danda is Dandanīti. Nīti is so called
because it directs.’40
The Śukranītisāra41
also expresses similar
view like Kāmandaka. In the Manusmrti, Manu says that, Danda
is created by Brahmā for the rulers to rule righteously. According
to him , ‘Danda is the dharma, king, chief and the protector or
shelter of four āśramas’.42
Dandanīti treats of the several modes
of policy ( nayānayau ) .43
Here, ‘nayānayau’ means ‘nīti’
(nyāya) and ‘durnīti’ (anyāya).
Altekar opines that, in early stages,the science was known
as Rājadharma, and a little later this science became more popular
and then it was known as Dandanīti44
.
. .
39. ānvīksikītrayīvārtānām yogaksemosādhano dandah / tasya nītih dandanītih // Aś. I .4 40. domo danda iti khyātah tāsthyāt dando mahīpatih /
tasya nītih dandanītih nayanānītiruchyate // KNS. II .15
41. ŚNS. I 156 ( here ‘naya’ means ‘ nyāya’ or nīti ) 42. MS. VII 14. and 17
43. nayāpanayau dandanītyām / AŚ. I.2
dandanītau nayānayau / KNS.II.7
arthānarthau tu vārtāyām dandanītyām nayānayau //
ŚNS. I. 153andalso Ag. 238.8.9.
44. “State and government in ancient India,” p.4
20
The term Dandanīti has been interpreted and translated by
some modern scholars. According to them, Dandanīti means, “the
science of government”,“the functions of the government and the
machinary of government”, “the science of politics” and “ the
rules of government.”45
.
The Position and scope of Dandanīti:
Brahmā had included the fourfold end of human life in his
great treatise, and those are namely, Dharma (Virtue), Artha
(wealth), Kāma (enjoyment) and Moksa (salvation). Then come
the third triple aggregate on governance, comprising conservation,
growth and destruction. This was supplemented by another
sixfold compendium , treating , inter alia, of human psychology,
alliances and ‘causes’ messangers and important agents of various
classes, secret agents and spies, figured therein. All the aspects of
politics, connected with both internal and external affairs,
administrative machinery, ministers, revenue administration, legal
affairs for establishment of place, the fourfold policy consists of
45. Prasad Beni “ Theory of government in ancient India” p. 21.’ or Jauhari
. M. “ Politics & Ethics in ancient India”, p.32; Dikshitoar’s “Hindu
Administrative Institutions,” p.1; Purāna Index , Vol. III, p.61. and
Vaidya. C.V., Epic India “ p. 197
21
sāma ( reconciliation), dāna ( giving of gifts) , bheda (creating
dissension) and danda (war ), three types of treatises, viz., uttama
(good), madhyama (middling) and adhama (bad), exact time for
attacking an enemy, kinds of war, various types of army, arrays
(vyūhas), war- tactics, fortification and ditchning etc., trickery and
its employment, coronation of princes, kingship, qualities of king,
universal functions of a state,- all these are well acknowledged in
the Mahābhārata.46
The very extensive branch of knowledge
called punitive legistration was also there. The seven essential
elements of sovereignty were explained and their “waste, growth,
and harmoney’ exemplified. Here, the whole subject of domestic
administration and foreign policy are included. All kinds of
knowledge, secular and spiritual are conceived therein. It may all
be designated as the science of state craft. At last we may say, this
treatise is the master of all which is composed in hundred
thousands chapters by Brahmā, and according to it the ends of
politics was ethical.
. .
46.Mbh. XII. 59.29-79
22
Dandanīti : its necessity and importance :
The Mahābhārata, stresses on the necessity and importance
of the Dandanīti, it beings “ a favourite theme of the Epic.” 47
On
the enquiry of Yudhisthira on rājadharma, Bhīsma replied,
according to learned and wise, the kingly duties, which is called
rājadharma, constitute the highest science of duty.48
It is the
shelter of the entire living beings.
cf.,
sarvasya jīvalokasya rājadharmah parāyanam //
Mbh. XII. 56.3
Morality (dharma), Profit (artha), and pleasure (kāma) are
adhering together in rājadharma. Not only these, the salvation
(moksa) also depend on it. It keeps the whole world under
restraint. Hence, as the reins check the steed , or as an iron hook
controls the elephant, the rājadharma constitutes the reins for
checking the world. It destroys all evils as the Sun, which
removes darkness. In absence of these science, whole world will
47. Anjaria : “ Nature and ground of Political obligation in Hindu State ”,
p.59
48. rājnyām vaiparamo dharma iti dharmavido vidoh”
Mbh . XII . 56.2
23
be in confusion, disorder and unright- eousness.49
Bhīsma’s account of the origin of Dandanīti is that it was
created by Brahmā for removing chaos and establishing order and
dharma, in the society, later on approved by Indra infront of
Māndhātā in these words,- “ upon the disappearence of kingly
duties, and the science of chastisement, all the creatures become
exeedingly afflicted, as a result of the tyranny of the king.50
where
as, “when sinful men are restrained with the aid of science of
chastisement (dandanīti ) then Dharma, which is eternal, superior
to everything and the source of everything good, becomes firmly
established”.51
Thus the Mahābhārata, greatly emphasises on
Dandanīti, because it has full guarantee of the maintenance of
Dharma.
Again, the grandsire Bhīsma answered the question in
favour of the formers view. He further explained Yudhisthira that,
49. Mbh. XII 56.4-7
50. vinastāyām dandanītyām rājadharme nirākrte /
sampramuhyanti bhūtāni rājadaurātmyatoa’nagha //
Mbh. XII. 65.24
51. Vide Jauhari, M. ‘Politics and Ethics in Ancient India’, p.43 and
yadā nivartyate pāpo dandanītyā mahātmabhih /
tadā dharmo na calate sadbhūtah śāsvatah parah //
Mbh. XII.65.27
24
the king makes the four ages by proper use of Dandanīti these are
namely, Satya (Krta), Tretā, Dvāpara and Kali or vice Versa.52
When the king rules with a complete and strict reliance on the
Dandanīti, the foremost of ages called krta or Satya. At that time,
aries the righteous conduct of all subjects and the members of the
four varnas stick to their specific duties. In the age of Krta, the
Vedic rites were performed everywhere. People were healthy,
long living and widows are not to be found. Actually, virtue and
happiness prevailed in a state. When the king relies upon only
three- fourths of Dandanīti and leaving out one -fourth of the
same, the age called ‘Tretā’.When the king observes the
Dandanīti by only a half or fifty percent and neglectes the other
half, then the age sets in a ‘Dvāpara’. That time, all conditions
deteriorated and become still worse. And when the king,
abandons the Dandanīti totally, oppresses his subjects by evil
means of diverse kinds, the age that sets in is called ‘Kali’. In the
age of Kali the Vedas disappear and righteousness comes to an
end. People suffer from diseases and die at an early age. The rain
52. Mbh. XII. 69.80-91 and also ibid . V.132.15
25
does not come in proper time and the earth does not yield
satisfactory grains.53
The Udyoga parva of the Mahābhārata states that the king
is the maker of the four Yugas. When a king creats the KrtaYuga
then he goes to heaven and when he becomes responsible for the
Kaliyuga then he goes to hell. From above statement, it is found
that, the four yugas give a good reliance on the Dandanīti.
Dandanīti again creats the different varnas, viz., Brāhmana,
Ksatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra. Every varna should performe some
particular duties, which are engulfed in it, like the foot-prints of
an elephant. If the Dandanīti will disappear, the Vedas will
disappear and the ancient kingly duties belonging to Ksatriya or
rājadharma will come to an end, and all the modes of life will be
lost.
From above context, it is clear that, Dandanīti,
Ksātradharma and Rājadharma are used in the same sense and all
kinds of renunciation, all kinds of initiation, all kinds of learning
and all kinds of worldly behaviour are found in Rājadharma.54
In
53. Mbh. XII 68.76-105
54. ibid. XII.63 28-30
26
the Śāntiparva, Brahmā says that, Dandanīti was created for the
peace of the world, and it gives punishment to the wicked persons
and reward to the good ones. Kāmandaka says in his Nītisāra that,
“a king who is self-restrained and who controls his subjects with
the help of Dandanīti attains salvation. Without any problems
prosperity comes to him, like the rivers merging into a sea.”55
A
king has been always advised to protect himself and the different
branches of knowledge by Dandanīti, because it aims at the
common welfare.56
Dandanītiśāstra, the science of chastisement, will always
be regarded high by all people. Because, along with the sixfold
qualities such as, Sandhi, Bigraha, Yāna, Āsana, Dvaidhībhāva
and Samśraya, the four purusārthas (virtue, profit, pleasure and
salvation) have also been treated in it .57
According to Kautilya, the affairs of the world ( loka-yātrā)
also depend on Dandanīti.58
In the Matsya Purāna, the Dandanīti
55. KNS. II. 44
56. tayāa’tmānam ca śesāśca vidyāh pāyānmahīpatih /
vidyā lokopakārinyastatpātā hi mahīpatih // KNS. II 16
57. Mbh. XII. 59.79.
58. ‘tasyāmāyatrā lokayātrā / Aś. BK. XV . Ch. 4
27
is said to be necessary for the establishment of orderly progress
and the Vāyu Purāna, states that dandanīti aims at the
performance of one’s ordained duties.59
The ancient Indian thinkers believed that, there are fourfold
functions of Dandanīti, viz., the learned Ksatriya should strive to
acquire those objects which he desires and protect those that have
been already acquired, increasing what has been achieved and
utilisation of things for the welfare of the people. The Arthaśāstra
of Kautilya also holds similar opinion. On the otherhand the
Nitivākyāmrta states that, that should be acquired which was not
in hand, preserve the already acquired, increase the preserve
one.60
Dandanīti and Trivarga :
According to the Mahābhārata, Dandanīti was closely
related with Trivarga ( Dharma , Artha and Kāma). This moto is
59. MP. 123, 24; 142. 74 ; 145 . 36; 215.54 and Vā. P. 49. 117-8; 57.82;
59.26; 61.167. 60. dandanītim puraskrtya vijānan ksatriyah sadā / anāvāptam ca lipseta labdham ca paripālayet //Mbh. XII 69.102 & 140. 5.
‘ alabdhalābhārtha labdhapariraksanī raksitavivardhanī vrdhasya tīrthesu
pratipādinī’ / Aś. I.4
‘alabdhalābhī labdhapariaksanam raksitavivardhanam cārthānubandhah’
NVK. II.3.
28
found in the Dandanīti, attributed to Brahmādeva , and they are
called Trivarga. Again as the Śāntiparva states that, Dandanīti,
composed by seven sages, dealt with Trivarga along with
salvation.61
Trivarga can be established by the proper use of
Dandanīti. cf.,
‘dande trivargah satatam supranīte pravartate’
Mbh. XII.121.14
Brhaspati also explained the close relationship between the
Trivarga and Dandanīti. So, he says the realisation of Trivarga is
the result of Dandanīti62
. The similar view is found in the
Arthaśāstra and the Śukranītisāra. According to Śukra, Dandanīti
is the root of these three ends and fourth one also. The
somadevasūri expressed that, the realisation of Dharma, Artha
and Kāma are the end of the State.63
. .
