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Research Ethics

CHAPTER ONE

AN INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS AND RESEARCH ETHICS

In this chapter, the author will give an overall scope on Research Ethics.

This chapter consist of introduction to ethics and research ethics and objectives

o the !roject, h"!othesis and si#niicance o stud". To start with, the author

leans towards the definition of ethics and research ethics as the most frequently

terms to discuss in this dissertation.

$%$ &rie Introduction to Ethics

This study will illustrate on Research Ethics by focusing on the use of the

animal in experimentation. Discussing about ethics or morals, people would thin

about the rules of distinguishing between right and wrong. !ccording to "xford

English Dictionary #$ixth Edition%, ethics means &system of moral principles' rules

of conduct(. Ethics is derived from the )ree ethosmeaning moral values, ideas or

belief of a group, community or culture. The field of ethics, also called moral

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philosophy, involves developing, defending, and recommending concepts of right

and wrong behaviour.

The iipedia states that ethics #from the !ncient )ree &ethikos(,

meaning &arising from habit(% is a ma-or branch of philosophy, and the study of

value or quality. It covers the analysis and employment of concepts such as right,

wrong, good, evil, and responsibility encompassing right conduct and good living

in ethics. It is significantly broader than the common concept of analying right and

wrong.

The most common way of defining ethics/ &ethics are nor's or conduct

that distinguish between or acceptable and unacceptable behaviour(. ! society may

have particular legal rules that govern particular behaviour, but ethical norm tend to

be broader and more informal than laws. !lthough society use laws to enforce

widely accepted moral standards and ethical and the legal rules use similar

concepts, it is important to note that ethics and law are not the same. !n action may

be legal but unethical or it may be illegal but ethical. e can also use ethical

concepts and principles to criticie, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in

the last century, many social reformers urged citiens to disobey laws in order to

protest what they regarded as immoral or unfair laws. 0eaceful civil disobedience is

an ethical way of expressing political viewpoints.

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Research Ethics

!nother way of defining 2ethics2 focuses on the disci!(ines that stud"

standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology.

3or example, a 4medical ethicist4 is someone who studies ethical standards in

medicine. 3urther, one may also define ethics as a 'ethod) !rocedure) or

!ers!ectiveof decides on how to act and for analying complex problems and

issues. 3or instance, in a complex issue lie global warming, one may tae an

economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. !n

economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global

warming while an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and

principles at stae in the issue.

5any different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for

behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These norms also help members

of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public2s

trust of the discipline. 3or instance, ethical norms govern conduct in medicine, law,

engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research

and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative

activities, and there is a specialied discipline, research ethics, which studies these

norms.

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Research Ethics

$%* Research Ethics

$cience, represents a forth way of nowing. $cience is a logical system that

bases nowledge on direct, systematic observation. $tanding apart from faith, the

wisdom of &experts,( and general agreement, scientific nowledge rests on

empirical evidences, which means information that we can verify with our senses.

5eanwhile, 78E$9":s+define science as/

$cience signifies the enterprise whereby manind, acting individually

or in small or large group, maes an organied attempt, by means of the

ob-ectives study of observed phenomena, to discover and master the

chain of causalities' bring together in a coordinated from the resultant

sub*systems of nowledge by means of systematic reflection and

conceptualiation, often largely expressed in the symbols of

mathematics' and thereby furnishes itself with the opportunity of using,

to its own advantage, understanding of the process and phenomena

occurring in nature and society.

Every scientist gives impartial description of world as science aims for

ob-ectivity, a state of personal neutrality in conducting research. ;ecause the

purpose of science is to upgrade the human condition, the conduct of science is

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Research Ethics

In the "xford !dvanced Bearners Dictionary #+>>+% it is clearly stated that

research as a careful study or investigation, especially in order to discover new

facts or information/ medical, scientific, historical, etc. !s the professionals in

control, scientists have a unique accountability with thoughtful advocacy of their

research and ethical awareness of their own performance and behaviour. In the area

of research ethics, scientists carry duty towards the public that permitting them

privilege to conduct research, to private and public funders who expect that the

research will be conducted with integrity and followed by production of scientific

data.

Researcher must protect the privacy of everyone involved in research

pro-ect. This last promise can be difficult to eep, since researcher sometimes

comes under pressure #even from the authority% to disclose information. Therefore,

researcher must thin carefully about their responsibility to protect the sub-ect. In

fact, ethical research requires the informed consent of participant, which means that

sub-ect understand the responsibilities and riss that the researcher involves and

agree*before the wor begin. !nother important guideline concerning the funding,

for example researcher must never accept funding from an organiation that sees

to influence the research result for its own purposes. They must also avoid conflict

of interests that may compromise the integrity of their wor.

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Research Ethics

Citality of ethics in research is rationale as first some of these norms

endorse the aims of research) such as nowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. 3or

example, prevention against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research

data props up the truth and avoids error. $ince researcher often involves a great

deal of cooperation and coordination with many different people in different

disciplines and institutions, many of these ethical standards promote the values that

are essential to collaborative wor)such as trust, accountability, mutual respect,

and fairness. 3or example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for

authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and

confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property

interests while encouraging collaboration. 5ost researchers want to receive credit

for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed

prematurely.

Research groups are an elemental form of scientific collaboration and

nowledge production. Their members wor face*to*face, sharing wor space,

materials, technologies, ob-ectives, hypotheses and, to a significant degree, a

professional reputation and fate. 7nderlying the social solidarity and substantive

focus of research groups are structural forces that separate the interests of leaders

from members, spar competition alongside cooperation, complicate mechanism of

control, and offset participatory decision*maing with autocracy.

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Research Ethics

In addition, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers are

held accountable to the public% 3or instance, federal policies on research

misconduct, on conflicts of interest, on the human sub-ect protections, and on

animal care and use are necessary in order to mae sure that researchers who are

funded by public money are accountable to the public. Then, ethical norms in

research also help to build public support for research. The public, whose taxes

fund much of the scientific wors, more eager interested if they can trust the quality

and integrity of research.

$cientist exposed in the media extremely as a series of sensationalied

discoveries by conflicts and scandals certainly confusing the public and bringing

the public to demands careful examination of science. owever, here it comes the

standards of conduct that include much more than -ust avoiding behavior. This is

when ethical guidelines will wors as the protection of human participants in

research.

