Final Exam Schedule

Thursday

06/14

2:00pm

Exam Structure

• 40 multiple choice questions• Choose 3 out of 4 (short) essay questions• Emphasis will be on the following chapters

– 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 14, & 16 (assigned pages)

– Some multiple choice questions and all essay questions will be based on the Blackgold Cases, Bob Knowlton, L.E.S., and The Politics of Performance Appraisal

• bring clean copies of these cases to exam

Opportunities to Review using Cases

• What can we learn about the situation described in each of the cases using concepts in the chapters listed?

• Blackgold (Frankie, Prakesh, Monique and Eddie)

• Bob Knowlton

• LES

• Performance Evaluation

Chapters to review

• 4 – social perception/diversity• 6 & 7 – motivation• 8 – feedback, rewards, reinforcement• 9 – making decisions• 10 – groups and teams• 12 – communication• 16 (assigned pages) – managing change• 14 – leadership• 13 – influence, power, and politics• 11 – managing conflict

Tips

• Questions will generally be in the form of an application of a concept– When faced with this situation . . .?– This situation is called . . . ?

• NOTE: The following slides are intended as a guide on topics to cover for your review.

Social Perception: A Social Social Perception: A Social Information Processing ModelInformation Processing Model

Competingenvironmental

stimuli:* People* Events* Objects

Interpretationand

categorization

Stage 1Stage 1Selective Attention/

Comprehension

Stage 2Stage 2Encoding

and Simplification

A

C

F

A

B

C

D

E

F

StereotypesStereotypes

A A stereotypestereotype is anis anindividual’s set of beliefsindividual’s set of beliefs

about the characteristics of a group of about the characteristics of a group of people.people.

4-4

4-5

Table 4-1

• Halo: A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object.

• Leniency: A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion.

• Central Tendency: The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.

• Recency Effects: The tendency to remember recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.

• Contrast Effects: The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects.

Common Perceptual ErrorsCommon Perceptual Errors

ConsensusConsensus- Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers.- LOW CONSENSUS indicates an individual is different from peers.

Basic PremiseBasic Premise:: An attribution is based on the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.

4-7a

DistinctivenessDistinctiveness - Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from other tasks. - Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation where the current behavior or result is significantly different from typical behavior or results on other tasks.

Kelley’s Model of AttributionKelley’s Model of Attribution

ConsistencyConsistency- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on a given task over time.- High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time.

4-7b

PredictionsPredictions - Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency. - External or environmental attributions are made when a behavior is related with high consensus and distinctiveness, and low consistency.

Kelley’s Model of AttributionKelley’s Model of Attribution(continued)(continued)

Need TheoriesNeed Theories

Needs Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior.

Maslow’s Need TheoryMaslow’s Need Theory

•Motivation is a function of five basic needs- physiological safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization.

McClelland’s Need TheoryMcClelland’s Need Theory

•The needs for achievement, affiliation, and power affect behavior.

Approaches to Job DesignApproaches to Job Design

2. Motivational Approaches2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to improve employees’ affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes.3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches Biological techniques focus on reducing employees’ physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The Perceptual-Motor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and workers’ feedback about facilities and equipment.

1. The Mechanistic Approach1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the most efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly.

Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene ModelModel

No Satisfaction SatisfactionJobs that do not Jobs offeringoffer achievement, achievement,recognition, recognition,stimulating work, stimulating work,responsibility, responsibility,and advancement. and advancement.

MotivatorsMotivators

Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model (cont.)Model (cont.)

Dissatisfaction No DissatisfactionJobs with poor Jobs with goodcompany policies, company policies,and administration, and administration,technical supervision technical supervision,salary, interpersonal salary, interpersonalrelationships with relationships withsupervisors, and supervisors, andworking conditions. working conditions.

Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors

• Need Fulfillment:Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the extent to which a job satisfies a person’s needs.

• Discrepancies:Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the extent to which an individual receives what he or she expects from a job.

• Value Attainment:Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one’s work values.

• Equity:Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how “fairly” an individual is treated at work.

• Trait/Genetic Components:Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a function of personal traits and genetic factors.

Causes of Job SatisfactionCauses of Job Satisfaction

7-2b

Figure 7-1b

$2

1 hour

= $2 per hour$3

1 hour

= $3 per hour

B. Negative InequityB. Negative Inequity

SelfSelf OtherOther

Negative and Positive Inequity Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)(cont)

7-2c

Figure 7-1c

$2

1 hours

= $1 per hour

C. Positive InequityC. Positive Inequity

$3

1 hour

= $3 per hour

SelfSelf OtherOther

Negative and Positive Inequity Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)(cont)

Upward FeedbackUpward Feedback:: Subordinates evaluate

their manager’s style and performance. 360-Degree Feedback360-Degree Feedback:: Specific (typically

anonymous) feedback generated by one’s manager, peers, subordinates, and other key people.

For group discussion:For group discussion: Are you in favor of this trend toward nontraditional feedback? Explain. What are its limits?

8-5

Nontraditional FeedbackNontraditional Feedback

•Based on the notion of bounded rationality, Based on the notion of bounded rationality, i.e. decision makers face a variety of i.e. decision makers face a variety of constraintsconstraints•Decision making is characterized byDecision making is characterized by * limited information processing * use of judgmental heuristics (rules, shortcuts) * satisficing

Simon’s Normative Model of Simon’s Normative Model of Decision MakingDecision Making

Analytical Conceptual

Directive Behavioral

Tasks and TechnicalTasks and TechnicalConcernsConcerns

People and SocialPeople and SocialConcernsConcerns

Value OrientationValue Orientation

LowLow

HighHigh

Tole

ran

ce f

or

Am

big

uit

yTole

ran

ce f

or

Am

big

uit

yDecision Making StylesDecision Making Styles

10-3a

Figure 10-1

PerformingAdjourning

Norming

Storming

Forming

Return toIndependence

Dependence/interdependence

Independence

Tuckman’s Five-Stage TheoryTuckman’s Five-Stage Theoryof Group Developmentof Group Development

More Formal Group Problem Solving Techniques

• Brainstorming - disciplined process– Silent idea (optional)– Ideas/opinions solicited and written on a board,

disallowing criticisms, allowing piggy-backing on ideas, clarification

• Delphi technique is another, more formal form of brainstorming. Involves several rounds of questionnaire, feedback, etc. Useful in cases where participants are not in the same place.