61. Mbh. XII . 59. 29 1/2 and also ibid . XII 335.33
62. ‘nīteh phalam dharmārthakāmāvāptih’
Br. Sū. II.43 63. Aś. BK.XV 1. 78-9 and also, sarvopajīvakam lokasthitikrnnītiśāstrakam / dharmārthakāmamūlam hi smrtam moksapradam yatah”/
ŚNS. I .5
‘dharmārthakāma phalāya rājyāya namah’/
NVK. I. P.7
29
In the Udyogaparva of the Mahābhārata, it is stated that, a
king must practise these ends to maintain secrecy. Bhīsma told
Yudhisthira that, a ruler should follow the Trivarga in exact time
and place. If the king righteously follow these orders then he rules
over this earth for a long period.64
Discussion on Trivarga is
found in the Sabhāparvan also. Therein, the life of a king is said
to be dependent on these trivarga. In the court of Yudhisthira, the
sage Nārada teaches about the necessity of trivarga to Pāndavas,
he said “ Do you find pleasure in being devoted to Dharma? Do
you sacrifice Artha and Kāma for the sake of Dharma or do you
cause Dharma and Artha to suffer on account of extreme devotion
to Kāma? Are you aware of the order, prescribed for practising
the Trivarga and do you practise it in proper time ?”.65
From this questions it is clear that, the Trivarga was equally
useful for kings and the other persons. In the Śāntiparva,66
the
64. Mbh. Udyoga. XXXVIII. 16-17 and also
dharmaścārthaśca kāmaśca sevitavyoa’tha kālatah /
dharmena ca mahīpālaściram pālayate mahīm //
ibid. LXIX.70
65. dharmam cārtham ca kāmam ca yathāvad vadatam /
varam vibhajya kāle kālajnah sarvān seveta panditah. //
Mbh. Sabhā. V. 16-19-20 and Vanaparva. 33.42
66. ibid. XII 123
30
Pitāmaha Bhīsma refers to a dialogue once held between sage
Kāmandaka and a king Angaristha about the Trivarga. After
analysis of Trivarga Bhīsma says,“ A king ruins his power by
practising Kāma in excess and by neglecting Dharma and Artha.
By not following the Trivarga properly, he encourages the wicked
and unrighteous people. His subjects do not obey him. He is
dethroned or even killed by his subjects. To repent for his
misconduct, the king should censure his sinful deeds, study the
Vedas, respect the Brāhmanas, devote himself to Dharma,
Practise Gāyatrīmantra and live in the company of noble
persons.”
Vidura, the minister of Dhrtarāstra emphasises that, without
the knowledge of scriptures a king cannot capture his
enemy.67
Bhīsma opines that, the learned ksatriya should keep in
mind, that the ‘dharma’ and ‘artha’ are most important for them.
Kāmandaka also expressed the same view, saying that, a
king should be devoted to Trivarga for protection of ownself and
his people. If the ruler properly uses the Dandanīti, then the
67. ‘trivargācarane yuktah sa śatrūnadhitisthati’ /
Mbh. V. 39 . 40-41 and ibid. XII.134.1
31
Trivarga will be maintained .68
Rājadharma vs Ksātradharma :
According to Bhīsma, Rājadharma is the refuge of all living
creatures, and the fourfold ends of human life depends on it. The
whole world is controled by this kingly duties, as the reins control
the horses and the hooks the elephants. If the royal person
neglects their duties then the world becomes confused, disorder
sets in. Just as the rising sun dispels unholy darkness, likewise,
Rājadharma destroys all evil consequences in this world.69
.
Bhīsma told Vāsudeva that, “as the duty of the Brāhmanas
consists of the practise of charity, studies and penances, the duty
of Ksatriyas is to sacrifice their bodies in battlefield.70
That is called the duties of a Ksatriya, when he ( Ksatriya)
slays in the battle his very preceptor, relatives and friends if they
. .
68. KNS. I.31 and ‘trivargam vardhayatyāśu rājno dando yathāvidhi’
ibid.II. 38
69. Mbh. XII.56.3-7
70. brāhamanānām yathā dharmo dānamadhyayanam tapah /
ksatriyānām tathā krsna samare dehapātanam //
Mbh. XII.55.14
32
happen to be sinful and covetous and disregardful of restraints
and vows. cf.,
samayatyāgino lubdhān gurunapi ca keśava /
nihanti samare pāpān ksatriyo yah sa dharmavit //
Mbh. XII.55.16
According to Manu also, Bhīsma told, war is the source of
dharma for a ksatriya. Because a righteous battle creates fame on
earth and also leads the warrior to heaven71
. Bhīsmas view on
rājadharma is repeatedly conveyed to us by his comparisons with
human values. He says, ‘Ksatriyas by fulfiling the highest
duty,’do welfare for the human beings also, the Veda also diclares
that, all the duties of the three upper classes together with their
auxiliaries are protected by the kings dharma. Again, he
explained, all other dharmas are covered by rājadharma, just like
the foot prints of all creatures by the footprints of elephants.
While all other dharmas bear little relief and get small benefit, the
dharma of the ksatriya alone brings much relief and get big
benefits.
. .
71. Mbh. XII 55.19 and ibid. XII.60.18
33
The ‘daśavarga’72
depends on rājadharma, hence a king should
inspect on it regularly. That king earns eternal merit (which is
known as rājadharma also) who has no wickedness,
dissimulation, deception and envy.73
In ancient time sage
Bhārgava sung one verse of rājadharma that, “one should first
select a king then wife and then earn wealth. If there be no king,
what would become of his wife and wealth.”74
Therefore, at first
men should select a king, then the king protects his subjects and it
is the main duty of a king.
Bhīsma quotes two verses of Prācetasa Manu which runs as
follows: Six persons should be avoided like a leaky boat on the
sea, these six are namely, a preceptor who does not advise, a
priest who does not study the scriptures, a king that does not grant
protection, a wife who utters bitter words, a cow-herd who likes
to move within the village, and a barber that desirous of going to
the woods. He also quotes of Brhaspati regarding the enthusiasm
of a king. Because enthusiasm is the root of success for a king.
. .
72. ibid. XII.57.18 ( here daśavarga’ means , minister, state fort , revenue & Danda are used for self and enemy)
73. ibid . XII. 57.37
74. ibid. XII.57.41
34
By exertion alone sovereignty can be obtained. By exertion the
Asuras were slains and Indra obtained sovereignty in heaven and
on earth.75
In another place of the Mahābhārata, the dandanīti is
called ksātradharma i.e., the ancient Rājadharma, it runs as
follows: if the ksātradharma disappears, then the three vedas will
disappear, and the disappearence of the vedas will lead to the
destruction of all religions of the society, and all the modes of life
become lost . cf.,
majjet trayī dandanītau hatāyām
sarve dharmāh praksayeyurvibudhāh /
sarve dharmāścāśramānām hatāh syuh
ksātre tyakte rājadharme purāne// Mbh. XII. 63.28
All kinds of renunciation, all kinds of initiation, all kinds of
learning and all kinds of worldy behaviour found in the
Rājadharma.76
The ksātradharma is said to have been emerged from the
Visnu Himself. It is stated in the Visnu-Māndhātā samvāda. In
75. Mbh. XII. 58.13-15
76. ibid. XII.63.29-30
35
ancient times a famous king, named Māndhāta performed a
sacrifice to see Nārāyana. Nārāyana appeared before him in the
form of Indra. Indra asked about his wish- as to why he wishes to
see Nārāyana. Then the king replied he has earned name and fame
in the three world through proper use of ksātradharma but he
does not know that best dharma which is issued from Visnu
Himself. Then Indra told him that Ksātradharma is the first and
the formost dharma that issued from Visnu and other dharmas
created later on.Through Ksāstradharma alone Visnu subduced
the demons and protected gods and priests. Indra assures
Māndhātā that the ancient religions were lost many times but
were rescued by Visnu through Ksātradharma alone. So, this
Ksāstradharma is used years after years and hence it is said to be
the first and the foremost dharma77
among all other dharmas.
Indra told him further that Ksātradharma is the best dharma on
earth and it is also regarded as sanātana, nitya and avināśī.78
77. yuge yuge hyādidharmāh pravrttā lokajyestham ksātradharmam vadanti //
Mbh. XII. 64.26
78. sarvadharmaparam ksātram lokaśrestham sanātanam //
ibid. XII. 64.30
36
II. Its scope as a branch of Knowledge in ancient
India:
In ancient India the branch of knowledge dealing with state
and government had no any fixed and appropriate designation.
Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra mentions dandanīti as one of the four
vidyās i.e. the branch of knowledge.The other three vidyās are
Ānvīksiki (philosophy), Traī (three vedas), and Vārtā
(economics).79
It appears that Dandanīti is the oldest name for this
branch of knowledge. The Mahābhārata calls the work of
Brahmādeva as Dandanīti composed for the protection of the
world at the begining of the creation.80
It is one of the four
essential lores to be studied by a prince as opined by the earlier
schools mentioned in the Arthaśāstra. This lore or vidyā is
concerned with the administration of a State. Dandanīti literally
means “the use or employment of the rod” and obviously refers to
the earliest method of giving punishment on wrong doers by the
ruler. So, Danda as held by the monarch has been the symbol of
authority. So, it appears that Dandanīti, in its origin, was
. .
79. ānvīksiki, trayī, vārtā, dandanītiśceti vidyāh.. Aś. 1.2.1. 80. Mbh. XII.59.78.
37
concerned primarily with the administration of justice. The
Āpastamba Dharmasutra regards this branch of knowledge as
Rājadharama.81
Manu has used the terms Rājadharma and Dandanīti for
this branch. In the Mahābhārata,82
it has been designated as,
Rājaśāstra, Dandanīti, and also Arthaśāstra. This branch of
knowledge is called also Nrpaśāstra as it is found in the first
verse of the Pancatantra, but in the very next verse it has been
designated as Arthaśāstra. 83
The treatise of Kautilya is entitled
as Arthaśāstra, but this appellation was not coined by him for the
first time.84
The term Dandanīti is also found in the Arthaśāstra.85
According to Kāmandaka it is designated as a Nītisāra;
Vaiśampāyana’s treatise is called Nītiprakāśikā and Śukra’s work
is termed as Nītisāra. The Jātakamālā of Āryasūra, has used the
term Rājadharma for this branch of knowledge.86
In the Purāna,
81. Ā.Dh.Sū. II 10.25.1
82. Mbh. XII. 58.3
83. Panca, Kathāmukham ( Edgerton’s ed)
84. “yāvantyarthaśāstrāni pūrvācāryaih prasthāpitāni ...” Aś. I.1.
85. ibid . II , 1,2,4,6, etc.
86. Jātakamālā, vol. I P. 147 ( H.O.S)
38
the term Rājadharma occurs along with Rājanīti,87
Dandanīti and
Arthaśāstra88
for the branch of knowledge dealing with the
science of polity.
All these different names mentioned above are used for that
branch of knowledge, the subject matter of which is state and
government; and is accepted by scholars in general. But few
opines that it has been used as ‘ Ksatravidyā’ for the first time in
the ChāndogyaUpanisad.89
The commentary of Śamkarācārya
holds it to be synonymous with‘dhanurveda’ and, scholars in
general have followed this meaning.90
Among the modern scholars, A.B. keith holds that the
meaning of the word Ksatra-Vidyā probebly means the
dhanurveda 91
. Hopkins also gives the same view.92
Dr. V.S.
87. e.g. in Ag.ch. 239 is entitled , as ‘Rājadharmah’, while in ch. 242 is
entitled as Rājanītih.