5any of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral

and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, and

compliance with the law, health and safety. 3ailure to follow ethics in research can

significantly harm the human, animal sub-ects and the public. 3or example, a

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Research Ethics

researcher who construct data in a birds tagging may harm or even ill the bird, and

a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to animal

right may -eopardie his health and safety of the students. The answers to these

questions are important to conserve our native birds, and the places where they live.

Researchers who loo for these answers often concern the safety and the

value of individual birds or groups of birds. "ne of the ways is to attach bands or

tags to the birds #researchers who use bands to study birds are called 4banders4%.

ere again, people will whine of either the tags and bands hurt the birds or not.

There is no scientist that manipulates their study sub-ects in any ways without

much thought and concern. Every researcher at each country must have their

proposed protocol approved by their Institutional !nimal 9are.

;ut quite apart from the regulations and laws, good science requires that

animals under study are interfered with as little as possible. !nd that is on top of

the personal ethical decisions that each researcher must mae about their comfort

level with any action taen #or not%.

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Research Ethics

$%+ Objectives o the Project

This pro-ect is undertaen with the intention to evaluate student:s awareness

on the ethics of animal experiment. !s come along ob-ectives of the research as

follows/

i. To measure levels of students: ethical sensitivity with regards to animal

experimentation.

ii. To explore the Islamic perspective of animal experimentation.

$%, H"!othesis

!s come to an end of this dissertation, the author will analyse the following

hypothesis/ 7nderstanding on the use of animals in research influence students:

moral approval towards animal research. !t least these findings will demonstrate in

extended for chronology of documents that have been illustrated in this study.

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Research Ethics

$%- Si#niicance o the Stud"

Batterly, the author will point out the importance of ethics in the conduct of

research' researchers will then adopt specific codes, rules, and policies related to

the research disciplines. This which will then lead to impartial in experimental

design, data analysis, and data interpretation/ openness and transparency during

peer review, process on decision maing, grant rewarding, expert testimony, and

other aspects of research is guaranteed where ob-ectivity is expected or required.

$%- Conc(usion

This study on Research Ethics is hoped to give insight to both human and

animal in the value of morality. 3rom the research, the connections of these two

perspectives depend to each other. It is also aim to create awareness among

researcher involved G directly and indirectly G in science and ethics. $ubsequently,

in 9hapter Two we will discuss profoundly about research ethics on the case study

of animal experimentation.

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Research Ethics

CHAPTER T.O

RE/IE. O0 1ITERATURE

e had been right through general overview of research ethics in chapter

one. 0ersistently, this chapter will loo those research ethics in depth about animal

used. This will includes diverse approaches to the histor" o the use o ani'a( in

research%The history of research ethics was started by !ristotle as the means for

exploring the chronology of documents developed to protect animals: right and

animals: sentience. 5oving on, in this chapter the author will analyse some of the

documents that are' Princi!(e o Hu'ane Techni2ue) the 3uide or the Care

and Use o 1aborator" Ani'a(s andAni'a( .e(are Act%

*%$ Histor" o Ani'a( Science

This fraction will draw on diverse approaches to the history of animals in

science, and to the origin of experiments in science and animal in research.

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Research Ethics

*%$%$ E4!eri'ents in Science

&Theory without experiment is empty' experiment without theory is blind.(1

;esides, in 5acmillan Dictionary of the istory of $cience also states that the

precise role of experiment in relation to the theory remains a matter of

philosophical #and historiographical% dispute. Thus in the +Ath century attac on

scholastic science an experimentalist rhetoric was extensively deployed. ;ut the

extent to which leading scientist such as )alileo #+@?*+?1% actually performed

the experiments they described is doubtful. 9ertainly, )alileo had generally low

opinion of sense: in comparison with reason:' and he seems to view experiments

as essentially demonstrative, or at best corroborative, of true theories rather than as

genuine tests, let alone sources of them.

!s expounded in 5acmillan Dictionary of the istory of $cience, an

experiment is a designed practical intervention in nature/ its upshot is socially

contrived set of observation, carried out under artificially produced and deliberately

controlled, reproducible conditions. Experiment:s core is the notion that the

condition for producing a given effect can be separated into independently variable

factors. The crucial assumption is the factor studied and represented in

experimental design as independent and dependent variables retain their identities

whether or not other conditions are held constant as in the laboratory.

1;ynum, .3., ;rownie, E.J. and 0orter, R., eds.#+>F6%, Macmillan Dictionary of the History ofScience.Bondon/ The 5acmillan 0ress Btd, pg. +6F.

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Research Ethics

In this regard, it will be useful to tae a brief loo at the revolution in +> th

century. Encase, the author is not refuting of medieval worldview in scientific

experiments but it would be helpful in the next section of history towards research

of the animals. !s consistent to the topic*experiments in science, the author hops

out from some of important philosophical presuppositions of the medieval

worldview to the +>thcentury.

The +>thcentury had enormous implications when biological inquiries were

immense scientific importance. !ccording to, 8iall $hans6 the role that human

and nonhuman played in these +>thcentury investigations into basic physiological

process and why it was that experiments on animals were increasingly seen to be of

great value to the promotion of human health and well*being. ;ut before doing this,

it would be useful to postponement and say something about the practice of +> th

century physiologist 9laude ;ernard?

#+F+6*+FAF% since his wor reflects in the

+>thcentury. ;ernard is one of the great figures in history of science through his

wor that shapes the contours of scientific experiments. ithout doubt' even more

than a century after death, his methods still a guide to experimental practices in the

biomedical science.

68iall $hans #1HH1%,Animal and Science: A Guide to the Debates.9alifornia/ !;9*9BI" Inc.,

pg. >@.? ;ernard made many contributors to the biomedical science. is Introduction to the Study of

Experimental Medicine#+F@% is an extremely important text since it laid out the philosophical and

methodological rationale for newly emergence biomedical science. Today, the !merican 5edical

!ssociation praised ;ernard for establishing the basic principle that guide the practice ofexperimental medicine.