16-3

•UnfreezingUnfreezing- Creates the motivation to change- Encourages the replacement of old behaviors and attitudes with those desired by management- Entails devising ways to reduce barriers to change- Creates psychological safety

• • ChangingChanging- Provides new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of looking at things- Helps employees learn new concepts or points of view- Role models, mentors, experts, benchmarking results, and training are useful mechanisms to facilitate change

•RefreezingRefreezing- Helps employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things- Positive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired change- Coaching and modeling help reinforce the stability of change

Lewin’s Change ModelLewin’s Change Model

The leading reasons why people resist change are:The leading reasons why people resist change are:• An individual’s predisposition toward change• Surprise and fear of the unknown• Climate of mistrust• Fear of failure• Loss of status and/or job security

16-7a

Resistance to ChangeResistance to Change:: an emotional/behavioral response to real or imagined work change.

Resistance To ChangeResistance To Change

13-2a

Rational persuasionRational persuasion. Trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts.

Inspirational appealsInspirational appeals.. Trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others’ emotions, ideals, or values.

ConsultationConsultation.. Getting others to participate in planning, making decisions, and changes.

IngratiationIngratiation. Getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request; being friendly, helpful, and using praise or flattery.

Personal appealsPersonal appeals. Referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request.

Nine Generic Influence TacticsNine Generic Influence Tactics

13-2b

ExchangeExchange.. Making express or implied promises and trading favors.

Coalition tacticsCoalition tactics. Getting others to support your effort to persuade someone.

PressurePressure. Demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats.

Legitimating tactics.Legitimating tactics. Basing a request on one’s authority or right, organizational rules or polices, or express or implied support from superiors.

Nine Generic Influence TacticsNine Generic Influence Tactics

• Incompatible personalities or value systems.• Overlapping or unclear job boundaries.• Competition for limited resources.• Interdepartment/intergroup competition.• Inadequate communication.• Interdependent tasks.• Organizational complexity.

11-3a

Antecedents of ConflictAntecedents of Conflict

• Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rules.

• Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure.• Collective decision making.• Decision making by consensus.• Unmet expectations.• Unresolved or suppressed conflict.

11-3b

Antecedents of Conflict Antecedents of Conflict (continued)(continued)

1. Follow company policies for diversity, anti-discrimination, and sexual harassment.

2. Investigate and document conflict. 3. If appropriate, take corrective action (e.g., feedback

or behavior modification).4. If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution.5. Refer difficult conflicts to human resource specialists

or hired counselors for formal resolution attempts and other interventions.

Tips for Managers Whose Tips for Managers Whose Employees Are Having a Employees Are Having a

Personality ConflictPersonality Conflict

11-6

Figure 11-1

• Conflict within the group is high• There are negative interactions between groups (or between members of those groups)• Influential third-party gossip about other group is negative

• Work to eliminate specific negative interactions between groups (and members).• Conduct team building to reduce intragroup conflict and prepare employees for cross-functional teamwork.• Encourage personal friendships and good working relationships across groups and departments.• Foster positive attitudes toward members of other groups (empathy, compassion, sympathy).• Avoid or neutralize negative gossip across groups or departments.

Recommended actions:Recommended actions:Level of perceivedLevel of perceived

Inter-group conflict tendsInter-group conflict tendsto increase when:to increase when:

Minimizing Inter-group Conflict: An Minimizing Inter-group Conflict: An Updated Contact ModelUpdated Contact Model

11-8

Figure 11-2

Integrating Obliging

Dominating Avoiding

Compromising

High Low

High

Low

Con

cern

for

Oth

ers

Concern for SelfSource: MA Rahim, “A Strategy for Managing Conflict in Complex Organizations, Human Relations, January 1985, p 84. Used with author’s permission.

Five Conflict-Handling StylesFive Conflict-Handling Styles

These type of topics may lend themselves more to “definition

type” questions

8-3

Feedback:Feedback: “Objective information about

individual or collective performance.”

Functions of Feedback:Functions of Feedback: - Instructional - Motivational

Sources of FeedbackSources of Feedback

-Task

-Self

- Others

Ch 8: FeedbackCh 8: Feedback

14-2b

• Gender and leadershipGender and leadership

- men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively

- women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women

- men and women were equally assertive

- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria

Trait Theory (continued)Trait Theory (continued)

• Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior.1. 1. ConsiderationConsideration:: creating mutual respect and trust with followers2. 2. Initiating StructureInitiating Structure:: organizing and defining what group members should be doing

• University of Michigan StudiesUniversity of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies- one style was employee centered and the other was job centered

• Blake and Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and concern for people

14-3

• Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.

Behavioral Styles TheoryBehavioral Styles Theory

AgreementAgreement: Strive for equitable and fair agreements that last.

Stronger relationships:Stronger relationships: Build bridges of goodwill and trust for the future.

Learning:Learning: Greater self-awareness and creative problem solving.

11-4

Desired Outcomes of ConflictDesired Outcomes of Conflict