88. e.g. Vā.P. 57.82, “maryādā sthāpanārthanca dandanītih pravartate.”
But in 97.105-106, Vāyu uses the term nīti only. The D.P. ch. 107 says
that Aś is an Upaveda ofAV.Vayu P.in its enumeration of the eighteen
vidyas mentions Aś but not Dandanīti 89. Chā. Up. VII. 1.2; 1.4; 2.1; 7.1
90. Prasad. B, Theory of government in Ancient India. Intro XVII.
91. Keith V.I. S.V. Ksatravidyā. 92. Hopkins, JAOS, XII, p. 104 ( 45-43/1972)
AV. Vā.P. in its enumaration of the eighteen vidyās mentions Aś but not
Dandanīti.
39
Agrawala uses this term as military science,93
in his book
entitled, “ India as known to Pānini.” This term occurs in Pāninis
Astādhyāyī 94 and the Mahābhāsya of Patanjali,
95
but it is
difficult to say what was the exact meaning of it in these two
works.
It is already mentioned that, some scholars had
differentiated, ‘the Ksatravidyā’ from the ‘state and government’.
Some branches of knowledge is found in the earlier literature also.
The Atharvaveda states that, it as the Itihāsa-Purāna and Itihāsa
singly as well as compounded is mentioned in the Śatapatha-
Brāhmana.96
Sarpa-Vidyā is also found in the Śatapatha -
Brāhmana.97
In the Chāndogya upanisada the term ksatravidyā
is mentioned along with the four Vedas, Itihāsa-Purāna, Rāśi,
Naksatra-vidyā, Bhuta-vidyā, Sarpa-vidyā, Vyākarana, Ekāyana,
Deva-vidyā, Brahma-vidyā, Jana-vidyā etc.
. .
93. Agrawal V.S. P.304.
94. Agrawal V.S. “ India as known to Pānini.” P. 337
95. Patanjali, Mahābhāsya, IV, 260, p. 284 ( kielhorn’s ed)
96. AV. XV 6.5 and also ŚB. XIII. 4.3. 12-13 and as compounded in
XI.5.6.8 ; 7.9.
97. Ś.B . XIII. 4.3.9
40
But all these branches of knowledge are not found in the earlier
literature because the most of these terms are new. Like the other
branches of knowledge, the term Ksatravidyā is naturally
organised as the body of knowledge. In the Chāndogya
Upanisada, Nārada calls himself a mantravit.98
So, it is found in
the position of mantra, i.e. wordly knowledge as distinct from
ātma-vidyā.99
In the Mahābhārata, the term ksatravidyā is used in the
sense of the science of polity or statecraft.
Another scheme of Branches of knowledge:
The Mahābhārata speaks of four branches of knowledge
(vidyās) these are viz, Ānvīksikī (philosophy), Trayī (three
vedas), Vārtā (economics) and Dandanīti (science of politics).100
The part of Ānvīksikī is omitted in the Vanaparva and the
Trayī, Vārtā and Dandanīti are used for the welfare of the whole
98. Chā. Up. VII 1.3 “ mantravidevāsmi nātmavit.”
99. Munda.( Mundaka) I. 1,4-5; Mai.S. VI, 21.6 for the nature of ātmavidyā. Quoted in Prasad . V. ‘ Theory of government in Ancient India.”
100. trayī cānvīksikī caiva vārtā ca bharatarsabha /
dandanītiśca vipulā vidyāstatra nidarśitā // Mbh .XII.59.33
41
world.101
Prosperity will come to the proper use of Trayī and
Dandanīti.102
The Śrīmad Bhagavadgīta, establishes the superiority of
spiritual knowledge, which is called Adhyātmavidyā, (i.e.the
science of spiritual self) to all other branches of knowledge. But
in the Bhīsmaparva of the Mahābhārata, the Adhyātmavidyā is
described as the king of vidyās or rājavidyā.103
Again, in another
chapter of this parvan, Lord Krsna expresses the similar view,
that, “ of all the vidyās , I am AdhyātmaVidyā, the science of
spiritual self.”104
Kautilya, in his very first book of Arthaśāstra holds the
same view with the Mahābhārata saying that Ānvīksikī-Trayī-
Vārtā- Dandanīti as the branches of knowledge. He refers to the
views of various schools of thought. Brhaspati mentions only two
vidyās in his Bārhaspatya, viz; Vārta and Dandanīti, and excluded
Ānvīksikī and Trayī from the list. The schools of Auśanasa of
101. trayīvārtā dandanītistisro vidyā vijānatām /
tābhih samyak prayuktābhirlokayātrā vidhīyate // Mbh. III.150.31
102. ibid. II. 207.24
103. rājavidyā rājaguhyam pavitramidamuttamam /
pratyaksyāvagamam dharmyam susukhan kartumavya-yam /
ibid. VII. 33. 2
104. adhyātmavidyā vidyānān vādah pravadatā maham. ibid . VII. 34. 32
42
Śukrācārya, regarded the Dandanīti as only science and it is the
root of all other branches of knowledge or sciences. But Kautilya
did not agree with them, he recognizes all the four vidyā is
necessary for the knowledge of Dharma and Adharma.105
The
Mānavas, the followers of Manu, emphasises only three branches
of knowledge namely, Trayī, Vārtā and Dandanīti, and the science
Ānvīksikī is omitted from the school of Mānavas. Kautilya, does
not ignore the importance of all Vidyās, he specially gives more
importance on Ānvīksikī (philosophy). He holds the view that this
science, in the light of reasoning keeps the mind steady in weal
and woe, it gives skill in knowledge, speech and action.106
So it is
regarded as the lamp of all sciences, as the means of all actions
and as the support of all laws.107
105. ānvīksikītrayīvārtādandanītiśceti vidyāh / trayīvārtādandanītiśceti mānavah /
vārtādandanītiśceti Bārhaspatyāh /
dandanītirekā vidyeyouśanasāh /
tasyān hi sarvavidyārambhāh pratibadhā iti / catasra eva vidyā iti kautilyah //
tābhidharmārthau yadvidyāttad vidyānān vidyātvam //
Aś. I . 2. 1 -9
106. Aś. BK I. 2 P.10
107. pradīpah sarvavidyānān upāyah sarvakarmanām /
āsrayah sarvadharmānām śaśvadānvīksikī matā // ibid.
43
According to Manu108
Ātma-vidyā (the science of self) is
one of the four branches of knowledge. Kāmandaka deals with the
views of Manu in considerable details. He respects the Kautilyan
view109
but he speaks highly of Dandanīti. According to him, the
absence of Dandanīti, the other three vidyās become ineffective. If
the ruler relies on Dandanīti then the rest of the vidyās also
flourish.110
Therefore, a king should protect himself as well as the
other sciences with the help of Dandanīti, which is benificial to
the whole world.111
The Agni Purāna, briefly noted the contents of these four
branches of knowledge.112
The Matsya Purāna113
also includes the
science of self (Ātma-Vidyā) in the list of the four vidyās. The
Visnu Purāna too accepted the same traditional four-fold
108. traividyebhyastrayīm vidyām dandanītin ca śāsvatīm /
ānvīksikīm cāa’ tmavidyām vārtārambhānśca lokatah //
MS. VII.43
109. KNS. II . 10-6
110. ibid . II. 8-9
111. tayāa’tmānam śesāśca vidyāh pāyānmalūpatih /
vidyālokopakārinyastatpātā hi mahīpatih //
ibid . II.16
112. Ag. 238. 8-9
113. Matsya P. 215.53
44
knowledge.114
At another place of this work, a list of eighteen
vidyās, consisting of the four Vedas, their six angas (śiksā, kalpa,
vyākarana, chanda, jyotis and nirukta), Mimānsā, Nyāya, Purāna,
Dharmaśāstra, Āyurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharva-vidyā and
Arthaśāstra115
are found. The Mimānsā and Nyāya are included in
Ānvīskikī.
The four branches of knowledge is found in the
Śukranītisāra also. Śukra speaks that, a king should always
practise these four vidyās, because, the four varnas and āśramas
are established by the help of these four sciences.116
It is found that, the Dandanīti is regarded as one of the
sciences of the fourfold vidyās, in the Mahābhārata, the
Arthaśāstra of Kautilya, the Manusmrti, the Kāmandakīya
Nītisāra, the Agni Purāna , the Matsya purāna, the Visnu Purāna
and the Śukranītisāra. Generally, the place assigned to dandanīti
. .
114. ānvīksikī trayī vārtā dandanītistathāparā / vidyācatustayam caitadvārtāmātram śrnusva me //Visnu. P. V.10.29.27
115. Visnu. P. III. 6. 28-9
116. ānvīksikītrayīvārtādandanītiścaśāścvatī / vidyāścatasraevaitā abhyasennrpatihsadā//
ānvīksikyān tarkaśātranvedāntāntādyanpratisthitam /
trayyāndharmohyadharmaścakāmea’kāmah pratisthitah //
arthānarthauvārtāyāndandanītyānnayānayau /
varnāhsarvāśramāścaivavidyāsvāsupratisthitāh // ŚNS.I.151-3
45
is equal to that of the other branches of knowledge. Kautilya
emphasized the superiority of Ānvīksikī then Dandanīti, but
Kāmandaka emphasises the necessity of Dandanīti. According to
him, Dandanīti is essential for the progress of the remaining three
branches of knowledge.
III. Rājadharma literature:
So far as the Rājadharma literature is concerned, we have
found mythological originators in the Mahābhārata. Brahmā is
said to have composed a Nītiśāstra containing one lakh chapters
in the matters of maintenance of state -affairs by a monarch. After
then the Nītiśāstra was abridged by Maheswara to ten thousand
chapters which was again made into five thousand, three thousand
and one thousand chapters by Indra, Brhaspati, and Usanasa
respectively.
Coming from the mythological aspect, if we look into the
practical world we may notice that each king has a priest as
religious guide as well as political adviser. Normally they were
think-tanks. As the ancient India was studded with a
conglomeration of independant small kingdoms, there were fights
among themselvs for protection of their own and acquisition of
46
new states . The rulers were expected to discuss the problems of
the state administration with their advisers. Who were normally
sages and scholars of mature judgement. And this process of
deliberations perhaps led to the growth of the science of state
craft. This branch of knowledge is known differently as
Rājadharma, Dandanīti, Rājanīti etc., while the works dealing
with the subject are known variously as Dandanītiśāstra, or
Dandaśāstra, Rājaśāstra or Rājanītiśāstra, Arthaśāstra or simply
Nītiśāstra. Kautilya calls his work on the subject Arthaśāstra. The
Kāmandaka entitled his work as ‘Nītisāra’; Somadevas
Nītivākyāmrta;Vaiśampāyanas Nītiprakāśikā; Osanās the
Śukranītisāra; Somesvaras Mānasollāsa or
Abilāsitārthacintāmoni; Bhojarājas the Yoktikalpataru so on and
so forth. Besides these independent works on state craft, the
subject is dealt with in the Dharmaśāstras (samhitās) as in the
Manusamhitā, the Yājnavalkyasmrti etc; the two great epics, the
Rāmāyana and the Mahābhārata, and the Purānas also in
frequently elaborate on the principles and practice of Nītiśāstra.