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Research Ethics

InAnimal and Science: A Guide to the Debatesboo, the author, ;ernard

believed that genuine biomedical science involved carefully controlled experiments

on animals. ;esides, such experiments were directly relevant to human biology. In

addition, he did deny that clinical observation that had place, in practice of

medicine. In fact, he did believe that science too place not in the clinical context,

but in the laboratory.

ere, 8iall $hans examines ;ernard views about methodology science to

understand the wedge that his drove between clinical medicine and scientific

medicine. ;ernard states that, the business of science was in the formulation and

rigorous testing hypotheses about phenomena of interest/

The experimental hypothesisK must always be based on observation.

!nother essential of any hypothesis is that must be as probable as may be

and must experimentally verifiable. Indeed, if we made a hypothesis which

experiment could not verify, in that very act we should leave the

experiment method and fall into the errors of the scholastic and maers

systems.

!laude "ernard: #he Methodolo$y of "iomedical %esearch

!s ;ernard:s states in #he Methodolo$y of "iomedical %esearch& clinical

medicine could provide the observations that prompted the formulation of

hypotheses, but it could not, in the nature case, be the context within which

hypotheses were tested. The clinical setting does not permit the adequate control of

@Ibid, pg. +H1.

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experimental variables and typically it is not a setting in which, for ethical reasons,

those variables can be manipulated. ;ut if the biomedical researcher is to conduct

controlled experiments, it must be carefully manipulating variables of interest, and

there must be appropriate sub-ects.

9oming to this, there is no escaping fact that the biomedical science that

emerged in the +>thcentury, based on physics and chemistry and deeply rooted in

animal experimentation, revolutionied medicine. It was in the nineteenth century,

which the claim gradually evolved that animal experiments are not performed

simply for the sae of human clinical benefits. #heir pain is our $ain. The human

benefit from animal experimentation must be placed in the utilitarian hopper, along

with the pain of animal suffering.

"n the other hand, these enormous implications in experimental practices

and the complexity of issues surround the animal research. Even if animal suffer

pains, animal experimentation has been crucial in science development. 0erhaps the

benefits of animal experimentation are so great that they are outweigh the pain and

suffering of the animal sub-ects. !s these events are crucial, they are being parted

into the next segment' animals in research. 9oming up in the next segments, we

will loo at some examples to illustrate some evidences to show that development

research depends on animal experiments.

*%$%* Ani'a(s in Research

Ibid, pg. +HH.

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Research Ethics

9oncerns about the use of animals in science have existed for almost as

long as animals have been used to better understand the woring of the human or

animal body. In order to understand the basis of today:s attitudes to the use of

animal and philosophical debate, it is useful to have gratitude towards the history of

animal*based research. ere, we will start tracing out some of debates that are

generated by the scientific study of animals.

It is worth adding that the various religious doctrines and philosophical

theories often give contradictory implication for our appreciation of the status of

nonhuman animals in relation to us. !pparently, 8iall $hars in Animal and

Science: A Guide to the Debates examines influential views emanating from

medieval Europe. 5ore specifically, $hars#1HH1% in his boo discusses issues

relating to the nature of science, the rise of biomedical sciences in the +th

and +Ath

century, and the consequences of evolutionary biology in the +>thand 1Hthcentury

for appreciation of the place of animals in nature and our relations to the other

species.

In approaching these matters, David De)raiaA states that !ristotle #6F?G

611 ;9% influentially argued that animals, having sense of perception but lacing

reason, fall below human in natural hierarchy and are therefore appropriate

A De)raia, David #1HH1%, Animal %i$hts: A 'ery Short Introduction."xford/ "xford 7niversity0ress, pg. 6.

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Research Ethics

resources for human purposes. ;ecause of animals lac rational souls, he

contended, our dealings with them are not a matter of -ustice. 9losely related to this

is about !ristotle:s philosophy of nature to confront the relationship between

matter and formF. !ristotle contended that in nature, we are never find matter on its

own orformon its own. Everything that exists in nature is a unity of matter and

form and !ristotle designated it as asubstance. umans are one type of substance,

mice another. $pecies differences reflect a difference with respect in the form of

shaping matter.

3or !ristotle, everything in nature had a natural end, function, or purpose

determined by its form. Let !ristotle differentiated between organic and inorganic

beings through the idea ofsouls. ;ut !ristotle recognied important between living

things, and so distinguished between three types of soul>.

Cegetative souls conferred upon ob-ects possessing them a simple capacity

of life' sensitive souls conferred a capacity for life and sensation*

nonhuman animals have sensitive souls. 3inally rational souls conferred

upon their possessors a capacity for life, sensation, and thought. umans

were said to have rational souls, and !ristotle defined humans as rational

animal. Right here, in these influential ideas from ancient )ree thought,

we see the origins of the philosophical distinction between humans and

nonhuman animal that would influence much subsequent thining on thesematters.

(iall Shanks: Animal and Science )*++*,

F-p.cit., 8iall $hans #1HH1%, pg. @.>Ibid, pg.

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!ristotle also held that men are naturally superior to women, due to men:s

allegedly superior reasoning ability, and that some humans G stronger in body than

in mind G are naturally suited to be slaves +H. !t this -uncture, we must also say

something about the relations between humans and nonhuman animal in !ristotle:s

thought. 3or there is the seed of idea in some interesting ways in the medieval

thought and !ristotle himself saw the implications in this way++.

It is clear that the rule of the soul over the body, and the mind are rational

element over the passionate, is natural and expedient' whereas the equalityof the two or the rule of the inferior is always hurtful. The same holds

good of animals in relation to men' for tame animals have better nature

than wild, and the tame animal are better off when they are ruled by man...

!gain, the male is superior, and the female inferior' and the one rules and

the other one is ruled... here then, there is such a difference as that

between soul and body, or between man and animals... the lower sort are

by nature slaves, and it is better for them as for all inferior that they should

be under the rule of a master... !nd indeed the use made of slaves and

tame animals is not very different' for both with their bodies minister to

the needs of life...

%e$an and Sin$er: Animals %i$hts and Human -bli$ation )/0/,

!mong the ancient )rees, dissenting voices included those of 0ythagoras

#c.@HGc.?FH ;9%, who believed that animals may be former humans reincarnated,

and Theophratus, who thought animals were capable of some degree reasoning+1

.

+H-p.cit., De)raia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6.++-p.cit., 8iall $hans #1HH1%, pg. A.+1-p.cit., De)raia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6.

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Research Ethics

9oncurrence to this, iipedia "nline Encyclopaedia+6 stated that it is in th

century ;9 )ree philosophy that we first concerned for the treatment of animals.

3our schools of thought were influential in !ncient )reece/ animism, 1italism,

mechanism, and anthropocentrism.

The philosopher and mathematician 0ythagoras, who has been called the

first animal rights philosopher, was the central figure within animism. e urged

respect for animals, because he believed that humans and non*humans had the same

ind of soul. The souls were indestructible, made of fire and air, and were

reincarnatedfrom human to animal, or vice versa, the so*called transmi$ration of

the soul.0ythagoras believed that &there is one spirit which pervades, lie a soul,

the whole universe and also maes us one with irrational animals.( ;ut most

subsequent estern philosophers and theologians have concurred with !ristotle

thesis that animals exist for the use of human, who alone are rational+?

.

3or !ristotle, animals were of fundamental philosophical importance' he

was the first to attempt the creation of a taxonomical categoriation and

hierarchy. !ristotle recognied some similarities between human and non*

human species and he developed a sort of 4psychological continuum4,

recogniing that human and nonhuman animals differ only by degree in

possessing certain temperaments and that some non*humans possess

analogous intellectual capacities to humans. Let, !ristotle claimed that the

powers of rational thought and understanding were reserved to humans.

!ristotle argued that humans were the &masters( in his created hierarchal

+6http/MMen.wiipedia.orgMwiiM!ttitudesNtoNanimalsNinNtheNancientNworld, access on 1Hth of 5ay

1HH>.+?-p.cit., De)raia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6.

* +> *
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmigration_of_the_soulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmigration_of_the_soulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reincarnationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmigration_of_the_soulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmigration_of_the_soul


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structure based upon the foregoing notion. !gainst 0ythagorean ideas,

!ristotle argued that nonhuman animals had no interests of their own,

raning far below humans in the )reat 9hain of ;eing, or scala naturae,

because of their alleged irrationality.

Attitudes to animals in the ancient 2orld

3ikipedia -nline Encyclopedia

9onsistent with treatment of animals, in iipedia +@the earliest references

to animal testing are found in the writings of the )reesin the second and fourth

centuries ;9E. !ristotle and Erasistratus #6H?*1@F ;9% were among the first to

perform experiments on living animals. 3or instance, 8uffield 9ouncil on

;ioethics+ indicated that animal research continued to be undertaen in some

societies over the next 1, HHH years and formed part of the systematic scientific

enquiry carried out in the Roman Era #c.@+H ;9*?@@ !D% and in early !rabic

medicine #from the fall Rome until the +@ thcentury%. The notable physician )alen+A

of the 1nd

century !D, for example, argued that vivisection was the only way to

reveal the function of biological structures.

Bie in other fields of Islamic science, 5uslim physicians and doctors

developed the first scientific methodsfor the field of medicine. This included the

experimentation, clinical trialsand animal testing. !s such as, it is thought that the

doctor and the philosopher !l*Rai #nown by Europeans as Rhaes% #c.F@?*>1@%

+@http/MMen.wiipedia.orgMwiiM!nimalNtesting, access on Fth of January 1HH>.+ 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics #1HH@%, 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics Report/ #he Ethics of

%esearch 4sin$ Animals&pg.+@.+A)alen #+1>*c.1HH !D%, a physician in second*century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is

nown as the 4father of vivisection.4 e used apes to prove his theory that veins carry blood ratherthan air.

* 1H *
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasistratushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing


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tested treatment on animals to evaluate their efficiency and their side effects. !l

Rai, as the researcher #see Architect of the Scientific #hou$ht in Islamic

!i1ilisation+F% recommended using control for clinical research.

If you want to study the effect of bloodletting on a condition, divide the

patients into two groups, perform bloodletting only on one group, watch

both, and compare the results.

Abubakar Mohammad Ibne 5akariya %a6i

In the +Hth century, !l*Rai+>introducedcontrolled experimentand clinical

observation into the field of medicine, and re-ected several )alenic medical

theories unverified by experimentation. In medicine, !l*Rai wrote several

valuable boos, in which addition to his innovative research papers included )ree

and Indian science. "ne of his most famous boos' !l*awi is the largest !rabian

medical encyclopedia in which !l*Rai gathered abstracts taen from )ree and

!rab physicians. Then, he added to them the results of his experiments as well as

his own views.

In treaty, from Al7%a6i: A Great Arab Epidemiolo$ist Al7%a6i 8 His 9ife

#ime Achie1ements1Hthe most highly regarded wor is his boo on small pox and

measles which he distinguished clinically. The treatise on small pox and chicen

+Fhttp/MMwww.isesco.org.maMenglishMpublicationsM!rchitectsM0>.php. access on +6th of !pril 1HH>.+>In hisDoubts about Galen, !l*Rai was also the first to prove both )alen2s theory ofhumorism

and !ristotle2s theory of classical elementsfalse using experimentation.1H!rish, 5O. $., !ri- 5.O. $. and !li, ;.!. #1HH%,Al7%a6i: A Great Arab Epidemiolo$ist Al7%a6i

8 His 9ife #ime Achie1ements. In the Journal of the International $ociety for the istory of Islamic5edicine #JI$I5%, Col. ?/ Istanbul/ 8obel 5atbaacPlP, pg. @?.

* 1+ *
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhazeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment


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Research Ethics

pox, the liber depestilentia, is extremely original and based on direct experience

and observation from which he drew very perceptive emphasis on clinical methods.

e used to stress the importance of practice, expertise and experimentation in the

treatment of patients. e also compounded new medicines and tested them on

animals before prescribing them to human beings.

0ersistently, !l*Rai was the first who founded the experimental science in

the medicine1+. Everybody recognied ippocrates as the first true epidemiologist

since he clearly distinguished diseases which were epidemic and those which were

endemic meanwhile, )alen11, as a physician of truly modern idea of disease

concept. owever, the world is unaware from the fact that !l*Rai, a great !rab

clinician was also the great epidemiologist. e is the one who described all of the

basic tools of modern epidemiologist in his boo i.e. !l*-udri wal asba and !l*

awi.