The former authorities mentioned by Kautilya, Manu
(Prāsetasa), Brhaspati, Uśanasa (Śukra), Vātavyādhi , Bharadvāja,
47
Viśālāksa etc. In the period of the Mahābhārata, some other
names of ancestors of this literatre are added.117
The Nītiprakāśikā of Vaiśampāyana added the names of
Brahmā, Maheśwara, Skanda, Indra, Prācetasa Manu, Brhaspati,
Śukra, Bhāradvāja, Vedavyāsa, Gauraśirāmuni as the author of
Rājadharma or Rājaśātra.118
Again he (Vaiśampāyana) mentioned the number of
chapters of the works on Rājaśāstras composed by those authors,
respectively, as 1,00,000; 50,000; 12,000; 6,000; 3,000; 1,000;
700; 500 and 300.119
The Arthaśāstra is one term used for the science of politics
which we have already mentioned. The literal meaning of the
term ‘Arthaśāstra’ is the science of wealth or economics, because
‘Artha’ means money or wealth . According to Kautilya, the term
artha indicates the territory where the people live together and
vrtti means ‘sustenance’ or ‘ livelihood’120
. And since the term
. .
117. Mbh. XII 58.2-3 118. NP. I. 21-22
119. ibid. I. 23-28
120. manusyanam vrttirarthah, manusyavati bhumirarthah,
tasyah prthivya labhapalanopayah sastramarthasastramiti //
As. XV. I
48
artha is understood in the sense of the earth where men live
together and seek their material well being in general, then the
Śāstra concerned with the general well being on earth. And state
activity alone can make such general well-being possible. So, the
śāstra, which shows how this activity of the acquisition and
protection of the earth be carried out, is called as Arthaśāstra.
However, ‘Artha’ is regarded as one of the three goals
(trivarga) of human existance and the other two being ‘Dharma’
and ‘Kāma’. Artha is the primary and most important, and the
dharma and kāma are dependent on it 121
.
In Book one (I) of the Arthaśāstra various problems
connected with the kingship are discussed. InBook two (II) an
exhaustive picture of the civil adminstration is depicted. The next
(III) and (IV) Books discuss the civil, criminal, and personal laws.
The duties and responsibilities of the courtiers and retainers of the
king in Book (V) and Book (VI) states the nature and functions of
the seven element of the state. Then the works devotes its last
nine Books to the foreign policy, ‘ circle’ of kings and the policy,
121. artha eva pradhāna iti kautilyah arthamūlohi dharmakāmāviti /
Aś. I. VII. 6-7
49
occasions and suitable for war and peace, the warfare etc.122
The Kāmandakīya Nītisāra : ( 5th
Century )
The Nītisāra of Kāmandaka is one of the work on the
science of polity and it has written in the style of artificial poetry.
The Nītisāra is divided into cantos (Sargas) and sections
(Prakaranas). Variety of metres mainly Anushtub, and numerous
poetical similes and metaphors are found here.
It is found that the Nītisāra seems to have followed the
Arthaśāstras pattern. In the opening verses of the Nītisāra the
author (saluted briefly to the kings in general and fully to his
master) Vishnugupta (Kautilya). After salutation he expresses his
intention to instruct kings in the process of acquisition and
preservation of dominions. In this matter he seems to have
followed Kautilya who saluted Śukra and Brhaspati at the
begining of his work. And yet it is not deniable that, Kāmandakas
branch of learning is separated by a long gap of time from his
forerunners. Hence, Kāmandaka leaves out the whole material in
Kautilyas Arthaśāstra relating to the working of the state
. .
122. BK .Altekar A.S. State and Government in Ancient India. p.10
50
administration and the branch of law and justice.Which did not
interest his scholastic fase. But he prepared other materials under
more convenient headings.
Kāmandakīya contains instructions relating to the kings
education in three cantos, danda is explained in one canto, the
merit and demerits alongwith the functions of the seven
constituent elements of the state is included in three cantos, and
another three cantos describe about the policy of security of the
ruler and the subjects; the state system found in two cantos the
six types of foreign policy ( sādgunya) are explained in three
cantos, consultation with the minister of king’s in one canto, the
duty of the ambassador is in two cantos, the list of the kings
traditional vices in one canto and the political expedients are
discussed in twelve cantos.
After Kautilya, Kāmandaka also accepts the Taryī in its
broadest sense. And he summarized the law and social order
(dharma). Generally Kāmandaka followed the general Smrti
literature. For example one passage from Smrti: Protection of the
people depends upon the king and their livelihood depends upon
protection. Again a king should be ready to for operation the
51
whole scheme of duties, and without him the law (dharma) would
disappear, and with the disappearence of the law the world would
perish. The above passages evidently repeat a familiar Smrti
principle of the king’s authority.
Again in the theory of the danda of the king, Kāmandaka
(II-37-43) takes some ideas of the Arthaśāstra and Smrti tradition.
The author takes ideas of Kautilya for making a state. According
to him 123
the state does not work well if it looses a single limb, so
a king should quickly try to make it the whole i.e., (the seven
elements of a state). In the Nītisāra of Kāmandaka, the state
(rājya) is divided into two units ,viz, internal and external part.
It is already mentioned that, the education of a king is dealt
with by Kāmandaka in the first canto. First of all he (king) should
furnish himself with discipline (vinaya), then his officials and
assistance, then his sons, and lastly his subjects.124
In another two
cantos XIV and XV of his Nītisāra, he describes about kings
qualifications alongwith his characteristic vices (vyasanas).
Kāmandaka particularly observes, three kinds of punishment
. .
123. KNS. IV 1-2
124. ibid. I. 25
52
(Danda), these are namely, execution (Vadha), imposing fines and
inflicting corporal punishment. Again execution is further divided
in two subsections, viz, the public and the secret. According to
Kāmandaka, the minister is an eye of kings; and the officials and
the coronated prince are his two arms. Some principal political
expedients are also described by Kāmandaka in his Nītisāra.
Again in another canto (VI) he deals with the old Arthaśāstra
branch of policy which is known as Extirpation of Thorns
(Kantakaśodhana). The protection is the main duty of the king so
he should punish all those who oppress his subjects. The author
mentioned in canto (VII), that, it is great danger to the king and
the kingdom if greedy and haughty princes are here. Kāmandaka
gives numerous definitions of the constituents of the state-system
in the chapter of the inter-state relations. As well as he explained
a list of the sub-types of peace, war, marching and neutrality,
along with a large body of the relevant rules and principles. A
king should apply a fourfold policy for complete destruction of
his enemy.
The policy of peace and war is found in another two
separate cantos (IX-X) also. The author gives a list of various
53
kinds of wars which should be avoided. A king should wage war
when he has all the advantages, like-well equipped troops, many
prosperous and loyal subjects and fixed allies. In canto (XI),
Kāmandaka explains of foreign policy. Finally, he suggests that
if a king finds himself completely alone or defenceless and he
face of an attack by a powerful enemy then he should either seek
the protection of a sovereign of high family, character and
conduct or surrender his forces or revenue or territory to the
assailant for his own safety. The policy of marching to the enemy
is dealt with in a later canto (XVI). The author describes here that,
the king should march for victory when he is free from all
calamities, and equipped with the threefold power. Again he
observes that, strength of counsel is very necessary than physical
strength for attaining highest goal, e.g. the Indra (king of heaven)
conquered the demons by the strength of counsel only.
In the last part of the nineteenth canto Kāmandaka
describes about faithless warfare and its alternatives (XIX).
The Bārhaspatya Sūtra :
The another treatise on science of polity or treatise of nīti is
54
the Bārhaspatya sūtra (the aphorisms of Brhaspati). It is a short
work of general morals ( nīti) , which is composed by Brhaspati,
the preceptor of the gods, for Indra the king of heaven. The author
mainly deals with the political ideas and notions in his sūtra.
According to Brhaspati, the science of politics is
teachnically called Dandanīti. Taking the reference of the old
Arthaśāstra, he says125
that, Dandanīti is the only science (Vidyā).
It should be studied by all the four castes. He further says that126
,
Dandanīti is differently used in four ages. In the Krta (Satya) age
it is fully learnt by the people. In the Tretā age people are active
and skilled in policy , in Dvāpara age men depend on tantras and
are versed in policy and at last in Kali age men are strong in
knowledge and action by one quarter and are versed in dandanīti ,
and that thereafter the men are of contrary rules of life, colour and
dress and are devoid of Dandanīti.127
Brhaspati declares that,128
the result of policy are the attainment of virtue ( dharma), wealth
(artha ), and pleasure ( kāma ). Again he says that, even a son and
125. Bā.Sū . I. 3
126. ibid. III . 141-8
127. ibid. II.
128. ibid. II. 43
55
a preceptor who is devoid of policy is an enemy129
and should be
disregarded. In another place of this Sūtras it is mentioned that,
the king should not follow that dharma which is condemed by the
people 130
.
According to Brhaspati, policy (nīti) is essential for a
complete life of individuals. He says, three ends of life namely,
dharma, artha and kāma is essential for fulfilment of the
complete life of the individuals. When Brhaspatis theories as well
as principles and policies of government agreeing to outlook on
life then he repeats some conceptions of the Arthaśāstra and the
Smrti.
In the first place of these sūtra, the author states that, the
king should be equipped with self- mastery and warns him against
hunting and over indulgense in women.131
A person who
possesses good qualities comprising of learning and wealth and
self restraint he may get rulership.132
The author defines,
. .
129. ibid. II. 50 and 74
130. ibid. I (4-5)
131. ibid. I. 1 and also 33-35
132. ibid. II . 1-2
56
‘counsel’ ( mantras) as the necessary part of king’s assistants.133
And it is the root of victory; arranges the same in three divisions,
viz, good, intermediate and bad.134
For making a counsel it is
necessary the company of friends and kinsmen along with learned
and steady persons. When the steady minister makes counsel on
the science of polity that is called best counsel. That counsel is
middling which is first time differences of opinion but afterwards
unanimity. And that caunsel is worst when there arise quarrel and
reproach one being for wealth and another for virtue, in the
company of women, children and old men are found (one
infavour of tears and another is anger).
In the third place of these sūtra the author defines about the
internal and foreign policy. when the both parties are equal in
strength then they should be slain in war135
. In war when
difficulties arise then a king should apply all the six expedients of
conciliation, dissension, bribery, creating illusion, pretended
indifference and slaying.
133. ibid. II. 41-42
134. ibid. IV . 27-36
135. ibid. I. 30-31
57
Here, the author repeats the all political expedients of the
Arthaśāstra work except one, viz, magic ( indrajāla) Although
the author agreeing with the Arthaśāstra tradition, but he
advocates war with an enemy of equal strength.
Nītivākyāmrta:
The Jaina writer Somadeva of tenth century A.D. writes a
treatise on nīti is called Nītivākyāmrta. He quotes fragments of the
metrical works on polity attributed to Atri, Angīras, Kauśika,
Garga, Devala, Nārada, Parāśara, Bhāguri, Bhāradvāja, Bhrgu,
Brhaspati, Śukra, Vyāsa etc.
Although, the author describes after Kautilya’s pattern but
with a strong Jaina bias,136
the functions of the four sciences viz,
philosophy (ānvīksikī), the three vedas (trayī), Economics (vārtā)
and Politics (dandanīti ) in a prince’s training. The study of
philosophy, it seems that, confers mental alertness and moral
discipline as well as practical efficiency; at its lowest level of
materialistic philosophy, if a king study this part then he enables
to solve the problem of dealing with the anti-social elements in
. . 136. quote in, Ghoshal. U. N. A history of Indian political ideas, Oxford University press 1959, p.477.