Revealing interesting differences among its representatives, estern

modern philosophy #the era steaming from Descartes in the +Athcentury through the

late nineteenth century% largely upheld the view of human supremacy, reflecting the

influence of its dominant religion, 9hristianity16. The controversy surrounding

animal testing dates bac to the +Ath century #discuss before !ristotle%. In +@@, the

1+Ibid, pg. @@.11 )alen described role of three factors responsible for disease, vi. predisposing, exciting, and

environmental factors16-p.cit., De)raia, David #1HH1%, pg. ?.

* 11 *


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Research Ethics

advocate of )alenicphysiology Edmund "25earasaid that 4the miserable torture

of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state.4 "25eara and others argued

that animal physiology could be affected by the pain during vivisection, rendering

results unreliable. There were also ob-ections on an ethicalbasis, contending that

the benefit to humans did not -ustify the harm to animals. Early ob-ections to

animal testing also came from another angle such as' many people believed that

animals were inferior to humans and so different that results from animals could

not be applied to humans.

"n the other side of the debate, those in favor of animal testing stated that

experiments on animals were necessary to advance medical and biological

nowledge. During the +>th century there was a dramatic increase in scientific

exploration in ;ritain and elsewhere. The study of evolution, and the natural

sciences, often involved animal research. In 3rance, a tradition of experimental

physiology, involving large numbers of sentient animals, was initiated by 3ranQoise

5agendie #+AF6G+F@@% and his most famous pupil 9laude ;ernard #+F+6GAF% 1?.

9laude ;ernard,nown as the 4prince of vivisectors4 and the father of physiology

founded the first anti*vivisection society in 3rance in +FF6.

;ernardfamously wrote in +F@ that 4the science of life is a superb and

dalingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a

long and ghastly itchen4. !rguing that 4experiments on animals ... are

entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man...the effects of

these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences

1?-p.cit., 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics #1HH@%, pg. +A.

* 16 *
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_O'Mearahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_O'Mearahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Bernard


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Research Ethics

in degree,4 ;ernard established animal experimentation as part of the

standard scientific method.

History in Animal #estin$

3ikipedia -nline Encyclopedia*

!s ;ernard:s stated' even if animal suffers pain, animal experimentation

has been essential in biomedical sciences. !ccording to 8iall $hars#1HH1% the +>th

century physiologist 9laude ;ernard advocated a deterministic, mechanical view of

biological systems inspired in experimentation. $omehow' in the arena of modern

science, the greatest contribution to understanding of animals was the +>thcentury

wor of 9harles Darwin, who demonstrated that humans evolved from other animal

species1. e is also argued powerfully, if less influentially, that animals: and

human: capacities differ largely in degree and not in ind. ;ased on observation,

Darwin contended that many animals possess general concepts, some reasoning

ability, rudiments of moral sentiments, and complex emotions. hile scientists

have largely ignored these Darwinian claims until quite recently, the theory of

evolution especially in combination with modern genetics has made the assertion of

some unbridgeable cognitive gulf dividing humans and other animals much more

difficult to sustain1A

;asically, animals have been used throughout the history of scientific

research #seeHistory in Animal #estin$*0%.

[email protected]., iipedia on !nimal Testing.1-p.cit., De)raia, David #1HH1%, pg. .1AIbid, pg. .1F-p.cit., iipedia on !nimal Testing.

* 1? *
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method


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Research Ethics

In the +FFHs, Bouis 0asteur convincingly demonstrated the germ theory of

medicine by inducing anthrax in sheep. In the +F>Hs, Ivan 0avlov

famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. Insulin was firstisolated from dogs in +>11, and revolutionied the treatment of diabetes.

"n 8ovember 6, +>@A, a Russian dog, Baia, became the first of many

animals to orbit the earth. In the +>AHs, antibiotic treatments and vaccines

for leprosy were developed using armadillos, then given to humans. The

ability of humans to change the genetics of animals too a large step

forwards in +>A? when Rudolf Jaenisch was able to produce the first

transgenic mammal, by integrating D8! from the $C?H virus into the

genome of mice. This genetic research progressed rapidly and, in +>>,

Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult

cell.

ere, I indicate our historical setch has far examined not only the estern

tradition but also in Islamic civiliation. In the long course of the 1H thcentury itself,

animal research continued to be great importance in the biomedical sciences. !s in

the +>thcentury, public concern about the practice was allayed by claims about the

enormous medical benefits and the author has scrutinied these claims. The opinion

here is that though animal experiments are not scientifically useless, it certainly not

as useless as some opponents of animal research suggest*claims about the

enormous medical value of this ind of experimentation are complex claims that

are hard to evaluate.

!s emphasied, the scientific and ethical reasons for using animal in

scientific research have changed little from the first experiments in ancient )rees.

* 1@ *


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Research Ethics

8atural philosophers and physicians of those times wanted to increase their

nowledge about the way in which complex organisms such as humans and animal

functioned. They valued the pursuit of nowledge for its own sae and sought to

understand how and why the body malfunctioned, to learn about the development

of disease and the effect of in-ury, and to discover better treatment and cures.

!wareness of biological similarities between humans and other animals, they

hypothesised that many findings about specific mechanisms or processes in animal

could be applied to humans.

*%* Research Ethics on Ani'a(s

istory of the use of animal in research have revealed that, although having

criticise against animals: right, animals mae better research sub-ects. !fter

identify the history of animal based research, it is also useful to identify with

underlying ethical attitudes. !s highlighted in introduction from the historical

perspective of using animal in experiments, here we start to get the first whiffs of

some of the serious dilemmas and controversies that are generated by the scientific

study of animals.

$ome of those who study animal cognition are impressed by the apparent

cognitive similarities between human and chimpanees. These similarities, they are

alleging, confer moral status on the chimpanees*because they can suffer, they

* 1 *


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Research Ethics

should not be treated illogically or by chance. ;ut for other researchers, noting

further biological similarities, allege that these similarities are precisely what mae

chimpanees useful for research aimed at ending human suffering.

*%*%$ The i'!ortance o ani'a(s in research

This section considered a few examples of biomedical1> and behavioural

research6H, two of ma-or areas of animal use today. In this discussion, the term

animal research: will used broadly to include several different ventures. Reversed

to documentation of historical setch, David De)raia #an author of numerous

articles in philosophy and ethics -ournal, and is also co*editor of"iomedical Ethics%

stated that, animal research emerged as a scientific activity in the early nineteenth

century.