58
his kingdom. The Vedas provide the king with great knowledge of
the duties of the four castes and the orders and teach the
performance of Vedic sacrifices and so forth. Economics fulfils
the material needs of both the king and his subjects. Politics
ensuring just punishment, secures the complete happiness of the
individulas.
Somadeva defines, Dandanīti comprising the chastisement
of the wicked and cherishing of the good. Defining the parallel
term Nītiśāstra, Somadeva137
observes more generally that, it
involves the kings application towards the security of his own
circle of state and acquisition of the enemy’s state-circle. From
above extracts it is found that more or less the old Arthaśāstras
view’s are repeat. Here found twofold scope of the science of
polity (nīti) comprising the branches of the king’s internal
administration and foreign policy.
The Nītivākyāmrta,138
states that, the king is a great deity ,
and as such he bows to no one except to his superiors . In another
137. NVK. XXX 45-7
138. ibid. V. 67.
59
place, the author declares that, there is no visible deity other than
the king. He combines a king is the form of three deities viz,
Brahmā, Visnu and Śiva. The Ksatriya (Prince) becomes Brahmā,
when on attaining the first stage (child hood) of life he fixes his
mind at the eternal Brahman, serves his preceptor’s family, and
makes a complete study of the branches of Knowledge. The king
is called Visnu when on attaining royal fortune and receiving the
ceremonial initiation at his consecration, he attracts the love of his
subjects with his good qualities. And he becomes Śiva when
blazing with strength as with the third eye of that God and gifted
with the highest authority, he sets about extirpating the thorns of
the state as well as his demon-like enemies and becomes a
conqueror.
In the first extract, the author139
mentions that, the king
stands to his friends and foes in the position of the gods Indra and
Yama respectively, i.e. a king comprises chastisement of the
wicked and reward the good. Here government signifies, the act
of protecting the territory. The duties of the four castes are discuss
139. ibid. VI.4
60
in second extract (VII.8). The king gains one-sixth of the merits
acquired by his subjects from gifts, religious worship and so forth,
and he can increage his treasury from these tax. Somadeva
borrowed from Kautilya about the conception of the structure of
the state.
From above discussions it is found that, sometimes the
view of the Nītivākyāmrta are same with the Mahābhārata.
Śukranītisāra ( 13 C A.D.) :
The Nītiśāstra is said to be benificial treatise and
generalised science of society. It is a system of morals (social,
economics and political). Nītiśāstra gives practical advice as to
social well being. It is specially useful to rulers and ministers.
With the knowledge of Nīti they can conquere the enemy and
become master of the world. The four ends human life
(Purusārthas. i.e. dharma- artha- kāma and moksa) are found in
Nītiśāstra and it gives fame and prosperity.
Śukrācārya delivers the essence or spirit of Brahmā’s
nītiśāstra, which is known as Śukranītisāra. It is divided into four
chapters and named as (1) rājakrtyakathana, (2) yuvarājādikrtya
kathana, (3) sādhāraninītiśāstra kathana and (4) misraprakarana
61
kathana. Śukra gives more importance on nīti. He states that the
whole world is established by these nīti, without the nīti or the
system of morals, no man can be established, like wise without
food a man cannot survive 140
. Nīti is the very essential part of a
king and it is stated by various examples in the first chapter of the
Śukranītisāra. The protection of the subjects and destruction of
evils are the main duty of a king, which is possible through the
proper knowledge of nīti141
. The king, who has the knowledge of
nīti and full of strength, he can attain all prosperity in his life.
Śukra gives more importance on kings penances for making a
king more powerful, intelligent and protector, and opines that a
king by his previous births of penances rule this world.142
Svadharma ( own’s duty), Punishment (danda), three kinds of
penances ( satva, raja and tama), different duties of four castes
(Brāhmana, Ksatriya, Vaiśya and Śudra) all are discussed in this
Nītisāra. The author opines that, the Brāhmanas, Ksatriyas,
. .
140. sarvalokavyavahārasthitirnītyāvinānahi / yathāśanairvinādehasthitirnasyāddhidehinām //
ŚNS. I.11
141. nrpasyaparamodharmah prajānānparipālanam /
dustanrgrahnannityannanītyātauvinahyubhe // ibid. I. 14
142. ibid. I. 20
62
Vaiśyas, Śudras and Mlechas are not born but they are marked of
their respective qualities and action deeds.143
It shows that Śukra
did not believe in heriditary castes. A King is the maker of time
i.e. the creator of ages. The seven elements of the state are
discussed here and the king is regarded as the chief of these seven
elements (king, minister, friend, treasury, state, fort and army).
The first chapter deals with the qualities and duties of a
king (good and bad), definition of four knowledge (ānvīksikī,
trayī, vārtā and dandanīti).
In the second chapter, discussions about the functions of
the crown prince and other officials are found. Here the author
expresses that, without ministers and wise a king cannot rule
alone. Prince and ministers are the two arms, eyes and ear of the
king.144
On the other hand priest, envoy, amātya, saciva,
commander, witness -all are described in the chapter second.
In the chapter third, Śukra explained about general rules
of morality. All creatures of the world want to live happily and
143. najātyābrāhmanaścātraksatriyovaiśyaevana /
naśūdronacavaimlecchobheditāgunakarmabhih //
ŚNS. I 38
144. ibid. II. 12
63
these happiness will come from morality or dharma. So, every
one should be devoted to morality. Here it is found that, a king
should not trust fully his own son, wife, brothers and ministers.
And at the end of the chapter III the author states that it is an
abridgement of the general morals about kings and states, and
should be followed by kings 145
for the wellbeings of the kingdom.
The fourth chapter is called ‘misraprakarana’. Here,
briefly noted about the characteristics (laksana) of mitra (friend)
and śatru (enemy). In this chapter different characteristics of
different friends are discussed. Again the functions of a king,
treasure, danda, sāma-dāna for friends, various functions of four
castes, characteristics of preceptor, name of the Vedas- Vedāngas,
Mimānsās, fortresses, army etc., are discussed in the fourth
chapter. Śukra opines that if a king always studies these brief text
of Śukra he can bear the burden of all troubles of state affairs. cf.,
‘śukroktanītisāranyaścintayedaniśannrpah//
vyavahāradhuranvodonsaśaktonrpatirbhavet //’
ŚNS. 4. 1242
145. ŚNS. III. 313
64
The Śukranītisāra, consists of 2200 ( two thousand two
hundred) slokas. Which is accepted by Manu that is accepted by
Śukra also.146
There is no other ‘nīti’ in the three world like
Śukranīti.147
The Nītiprakāśikā :
The Nītiprakāśikā is ascribed to Vaiśampāyana, the
disciples of Vyāsa and the narrator of the Mahābhārata and the
Harivamśa. It is a work on science of polity, and contains eight
chapters. Many points of these Nītiprakāśikā bear similarities
with the Rāmāyana, mainly first two kāndas of the Rāmāyana,
and also with the Mahābhārata and the Harivamsa. The
Nītiprakāśikā contains some passages which is found in the works
on law and polity of the Mānavadharma Śāstra and the
Kāmandakīya Nītisāra.
Vaiśampāyana includes the ‘Dhanurveda’ as the chief part
of the Nītiprakāśikā. The Dhanurveda is the Upaveda connected
with the Yajurveda, and narrated it to Janmejaya, Son of king
Pariksita.
146. ibid. IV. 1241
147. ibid. IV. 1243
65
Vaiśampāyana narrated the Mahābhārata and the
Harivamśa to Janmejya. The style and language of this treatise is
similar to the Mahābhārata and the Harivamśa.
The Nītiprakāśikā contains eight chapters or cantos. In the
first chapter it is stated that the sage Vaiśampāyana visits the king
Janmejaya at Taksasīlā, and after completion of the general
greetings the sage and the king adjourned to the council room.
Therein Janmejaya complained Vaiśampāyana about the
depravity of the times148
.
In the age of Kali, righteousness, truth, purity, patience and
pity are disappeared, and wealth is more highly appreciated than
noble birth, noble deeds, and virtue. The gratification of animal
passions has taken the place of legitimate marriage, the mere
wearing of the thread constitutes a person a Brāhman; the
religious position of a man is only defind by external signs; the
poor men is despised , though he be good. Abstaining from a bad
deed is esteemed a good action; bathing is deemed sufficient for
purification; taking a women is regarded marriage; beauty
148. NP. I. 11-18
66
consists in wearing hair on the head. Filling one’s stomach is the
principal object in life; good actions are done for the sake of
glorification; ability is only displayed in the keeping up of one’s
family, and rude behaviour passes for truthfulness. All castes are
like Śūdras, as cow’s are like goats, religion abounds with heresy,
and kings behave like thieves. In such situations, how men may
be taught the rules of polity as well as the secrets of the
Dhanurveda and the practice of arms. After knowing the wishes
of Janmejaya, Vaiśampāyana relates him about the rājaśāstra
composed by Brahmā. He says,- Brahmā, Rudra, Subrahmanya,
Indra, Manu, Brhaspati, Śukra, Bharadvāja, Gauraśiras and Vyāsa
had respectively written 1,000,00; 50,000 ; 12,000; 6,000; 3,000;
1,000; 700; 500 and 300 chapters on polity.149
He further told him
about Prthu (son of Vena), how he protects his subjects, and his
subjects called him Ksatriya as he had saved them from
destruction.Thus we find about the definition of Ksatriya. cf.,
ksatatrānāt prajāstan tu ksatriyan cā bruvanstatha //
NP. I.30
149. ibid. I. 20-28
67
and afterwards he is called rājā , because he loves his subjects.150
The Dhanurveda is created by Brahmā to control wicked
people and it is given to Prthu by fate. Dhanuraveda protects his
subjects like father protects sons. Here, described about the nature
of peace and war, six political principles, viz, ( Sandhi, Vigraha,
Yāna, Āsana, Dvaidhībhāva and Samśraya), possessing the six
royal qualities (eloquence, fearlessness, wise, retentive memory,
well versed in polity and gifted with originality), the seven state
requisites, and consider all the fourteen faults, spies, and if the
enemy is very weak than quickly attack with the three fold
power,151
(king, minister and warlike enterprize), at the correct
time a king should start the march. All these are found in the
chapter one.
The second chapter deals with the description of the
Dhanurveda,152
i.e. different classes of weapons. The weapons are
divided into four classes according to their nature.
150. namāpi tasya rājeti prajārāgādajāyata /
ibid. I .31
151. Accrding to Sitaram commentary , the threefold power:
mantrakośabhrtyah, or of Prabhumantrotsāhah.
152. NP. II. 1-4
68
Those are , viz, (1) mukta, (2) amukta, (3) muktāmukta and (4)
mantramukta. The weapons which can be thrown is called mukta,
such as arrows. Amuktas are those which are not thrown, e.g.
sword, mace etc; Muktāmukta are those which are thrown and not
thrown, e.g. cakra etc. and the Mantramukta are those which are
thrown by spells.153
Twelve arms are included in the Mukta
class,154
there are twenty varities of arms in amukta class of the
Dhanurveda155
. The muktāmukta weapon is divided into
‘Sopasamhāra’ and ‘Upasamhāra’. And this Sopasamhāra weapon
is consisted of 44 specimens, and Upasamhāra in 55 specimens.156
The last class mantramukta is divided into six kinds, these are
very powerful and irresistible. These are resided in the fourth foot
of the Dhanurveda.
The third chapter deals with the origin of the sword and
devoted to this subject.
The fourth and fifth chapters are deal with the weapons to
153. ibid. II. 11-13 154. ibid. II. 17-18 155. ibid. II. 19-20
156. ibid . II 22-28
69
the first two classes and fifth chapter enumerates the terrible
weapons, used in the wars during the kaliyuga, especially are
mentioned machines made of mental, stone and othermaterials
which throw balls on the enemy, big rocks, saws, smoke-balls,
burning husk- coals, hot sand, boiling oil, melting sugar treacle,
resin of the Śāl-tree, post filled with honey and poisonous
serpents, and other like preparations.
With respect to the balls mentioned above some verses in
the Atharvanaveda appear to support the existance of leaden balls.
Lead is there mentioned as the metal with which the Rāksasa are
to be destroyed, and as weapons made of lead alone, or of which
lead forms the principal ingredient, do hardly exist- as lead is by
far too soft and does not recommend itself for being made use of
in spikes, spears, and C.- the supposition that by lead leaden balls
are meant seems very probable. The verse run as follows: Varuna
blessed the lead; Agni is ford of the lead; Indra gave me the lead;
it is, O friend, the destroyer of the Rāksasas… If thou killest our
cow, horse or servent, we shall pierce thee with lead, that thou
70
mayest not kill weak creatures.157
The sixth chapter describes
about the army, the arrangement of troops, disposition of men,
review of army, war, elephants, domestic elephants, followers of
king and commissariat kept behind apart, Arsenal for guns, what
persons should be sent infront of the army, the retinue of kings,
place of refuge, when to take revenge, marching, sentinels rounds,
Artisans and others to accompany the army, what places to be
avoided during marching, Encampments, soldiers be drilled for
general duty, use of elephants, chariots, cavalry, country suitable
for infantry, country suitable for cavalary, chariots and elephants,
qualification of commander- in- chief, daily watch words , police,
seniority, punishment of transgressors, appointment of three
generals, change of cantonments, Minister, King to stand in the
place of danger, reserve crops, without ensigns, reward of
meritorious deeds, scale of rewards, troops to be fed while on
march, extra expenses of soldiers, division of booty, soldiers to be
157. sīsmayādhyāha varunah sīsāyāgnirupāvati /
sīsan ma indrah prāyachattadanga yātucātanan //
yadi no gan hansi yadyaśvam yadipurusam /
tan tvā sīsena vidhyāmo yathā noa’sa avīrahā // Ath.V. I. 16, 2 and 4 : quote in the NP, Gustav oppert,
Kumar brothers. 1970. pp-14-15.
71
armed at king’s expense, pensions and double wages.
In the seventh chapter, the strength of the nine different
divisions of an army are discussed, these are namely, patti,
senāmukha, gulma, gana, vāhinī, prtanā, camū, anīkinī and
aksauhinī.
The last and the eighth chapter deals with the Rājadharma
in general, and kings duty in particular. A kings duty in the
government and administration of his Kingdom are dealt with.
Many verses of these chapters are found in the Manusmrti, book
(VII). In the first verse of the eighth chapter, Rājadharma is called
‘Sanātana’ because it gives pleasure to his subjects.158
IV. Rājadharma in Smrti Literature :
Apart from the technical works on Nītiśāstra there are
certain works dealing with the subject of Rājadharma in Sanskrit
literature. For example, Smrti literature like Manusmrti,
Yājnavalkyasmrti, Nāradasmrti, Brhaspatismrti and
Parāśarasmrti etc. Few paurānic works also contain the subject
158. lokaranjanamevātra rājno dharmah sanātanah //
NP. 8.1.
72
in brief . A brief sketch is of these works are furnishes below:
The Manusmrti : ( 200 BC- 100 A.D.)
The Manusmrti is said to be composed by the sage
Sāyambhūva Manu and it contains twelve chapters. The another
name of this smrti is ‘Mānavadharmaśāstra’.The Manusmrti
enumerates the all castes and discusses the functions of different
yugas, i.e. (Yogadharma). This Smrti is said to be composed for
all men in the world. It deals with the different duties of different
castes (Four castes). In it ‘dharma’ is said to have four legs.
According to Medhātithi (commentator of MS.) dharma is divided
into four parts. The ‘dharma’ of Krta age is ‘Penance’; of Treta
age is ‘ Knowledge’ of Dvāpara age is Yajna ( sacrifice) and the
Kaliyugas dharma is gift (dāna) 159
. In the Manusmrti, dharmas
of four castes or the varnadharmas are discussed. According to
Varnadharma, teaching and learning, penance and sacrifice and
donation are the dharma of Brāhmanas; Protection of subjects,
gift, sacrifice, knowledge and self restrained are the dharma of
159. MS. Introduction IV ( P. Sri Jagannathsastritailanga.
Pub Bharatiya vidya prakasan, 2002)
73
Ksatriyas; Mārchandise, protection of animals, gift, knowledge
and sacrifice are of the Vaiśyas dharma and Śūdras dharma is
hospitality of three Varnas. Among the twelve chapters of the
Manusmrti, the seven chapter deals with the duties and
responsiblity of a king, i.e. rājadharma. In this chapter Manu says
that, protection of the subjects are the main duty of ksatriya and
ksatriya only can bear the responsibility of whole kingdom.
Because, the king is regarded as a deity in human form, who
possesses the powers of different gods like Indra, Varuna, Anila,
Yama, Surya, Agni, Chandra and Kuvera.160
For the well
protection of the subjects Lord Brahmā created sceptre (royal
danda). By this royal Danda a king should punish the wicked and
protect the righteous person. A king should always study the
Vedas, and other treatises, Śāstras etc. And also he should have
the knowledge of the science of Politics. Here discussions about
the four Vidyās (Trayī, Dandanīti, Ānvīksikī and Vārtā) are
found.161
160. indrānilayamārakānāmagneścha varunaśya cha / chandravitteśayoschaiva mātrā nirhrtya śāśvatīh // MS. VII.4
161. ibid. VII. 43
74
For consultation a king should appoint seven or eight ‘mantra-
saciva’,162
and also other ministers ‘Kāryasaciva’ for maintaining
the state-duties. A brave person should be appointed for
protecting the treasury.163
The seven elements of a state is also
found here. Messengers and spies are the essentials of a king. A
king should construct the suitable palace and fortress. Waging
war also the main duty of a king. A king should always try for
acquisition, protection, growth and donation. Foreign policy, Inter
state relation, six gunas, twelve rājamandalas, four upāyas
(sāma, dāna, bheda and danda) etc, all are described in seventh
chapter.
In fact Manus rājadharma is similar with that of the
Mahābhārata.
The Yājnavalkya smrti : (100A.D.- 300 A.D.)
The Yājnavalkya Smrti, is composed by the sage
Yājnavalkya. It consists of three chapters and these chapters are
divided into various Prakaranas. The name of the first chapter is
‘Ācārādhyāyah’ and last prakarana of the first chapter is known
162. ibid. VII. 54-59
163. MS. VII 60-62
75
as ‘rājadharma’.
In the first verse of the first chapter of ‘ Ācārādhyāyah’,
Yājnavalkya said, that the ‘dharma’ is consisted of ‘ Varnāśrama,
these are viz.,Varna dharma, Āśrama dharma, Varnāśrama
dharma, Guna dharmah, Nimitta dharmah and Sādhārana
dharma.The rājadharma is included in gunadharma.
In the ‘rājadharma prakarana’, rājadharma is described as
special duty of a coronated king. In this chapter, the various
qualities, characteristics, duties, knowledges of a king are clearly
depicted. In one place of this chapter it is said that, the king
should try for acquisition what is not acquired, try to protect what
is acquired and try to increase what is protected and lastly should
make donation to vrddhāh.164
Six kinds of dūrgas are to be
constructed by kings for the protection of the state and
preservation of wealth.165
The six gunas for inter state relations,
four upāyas, seven elements of the state, three kinds of envoys,
different kinds of danda- all are depicted in this prakarana.
164. Yāj.S. I. 13. 317
165. ibid. I 13. 321
76
The Nāradasmrti : ( 100 A.D. - 400 A.D.)
The Nāradasmrti also contains discussion on Rājadharma.
According to Manu,166
Nārada is one of the ten primeval
Prajāpatis. In various places of the Mahābhārata,Nārada’s views
are found. In the Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata, sage Nārada
comforted Yudhisthira, when he was doomed in sorrow for
loosing his relatives and warriors in the war of Kuruksetra.
The Nāradasmrti contains three introductory chapters on
the principles of judicial procedure (Vyavahāra- mātrkā), and on
judicial assembly ( Sabhā) and law. Here, Nārada had given two
versions on Vyavahāra, one is smaller and another is larger.
This Smrti has followed the views of Manu and the
arrangement of eighteen titles. There are about 50 verses that are
common to Manu and Nārada. Some verses of the Nārada occurs
in the Mahābhārata. The rules of judicial procedure in Nārada are
more systematic and exhaustive than those of Yājnavalkya.
Nārada expressed certain principles of law and politics,
such as that a man is master of his own house, on the other hand,
a man’s house is his castle .167
166. MS. I. 35
167. NS. rnādāna. 32
77
He stronglry eulogises the office of the king, almost assigning it
to a divine origin and exhorts the people to obey and honour even
a weak and undeserving king.168
Though this Smrti contains few points on rājadharma such
as dealing with the duties of the king’s and subjects; yet its view
are something different from the Mahābhārata and other works.
Here, it is found that the king should hand over his kingdom to
the eldest son after providing maintainance to other sons if he has
many.
The Brhaspati Smrti :
The period of the Brhaspati Smrti is held to be 300A.D. -
500 A.D. Brhaspati was a Sutra writer on politics and probably
the first jurist. The Smrti of Brhaspati on law has not yet been
discovered. Hence, various author had given different views on
this Smrti. Dr. Fuhrer collected together 84 verses and Dr. Jally
collected about 711 verses of Brhaspati on law ( Translated in the
sacred Books of the East, vol-33). In the Mahābhārata, it is stated
168. rājeti sancaratyesa bhūmau sāksāt sahasradrk /
na tasyājnāmatikramya santistheran prajāh kvacit //
…nirbalapi yathā strīnān pujya eva patih sadā / prajānān vigunopyevan pūjya eva prajāpatih // NS. 20-22
and quoted in Kane, P. V. History in Dharmaśāstra. Vol-I. p.-474.
78
that, Brhaspati is said to have compressed into 3000 (three
thoudsand) chapters of Brahmās Nītiśāstra on dharma, artha and
kāma.169
This treatise is called Brhaspati-nīti in Vanaparva ( Mbh.
II. 32.61). The Mahābhārata sometimes cites verses ( gāthās or
slokas ) said to have been sung by Brhaspati ( vide Śānti .
23.15,56. 38-39, 57, 6-7, 58. 13-16, 69. 23-24). In the Śāntiparva,
Brhaspaties views are mentioned that, how a king could secure his
goal in four ways.170
According to the Arthaśāstra, there were two vidyās for
kings of Brhaspaties school, and these are viz., vārtā and
dandanīti. Here, it is found that the council of ministers should
comprise 16(sixteen) members. The Kāmanadaka and
Pancatantra describe the views of Brhaspati that, ‘aviśvāsa’ was
the sheet anchor of royal policy ( II.41).