Due to that, animal research carve up into two subtypes/ seeing new

nowledge of biological process and function #basic research% and studies seeing

new medical, veterinary, or biological nowledge in order to promote the health of

humans, animals, or the environment #applied research%. !nother ind of research,

testing, evaluates chemical and other products for safety. 3inally, animals may be

1>;iomedical research #or experimental medicine%, in general simply nown as medical research, is

the basic research, applied research, or translational research conducted to aid the body of

nowledge in the field of medicine.6H;ehavioral science encompasses all the disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions

among organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of

human and animal behavior through controlled and naturalistic experimental observations andrigorous formulations.

* 1A *
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment


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Research Ethics

the uses of educational purposes, for example, in surgery practice, dissection 6+and

science pro-ect.

e begin in with basic or curiosity driven research, which sees to

understand why animals are used in research. 5ichael !llen 3ox 61 summaried

briefly reasons why scientists use animals in research. These are follows/

#a% !nimals have &a much simpler life space( than humans' they are less

complex in many ways G both constitutionally #that is organic system%and psychologically.

#b% !nimal usually have a shorter life span,( a factor of great importance

where the transmission of genetically determined traits is of vital

interest.

#c% "ne can control the animal:s environment more easily than that of the

human, reducing the number of variables that we have to tae into

account.

#d% "ne can use large numbers when one uses animal as compared to

human.

#e% "ne can use animal for critical experiments that is, experiments which

it would be unethical to perform on people.

#f% "ne can use animals as models for human system and their response.

3luctuated, we might say that animals are used in research to study living

system according to the requirement of scientific study to understand such systems

and to apply this nowledge to alleviating human and animal problem, specifically

6+ Dissection #also called anatomiation% is usually the process of disassembling and observing

something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the functions and

relationships of its components.613ox, 5ichael !llen #+>F%, #he !ase for Animal Experimentation: An E1olutionary and Ethical

erspecti1e.Bondon/ 7niversity of 9alifornia 0ress, pg. >?.

* 1F *


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Research Ethics

disease and behavioural disorder. 3or example, in the beginning to discover or

developing a new drug to treat idney disease, which might affect the heart or

blood pressure the only way to find out if it has such unforeseen effects is to test it

on a living being. $ome of the research findings have immediate and directly

applicable results, whereas others contribute primarily to the scientific body of

nowledge.

Towards this goal, biomedical research has included the use of animals as

one component of research to understand, treat, and cure many human and animal

diseases. In addition, animal resemble humans in various degrees according to

species and in relation to the system or type of reaction under investigation. 5any

animal diseases are closely related or identical to their human counterparts66.

Disease itself, cause a staggering amount of suffering and death in both people and

animals. !s a result, human society has committed itself to alleviating the suffering

caused by disease.

This answered why scientists study animals to understand human disease.

They do so because people are vulnerable to many of the same or similar diseases

as animals. umans have @ infectious diseases in common with dogs, @H with

cattle, ? with sheep and goats, ?1 with pigs, 6@ with horses, and 1 with fowl.

#$ee Science& Medicine and Animal% e have lived with and among these animals

66 Robert . Beader #+>A%, #he ;inship of Animal and Human Diseases in 3ox, 5ichael !llen#+>F%,Ibid, pg. >?.

* 1> *


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Research Ethics

for thousands of years, so it was not surprising that we are susceptible to some of

the same parasites, viruses, and bacteria as animals, including some that can be

transmitted between animals and people such as rabies and malaria.

!nimal research is also important in another type of research, called basic

research. !s 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics6? address that, the scientific uses of

animals and the implications for welfare in four different contexts/ basic research'

animals as models for human disease' pharmaceutical research and development'

and toxicity testing. ;asic research experiments are performed to further scientific

nowledge such as, the study of bird habitat is undertaen primarily to increase our

nowledge of the animal ingdom. "ther areas of basic research see to improve

understanding about fundamental of biological processes. The goal of basic

research is to understand the function of newly discovered molecules and cells,

strange phenomena, or little*understood processes. $ome of this nowledge may

eventually lead to application from which humans benefit directly.

!nimals in the study of human disease are used for the study of diseases

affecting animals and humans to learn about causal factors, development and

infectivity, and to explore therapeutic and preventative strategies. #$ee human

disease as described under the sub-ect matters on how animals are used in research

to study living system% Baboratory animals are not only crucial in understanding

diseases' they are also essential in evaluating the safety of drugs, vaccines, food

6?-p.cit., 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics #1HH@%, pg. F@.

* 6H *


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Research Ethics

additives, household products, worplace chemicals, cosmetics, water and air

pollutants, and many other substances.

ere, the use of animals within the pharmaceutical industry is an essential

part of the research and development process for new medicines. Toxicity studies

that involve animals play an important role in the safety assessment of compounds

such as medicines, household chemicals, agrochemicals and industrial chemical.

9hemicals are assessed for their potential to cause irritation, physiological

reactions, cancers and effects on fertility. $pecified doses and exposures of the

chemicals are given to animals, from which information regarding safe human dose

and exposure levels is then extrapolated. !ccording to 8uffield 9ouncil on

;ioethics6@ rats and mice are most commonly used in toxicology #A? percent of

procedures%. "ther tests involve non*rodent species such as fish, rabbits, chicens,

dogs and primates.

!s illustrated in this fragment, animals are essential in scientific research,

medicines development and safety testing. They are necessary to understand the

body in health and disease, and to develop new and improved medical treatments.

ere, we describe a range of different scientific uses for animals. !nimals are only

used when the answers to scientific questions cannot be obtained in any other way.

;roadly speaing, animals are used in research when it is necessary to see what

happens in the whole living body. !ll in all, animal research incorporates to a

6@Ibid, pg. +@6.

* 6+ *


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Research Ethics

fraction of all biomedical research but their uses are not undertaen lightly. ;oth

the potential scientific and medical benefits of the research, and the possible

suffering of the animals used, are weighed up carefully before any animal research

pro-ect can be proceed.

*%*%* Ethica( A!!roaches to the Use o Ani'a(s

The debate about research involving animals is often reduced to the

question of defining the moral status of humans, and animals. Ethical theories for

animal*based research have lagged behind those of human medical ethics, partially

because of the focus on human research ethics following the experiments during

$econd orld ar6.