According to Yājnavalkya, Brhaspati is the writer of
dharma, and politics, Brhaspati also closely follows the extant
. .
169. Mbh. XII 59.80-85
170. caturvidhā arthasiddhirbrhaspatimeva yathā /
pāramparyam tathā daivam kāmyam maitramiti prabho //
Mbh. XII. 170.12
79
Manusmrti. As a jurist Brhaspati makes a clear distinction
between civil and criminal justice. Sometimes, we have seen
Nārada and Brhaspati agree very closely in several respects.
The Parāśara Smrti:
The Parāśara Smrti is one of the ancient Smrti composed
by the sage Parāśara. In the Rgveda, 171
Parāśara is mentioned as a
grandson of Vaśistha.
The Smrti of Parāśara is divided into twelve chapters and
deals with ācāra and prāyaścitta. Here, it is found that Ksatriyas
(king) duty is the protection of subjects. And a king should
conquer his enemies and rule his kingdom righteously172
. The
sage Parāśara includes ‘vyavahāra’ as a part of ācāra.
In the introductory verses of this Smrti, Parāśara imparts to
the sages knowledge of dharma; the dharmas of the four yugas;
differentiation of the four yugas from various points of view. In
Vyavahāra portion Parāśara states about politics and state
administration. Kautilya also mentions the view of Parāśara six
171. Rg .VII. 18.21
172. ksatriyo hi prajā raksan śastrapāni pracandavat /
vijitya parasainyani ksitin dharmena pālayet //
PS. Ch. I .p.6 Bobeu skt series.
80
times, hence it appears that there was a work of Parāśara on
Politics.173
V. Rājadharma in the epic literature (Epics and
Purānas) :
We Indians have two great epics, one is the Rāmāyana and
another is the Mahābhārata. The Rāmāyana is called ‘ Ādikāvya’
‘or first artificial poem’ written by Ādikavi Vālmiki. It consists of
24,000 verses divided into seven kāndas viz (i) Vālakānda
(ii)Ayodhyākānda (iii)Aranyakānda (iv) KiskindhāKānda
(v)SundaraKānda (vi) LankāKānda and (vii) UttarāKānda. This
epic is the spirit of all śāstras, nyāyas, mimānsās, dharmaśāstra,
nītiśāstra, ganitaśāstra, monovijnāna, rājanīti etc. It deals with
the conflict between Rāma (a representative of the Aryan
civilization) and Rāvana, (a representative of Lankā the non-
Aryan civilization).
During the epic period the government system was
monarchy as well as republic. Under the monarchial system all
the powers of government goes to the king but he was not
173. Quoted from Kane. P. V., ‘ History of Dharmaśāstra’ Vol-I. p.46
81
autocrat. The king rules according to the principles of justice and
morality. For any important decision a king takes advices from his
wise and learned ministers. In the Rāmāyana, the king Daśaratha
discussed with his subjects for making Rāma as the Yuvarāja.
Even the Rāvana174
has full of knowledge on nīti, he also takes
advice from ministers and learned ones for making a good task. In
the age of the Rāmāyana, people wanted a righteous king but not
a wicked one. If a king troubled his subjects then they could kill
him as a mad dog. Therefore, a king should always try to protect
his subjects righteously.
Among the seven kāndas of the Rāmāyana, the
Ayodhyākānda, deals with the duties of a king i.e., rājadharma.
Here, Rāma has given such advices on rājanīti or rājadharma to
Bharata, when (Rāma) he was in exile and Bharata went to meet
him.
In this kānda it is mentioned that, as a ruler a king should
respect the elders, and appoint such persons as mantrī who is
good, intelligent, restraint , born in a good family etc. The kings
174. Rāmā. 6.6.
82
duty is not only to protect his subjects but also should protect all
creatures in the world. cf.,
raksā hi rājnā dharmena sarve visayavāsinah
Rāmā. 2.100.48
Mantranā is the root of victory so, a king should make
counsel with best ministers and amātyas who are master in nīti.175
A king should never publish his mantranā. One learned is better
than thousand fool so, a king should appoint a learned as amātya.
A king should divide his works into three classes, viz., uttama,
madhyama and adhama, and accordingly he selects his assistant
as uttama, madhyama and adhama. A king should earn many but
spend little and he never donates to bad place. In the Lankā Kānda
of the Rāmāyana, we find three kinds of mantranā viz., (uttama,
madhyama and adhama) like three kinds of persons .176
The Ayodhyākānda177
states that, a king should give up
some bad qualities; these are namely, fourteen vyasanas of
rājanīti, daśavarga (Kāmajadosa), astavarga etc. Again he should
175. Rāmā. 2.100.16
176. yatheme purusā nityamuttamādhama- madhymāh /
evan mantroa’pi vijneya uttamādhama-madhyamāh //
Rāmā. 6.6.11.
177. ibid. 2.100.65-67
83
make pancavarga (Pancadurga), saptavarga (seven-elements),
knowledge of trivarga and trividyā (veda, vārtā, dandanīti)
caturvarga ( sāma, dāna, bheda and danda) and twelve kinds of
rājamandala.
Here, we find that a king should always maintain his
armies. Punishment is necessary part for protecting of the realm.
Various kinds of taxes were collected from his subjects. For
collection of taxes a king should never troubled his subjects and
he never takes revenue from the Brāhmanas.
In the Aranya Kānda, conversation between Sītā and Rāma
about dharma was held. Again this Kānda, deals with various
kinds of mantranā, mantranā of Śrī Rāmas, various kinds of
war, viz., dandayuddha, rātriyuddha, māyāyuddha , etc. And also
uses of different types of weapons. In the Uttarā Kānda,
discussion on Rājadanda is found.
The another great epic of India is the Mahābhārata . About
the Rājadharma in the Mahābhārata we have already discussed
above. Out of the eighteen parvans of the Mahābhārata,
Śāntiparva, clearly depicted rājadharama and some other parvans
also deal with the duties of king or rājadharma. In the Vanaparva,
84
different duties of four castes are described. Here we find that, the
duties of the ksatriyas are the protection of subjects,
cf.,
‘ pālanan ksatriyānān vai’ Mbh. III. 150 .35
Purānas : (300 A.D. - 600A.D.)
Some of the extant Purānas, are held to be much earlier
than the 6th century A.D. Etymolgically, Purāna means, “ that
which lives from ancient times,”178
and “containing record of past
events’’179.
Originally Purāna signified ‘ancient tale’ or ‘old
narratives’ in the Brāhmana literature.
The Purānas do not speak with one voice on their own
origin and transmission. In the Matsya Purāna,180
it is said that
Vyāsa composed the all Purānas and this same Vyāsa composed
the Mahābhārata also.
In the fifth cetury A.D. Amarasimha described Purānas as
Pancalaksana i.e. having five characteristics, which are viz, Sarga
178. yasmātpurā hyanatīddan purānam tena hi smrtam /
niroktamasya yo veda sarvapāpaih promucyate //
Vā.P. I. 209
179. purātanasya kalpasya purānāni vidurbudhāh.. MP. 53.63
180. MP. 53. 70
85
(creation), Pratisarga (dissolution and recreation), Vamśa (divine
genealogies), Manvantra (ages of Manus) and Vamśānucarita
(genealogies of kings).
According to traditional view, Purānas are divided into
eighteen Mahāpurānas and eighteen Upapurānas. The list of the
Mahāpurānas are viz, Brahma, Padma, Visnu, Vāyu, Bhāgavata,
Nāradīya, Mārkandeya, Agni, Bhavisya, Brahmavaivarta, Varāha,
Linga, Skanda, Vāmana, Kurma, Matsya, Garuda and
Brahmānda.181
It is already discussed that, some Dharmaśāstras dealt with
the duties of king regarding the internal administration as well as
foreign affairs. Some Purānas such as the Matsya, the Visnu, the
Vāyu and the Bhavisya contain Dharmaśāstra materials and the
Garuda Purāna and the Agni Purāna contain several hundred
verses which usually summarise the views of the Yājnavalkya
Smrti or Smrtis view.
In numerous passages of the Mahābhārata mentions of the
Purāna in the singular form is found such as in Ādi. 5, 2, 31.3-4,
181. madvayam bhadvayam caiva bratrayan vacatustayam /
nālingānipurānāni ku skan gārudameva ca //
De.Bh. I. 3
86
51.6, 65.52; Udyoga.178.47-48; Karna.34.44; Śānti, 208,5;
Anuśāsana. 22.12, 102.21etc., and sometimes the Purānas in the
Plural number ( as in the Ādi.109.20; Virāta 51.10; Strīparva.
13.2; Śānti.339. 106, Svargārohana. 5.46-47 ( which refers to the
Purānas as eighteen).182
So far as rājadharma is concerned, few
Purānas alone deal with the subject.
The VisnuPurāna divided into sixparts and begins with a
dialogue between Parāśara and his pupil Maitreya. The
VisnuPurāna183
states that, the principal duty of the Ksatriya’s is
the protection of all subjects by his arms. The king should
perform some sacrifices for the well being of his subjects. The
king should punish the guilty and reward the good, otherwise he
goes to hell. Again it is stated that, a state without a king is
anarchy.
In the Vāyu Purāna, duty of four castes are well discussed.
Here it is mentioned that, protection of others was the chief duty
182. mahatvādbhāravatvācca mahābhāratamucyate / … astādaśa purānāni dharmaśāstrāni sarvaśah / vedāh sāngāstathaikatra bhāratan caikatah sthitam //
Sargārohana. 5.45-46
183. Visnu. P. III 8.21-40
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of ksatriyas.184
Lord Brahmā expressed that, a king should do
these duties also, viz., bala (soldiery) danda (government) and
war.
About the kingship, the Vāyu Purāna states that, in the
Tretā age, the state was established by dharma. The four varnas
worked in perfect social harmoney. But in later time delusion is
come to the mind of the people and dharma is automatically
destroyed. Then people again approached the prajāpati
Svāyambhuva Manu. Then two sons were born from Śatarūpā,
viz., Priyavrata and Uttānapāda. They were designated as the first
kings. From this time onwards the kings were the beares of the
royal danda ( sceptre) and as they pleased their subjects, they are
known as rājānah.185
According to the Purānic lore, the Cakravarty Kings are
born on this earth possessing portion of Visnu’s personality186
.
The king Māndhātā was also said to have bore the corpus of
. .
184. Vā.P. 8. 162 185. tatah prabhrti rājāna utpannā dandadhārinah /
prajānām ranjanāt caiva rājānastu abhavan nrpāh //
Vā.P. 57.51
186. visnor amśena jāyante prthivyām cakravartinah /
manvantaresu sarvesu atītān āgatesu vai // Vā.P. 57.72
88
Visnu. It is also stated that the sage Uttanka complemented
Brhadāśva that he possessed the lusture of Visnu. And when
Kuvalāśva, son of Brhadāśva, proceded to destory Dhundu Lord
Visnu entered his body with all his lustre at the request of
Uttanka.187
In the Visnupurāna and the Bhāgavata purāna, it is stated
that, the physical sign or Prthus body proved him to be a portion
of Visnu.188
A king is not only the protector of his subjects but
also he is the protector of cattle and agriculture. Side by side
kings duty is to observe the rules of dharma.