!t that time, experiments were being carried out, some of them lethal, on

human beings who had been imprisoned and then forced to serve as sub-ects solely

on the basis of race, religion, or mental development. ;y the end of the war, these

views were actively being challenged. These were clear cases where no one could

portray scientific research as a disinterested search for nowledge, unrelated to

ethical values or social agendas. In the wae of such tangible examples, many

scientists found it were necessary to generalie notion in their roles to incorporate

6 $econd orld ar was a global military conflict which involved a ma-ority of the world2s

nations, including all of the great powers,organied into two opposing military alliances/ the !llies

and the!xis.The start of the war is $eptember + +>6>, with the )erman invasion of 0olandandsubsequent declarations of war on )ermany by most of the countries in the ;ritish Empire and9ommonwealth, and by3rance.In +>?@ the war ended in a victory for the !llies.

* 61 *
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participants_in_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participants_in_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland_(1939)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participants_in_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participants_in_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland_(1939)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic


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Research Ethics

and non*human animals, that they are moral equals. In truce, this question of moral

status is neither consideration of the relative moral status nor reference to the

evolutionary order or uses of animals in other contexts. Thus, the question of the

permissibility of animal experimentation, or of any other use of animals should be

settled in a helpful manner.

5orally relevant features instead of a promising approach is to as what

features of humans and animals can qualify them as moral sub-ects, imposing

constraints or limits on how they may be treated. In 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics

Report, they assumed that there are some species that should never be used for any

purposes, or that the acceptability of using species depends on how closely related

they are to human in evolutionary terms. Then, we turn to the question of deciding

how, with regard to the possible or certain benefits of research. $uch characteristics

should be taen into account in moral decision maing/ through weighing of factors

#for example, the degree of suffering experienced by animals versus the value of

benefits of research% or through the generation of absolute prohibitions #for

example, that no research should be undertaen on animals that are capable of

higher cognitive capacities, such as the chimpanees, regardless of the benefits.!

consequentialist view weighs all costs against all benefits while a deontological

view lays down particular prohibitions.

* 6? *


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Research Ethics

In human and veterinary medicine, causing a pain or suffering in a patient is

considered unethical unless it is for the direct benefit of that patient. 3or instance,

The Royal $ociety6Aindicates one view is that each animal has the right to life and

humans should not tae such right away from it. It is not entirely clear whether the

proponents of such a view would grant rights to every organism that showed signs

of reacting to maltreatment.

8evertheless, they would argue that rights to good treatment, once granted,

must be respected. "thers would argue that while granting rights to animals is

inappropriate because human:s rights are firmly embedded in a social context.

umans have responsibilities for animals in their care and should ensure that their

welfare is good. ;oth of the rights and the responsibilities arguments are sometimes

taen as absolutes, over*riding all other moral claims. owever, this could also be

the case for the moral argument for supporting animal experiments because of their

medical potential benefits.

$o the degree of suffering might be expressed as low, medium or high and

the liely scientific and medical benefit might be similarly classified. Research that

involves low suffering to the animals and was liely to be highly beneficial would

generally be regarded as acceptable. Research that involves medium suffering but

only a medium chance of generating a beneficial outcome would probably be

6A9ouncil of the Royal $ociety #3ebruary 1HH?%, The 7se of 8on*uman !nimals in Research/ !)uide for $cientist&pg.+H.

* 6@ *


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Research Ethics

deemed unacceptable * but clearly this -udgement will depend on a consensus view

derived from a -udgement by those responsible bodies for granting approval to

research pro-ects.

3or example, in drug development, many thousands of compounds may

need to be tested in order to develop a new drug. This means that in some cases the

research may not be successful, and may seem futile, whereas in fact such wor is

essential in refining nowledge. Therefore, it is important when considering the

ethical -ustification of the use of animals in research is to realie that the

development of a successful drug such as insulin or the antibiotics may result in

saving many millions of human and animal lives.

In !nimal Rights/ ! Cery $hort Introduction, David De)raia explains the

capabilities of animal and highlighting the gap between how we ought to treat

animals and the often poor reality how we treat them. Therefore the ey issue with

animals is whether their moral status precludes or limits their use in research

regardless of potential benefits. Biely in 8uffield 9ouncil on ;ioethics Report

occurrence a strong animal right:s view re-ects the harming of some individuals for

others: benefit. This position roughly precludes the use of animals in research.. It

allows #+% research that does not harm on animal sub-ects at all and #1% therapeutic

veterinary research G that is, research that is the best interests of the animal sub-ects

themselves.

* 6 *


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Research Ethics

! strong animal*rights view might accept one further category of animal

research. !t first glance, it appears that equal consideration would support non*

therapeutic animal research posing only minimal ris to sub-ects. hile strong

animal*rights advocates accept equal consideration, it is possible that they would

re-ect the imposition of even very small nown riss on animal in healing research.

hether or not a strong animal*rights view would accept the minimal*ris

standard for animals, another equal consideration theory, utilitarianism, clearly

does. They accept animal research posing more than minimal ris so long as the

promised benefits. 8ow utilitarians who apply their theory correctly typically assert

that very little animal research is -ustified. $till, because they allow some non*

therapeutic research that falls into the present category of more than minimal riss,

utilitarians such as 0eter $inger arrive at a position that is notably different from

that strong animal:s rights theorist such as Tom Regan.

3or instance, 0eter $inger author of the enormously influential boo Animal

9iberation& bases his view of animal protection on utilitarianism, a view that

emphasies on the consequences of moral action. $inger argues that nonhuman

animals should not be eaten, ept in oos, or, under most conditions, used in

research. is argument for animal protection is based on his belief that animals are

* 6A *


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Research Ethics

capable of experiencing pain and pleasure #sentient% and thus have an equal interest

in their own lives.

In contrast, Tom Regan #+>FF%, author of #he !ase for Animal %i$hts& taes

a deontological approach to the welfare of animals. Deontologists base their ethics

on conformity to rationally derived rules rather than on the consequences of an

action. Regan believes that nonhuman animals that have certain capacities #beliefs,

perceptions, memory, sense of the future, sentience, emotions, and psychological

identity% are the &sub-ects of a life.( These two schools of thought however

dominated contemporary philosophical discussion over the moral status of an

animal.