In the origin of kingship, it is found that, the king is
connected with danda and danda is the most important part of a
king. The King Dama is called “wielder of danda”. cf.,
‘rājā dandadharo damah’ Vā.P. 86.12
Dandanīti was established for the peace and order. It is
established along with Vārtā.
187. tam āviśat tato visnur bhagavān svena tejasā uttankasya niyogāt tu.
Vā.P. 88.49.
188. vide. p. 334, A History of Indian Political Ideas.
89
According to the Vāyupurāna, there is no reference to
election of a king. Hereditary succession was the general rule and
after death of the king his office also devolved on his eldest heir.
That means the rule goes to primogeniture. A king should
performe the Aśvamedha and the Vājapeya sacrifices.
The Bhāgavata Purāna, also deals with some political
passages and it states that, a sinful king should not be disregarded
by the people, or every king embodies the vigour of lokapālas and
protectors of the earth .189
This Purāna also delights in the
delineation of Prthus character. According to this Purāna, the
scepter of dominion and danda of justice can be taken only by
those, who are well versed in the Vedas and Śāstras 190
.
The next comes the Mārkandeya Purāna. According to the
Mārkandeya Purāna, as a ruler kings primary duty is to rule
righteously his kingdom and protects and conciliate his subjects.
For protecting of the kingdom a king should abandon the
189. nāvadhyeyah prajāpālah prajābhiraghavānapi //
yadasau lokapālānān bibhartyojah svatejasā //
Bhā. P. 4.13.23.
190. saināpatyan ca rājyan ca dandanetrtvameva ca //
sarvalokādhipatyan ca vedaśāstravidarhati //
ibid. 4.22.45
90
seven vices viz, harsh word, heavy punishment, misuse of the
wealth , intoxicant, desire, misuse of time and gambling . A king
should never disclose his secret counsel and examine his ministers
or friends whether they are reliable or not. So, he never confide in
friends, ministers or relatives. But sometimes he should trust even
in an unfriendly person. A king should have the knowledge of
battle and peace. He should first subdue himself, and then his
ministers, relatives, assistance and afterwards his publics and after
he goes to fight against his enemies.
The sādgunyas (six qualities) are necessary to be followed
by the king. These are namely, Sandhi (alliance),Vigraha
(war), Yāna (marching), Āsana (encamping), Dvaidhībhāva
(dividing his forces) and Samśraya. A king should give up desire,
anger, greed, intoxication, pride and joy, otherwise he will be
destroyed. In this Purāna, kings are instructed to learn from the
behaviour of the crow, cuckoo and bee of the deer, serpent and
peacock, of the goose and cock etc. 191
He should collect his
191. Mā.P. 24.15-20
91
essentials in appropriate time and never ignore his enemies. This
Purāna also states that, in governing a state a king should assume
the five forms of five deities like, Indra, the wind, the sun, the
Moon and Yama. Just as Indra nourishes the people on the earth
with showers of water for four months, so should a king nourish
them with largess. Just as the Sun draws up the water with his
rays for eight months, so should a king collect the tolls and other
dues by trulely subtle means. Jast as Yama restrains friend and
foe when the time arrives, so a king should be impartial towards
friend and foe, towards the vicious and virtuous. Jast as by gazing
on the full Moon, a man grows affectionate, so, where the people
are all peaceful, that is the practice he should adopt from the
Moon. Just as the Wind moves mysteriously among all creatures,
so should a king move among the citizens, ministers and others,
and among his relatives by the agency of spies.192
Afterall, protection of all creatures is the highest duty
(Rājadharma) of a king.
Next comes the Agni purāna, which also deals with
192. Mā.P. 27.21-26
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Rājadharma. In the Agni purāna, we find a good discussion about
Rājadharma. This Purāna is consisted of sixteen thousand stanzas
distributed in three hundred and eighty-three chapters. In few
chapters of this Purāna, deal with Rājadharma.
According to this Purāna, the king assumes fuctions of nine
deities,viz, Bhāskara (the Sun), Moon, Samira (Wind), Manu
Vaivaśvata, Pāvaka, Kuvera (god of wealth), Varuna (god of
rain), Prthivī (earth) and Hari. A crowned king along with his
ministers should attemt to conquer his enemies. He should select
some persons of different categories for different functions, these
are namely, commander-in-chief, porters (at the doors of the royal
chambers), ambassador, foreign minister, soldiers, priest, royal
writer (who is experts on the sciences of orthography), royal
treasurer, royal physician, master of fortress, experts of all arms
and weapons and so on and so forth.
In the chapter 220 (two hundred and twenty) it is stated
that, a king should elect the Brāhmana or the Ksatriya caste for
the post of the commander-in-chief of the kingdom. Porters
should be well acquainted with the precepts of morals. For
represent the king at foreign courts a king should appoint the
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ambassador, who has very sharp intellect, sweet-mouthed,
possessing eloquence of speech and well-versed in the arts of
diplomacy. The bearer of the royal betal-vessel may be either a
man or a women fondly attached to the king and he or she also
sweet-mouthed and capable of enduring fatigue. The minister of
war and peace i.e., foreign minister, who understands well the
expedients should be appointed in foreign politics. Foreign
minister should have the knowledge of Sandhi (alliance), Vigraha
(war), Yāna (March or expedition), Āsana (Halt), Samśraya
(secking shelter) and Daidhībhāva (duplicity). Soldiers should be
appointed with armed and sword to guard the king’s person. This
chapter deals with the royal treasurer, royal physician, castles and
fortress also.
The king who aspires to hold a paramount sway over the
whole world, should enter into alliance with kings and nations
who are friendly to him. A king should appoint the virtuous men
for the works of state- revenue. Here it is mentioned that, spies
are the eyes of the king, hence men should be employed in
espionage and secret service. But the king should not trust the
statement of a single spy, so he should collect information from
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different sources. Activeness is the main quality of a king, and the
epithet (Rāja) is derived from the fact of his pleasing the people (
ranja to please).
The chapter 222 (two hundred and twenty two) deals with
the sites and constructions of forts, wherein a king should have
his residence. There are six kinds of forts in the Agni Purāna,viz ,
Dhanu Durga, Mahi Durga, Nara Durga, Aksha Durga, Ambu
Durga, and the Giri Durga. The next chapter deals with the
appointment of headship as of a single, ten or hundred villages
and so on, each of them to be known as the Grāmādhipati;
Dāsha- (ten), Grāma ( village ) Adhipati ( lord). And here also
discussed about taxes. The 225 ( two hundred and twenty five)
chapter of this Purāna deals with the protection of the royal
princes and training in the science of war and the arts of general
utility as well as in the moral sciences. In the 235 (two hundred
and thirty five) chapter description of duties which a king should
attend every day in the year. The 239 (two hundred and thirty
nine) chapter deals with the seven elements of a state. And these
seven elements are viz., the king, the ministry, the government,
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the fortification, the revenue, the forces and the allies are all
auxiliaries to one another.
In the chapter (236) enumeration of the qualification of
ministers, priest etc., are found.
The chapter 240 deals with the twelve rājamandala, and
here it is mentioned that, a king should always contemplate the
balance of power of the twelve monarchs, constituting the circle
of foreign sovereigns having had dealings with his own
government. And also here describes the principles of making
treatise and wars. In the next chapter (241) it is stated that,
Diplomacy should be held as better than the expedient of war and
energetic action. Military administrations are held in the chapter
242. The six divisions of an army are described in this chapter.
These are viz., Moula (the main body or the centre), Bhuta (the
front), shrouni (the rear), the Sruhid (the auxiliary), the Vishad
and the Ātavika (Pioneer).
A king should worship, protects and make gift to the
Brāhmanas, which is essential of their life and never deprive
them. In the Agni Purāna, the elements of state structure, all
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qualities, duties of a king and other officiels, administrative
organization (ministers, civil-judicial and local administration),
revenue system, army and foreign relations are discussed.The
king should punished the unrighteous and honoured the wise.
Again here we find that, a king should protect the royal princes
and instruct them about the science of war and the arts of general
utility and the moral sciences. For dealings with a foreign ruler,
the six expedients (sandhi, vigraha, yāna, āsana, samśraya and
dvaidhībhāva) are necessary to be known for a king. Constituting
the circle of foreign sovereigns a king should deal with this own
governments.
From the above discussions it is found that, rājadharma of
the Purānas are common with that of the Mahābhārata.
The Matsya Purāna also gives the similar view like the
Mahābhārata. It is regarded as one of the three oldest Purānas,
the other two being the Brahmānda and the Vāyu. This Purāna
gives a lively description of various kingdoms of ancient India.
In the chapter of 215 (two hundred and fiftenth) of the
Matsya Purāna, the king, vaivasvata Manu requsted Matsya
(incarnation of Lord Visnu) , to instruct him about, what a king
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should do after ascends his throne. Then, Matsya told that, a king
should first select worthy persons for his assembly and advisors
and helpers. Without these persons a king can not establish his
kingdom e.g., when a simple task cannot succesfully completed
by one person, then how can a state be well administered without
assistance or ministers or helpers.193
A king should select some
persons for different duties. And he should consult his councillors
over a matter sometimes with one ministers and sometimes with
many. The King never disclose about mantranā.
A ruler is the source of well-being of his subjects; under the
kingly protection alone the whole kingdom flourishes; therefore
everyone should be guarded by all means.194
He should be
sometime mild and sometime hard. A king should devoted
himself for his subjects like eight deities as Indra, Surya, Vāya,
Yama, Varuna, Moon, Agni and Prthvī.195
The 215th chapter of this Purāna deals with the duties of a
193. MP. 215-2-3
194. ibid. 219.33
195. ibid. 226.9.
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king; the next chapter deals with kings servants, and next one
deals how to protect a fort and a city by a king.
The Varāha Purāna, mentions about the monarchs who
tried of worldy prosperity, installed their sons on the throne and
go to the forest for geting salvation. This Purāna stresses on the
honouring brāhmanas by all people.
About the rājadharma, the Garuda Purāna, also states
similar views like the Mahābhārata. According to Sūta, a king
should examine the all things (good and bad). As a trusty and
righteous ruler he should protects his kingdom and always try to
conquere his enemies and righteously protects his subjects.196
As a gardener does not pluck up all flowers at a time nor
uprooted them, likewise a king should never give troubles and
destroy his subjects, when he rules them.197
For conquering the
enemies a king should apply all his effort, and then he earns many
wealth , land, fame, strength and age ( āyu) .198
Self restraint is the
important quality of a king. He never hurt others. Again it is
196. GP. 1.67.2
197. ibid . 1.67.3
198. ibid. 1.67.6
99
mentioned here that, when the Brāhmana use the word ‘om’ then
the state will acquire many wealth.199
A king should have the
knowledge of scriptures, otherwise he is compared with blind. cf.,
‘andho hi rājā bhavati yas tu śāstravivarjitah’
GP. 1.67.19
If his own son, servents, ministers and priest all accompany
with the king then it will be easy to conqure the earth.The king
should preserve many weapons in his own fort and for ruin the
enemy he should make sandhi for six month or one year.When he
is full of power then he should proceed alone to fight with his
opponants. For starting any task a king should take advice of the
wise and learned. The king should appoint those persons, who are
perfect in Purusārthas.
199. ‘omkāraśabdo viprāno yena rāstran pravarddate’, ibid. 1.67.15