*%+ An Is(a'ic Pers!ectives to5ards Ani'a( E4!eri'entation

Religion and philosophy leads with the diverse basis of the traditional

thining about animals: moral status. It is worth noting that throughout the world,

both of which have interacted with science in shaping conceptions of what sorts of

beings animals are6F. In addressing these and other related issues, it would be

helpful to begin with an Islamic view of research ethics. The following setch

6F-p.cit., De)raia, David #1HH1%, pg. 6.

* 6F *


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Research Ethics

#which influenced by !dnan "tar6>and especially aghloul?H% is quite compressed

and therefore is necessarily selective in identifying principle sources of Islamic

perspectives and attitudes about animal.

In addition, it is important to highlight some history of Islamic science.

9onsistent with it according to 5acmillan Dictionary of the istory of $cience,

Islamic science is a vital and intimate part of European history of science. $uch

central believes of Islam itself for example, a special concern with nowledge or

!dnan "tar #+>@% writes under the pen name of arun Lahya. e is a world*renowned man ofideas and dedicated his life to telling of the existence and oneness of !lmighty !llah, to

disseminating the moral values of the ahya: An In1itation to the #ruth

#http/MMwww.harunyahya.comMindex.php.%?HDr. aghloul #+>66% can be reached from his site, http/MMwww.elnaggarr.comMenMindex.php.

Dr. aghloul Ragheb 5ohamed El*8aggar is the 0rofessor of )eology, ead, 9ommittee on

$cientific 8ations in the )lorious


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Research Ethics

was relatived to man:s nature. ide*ranging and broad nowledge could only be

attained when its instrument was fully uunderstood. 3or this reason, physcology

and medicine too on a uniquely privillaged position in the Islamic pantheon of

sciences. This is further reflected in the leading role of the physicians*philosopher

#hak?m% in an intellectual activity, as exemplified by !l*Rai #Rhaes%, Ibn $in?+

#!vicenna%, Ibn Tufayal?1#c.+++H*++F@%, Ibn Rushd?6#!verroUs% and many other.

!s an imperfect instrument, man could only approximate broad nowledge

by aquiring and amassing information as a corporate endeavour. This can be

achieved by not only through boos, but by systematic observation of the world

around him. To synthesie such nowledge, enourmos encyclopaedias of science

and medicine were prepared. 3or example, in his al7H=2?#the 9ontinens% Rhaes

gave the previous )ree, $yrian, Indian, 0ersian, and !rabic views for each

disease. e compared them with own clinical observation, and then expressed a

final opinion.

In Islam all nowledge was regarded as science, and no branch of science

was left untouched or unexplored. The sciences were generally classified into two

branches. The first was the revealed sciences #al7


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Research Ethics

which were found in the Buran. They were attainable through a tradition #Sunnah%

deriving from the 0rophets who was forst transmitted them. These included

theology #kal=m%, -urisprudence #fih%, mysticism #tasa22uf%, and philology for the

correct reading and understanding of the Buran, and so on. The second branch was

the rational or the intellectual sciences #al7


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Research Ethics

or equivalent events. The secondary sources of $hari:a are/ Istihsan #the

choice of one of several lawful opinions%' views of 0rophet:s companions'

current local customs if lawful' public welfare' rulings of previous divine

religions if not contradicting the primary sources of $hari:a.

!nother understanding noted in is of ethical guidelines of research that

derived from the purposes and principles of the Islamic law #$hari:a%. Islamic law

based on a complete system of morality that can provide a moral context in

medicine from legal perspectives. In a 5uslim community, a researcher should

observe that research and the procedures that followed are within the context of

$hari:a. !t all, morality and ethics in Islam are absolute and divine of sources.

*%+%$ Ani'a( in 6uran and Sunnah

!nimal have been created with a specific purpose, either to benefit human

beings directly, or as symbols for people to ponder over )od:s greatness #!n*8oor

1?/?@%. The existence of animals is the proof for the very existence of )od #see !n*

8oor 1?/?@%.

6UR7AN CHAPTER *,8 An9Noor :The 1i#ht; /erse ,-8

!llah has created every moving #living% creature from water. "f them

there are some that creep on their bellies, some that wal on two legs, and

some that wal on four. !llah creates what e wills. CerilyW !llah is !ble

to do all things.

* ?1 *


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The


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nurturing a partner and family. umanity has been observed in most species. This

modern ethological finding is reflected in the concept of animals in


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Research Ethics

guidelines concerning the spiritual and material aspects of life. 5odern animal

rights activists should, perhaps, tae a leaf out of the


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Research Ethics

and un-ust to treat animals with cruelty. The human being has been authoried to

press into his service all the living creatures lie all other ob-ects of nature. ;ut a

5uslim is not required to place the life of animals on an equal or higher plane than

the lives of fellow humans. !ny experimentation solely for reasons of luxury is

forbidden in Islam.

!s a 5uslim, they believe that all living things have intrinsic value. 8ot

onlyinstrumental value to one another and to human, they also have value in and of

themselves. !s for that, animal suffering must be ept to a minimum. ! 5uslim

researcher should use the minimum number of animals and treat them as humanely

as possible.

Experiments should be designed to minimie animal suffering. here there

is a choice of animals to be used he should choose lower animals in preference to

the higher. 5an' as moral beings should not countenance suffering on the part of

animal except when it serves a clearly defined, higher purposes such as saving of

precious life. In general, animal experimentation should tae place when and where

there are no other alternatives.

*%, Use o Ani'a( 1aborator" Ani'a( Toda"

* ? *


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Research Ethics

Today geneticists generally study fruit flies, roundworms, and ebra fish.

0hysiologists study mammals, mostly mice and rats but also rabbits, cats, dogs,

pigs, sheep, goats, moneys, and chimpanees?A. Experimental animals often ept

in confined quarters, cut open, infected with disease organism, fed unhealthy diets,

and in-ected with assorted chemicals. $ometimes the animals suffer and sometimes

the animals die. !nd sometimes they are healed, albeit often of disease or in-uries

induced by the researcher in the first place.

8ot surprisingly, some observers have reacted with extreme sympathy and

have called better treatment of animals used in research. This &animal welfare(

movement has, in turn, spawned the more extreme &animal right( movement, which

asserts that animals, especially mammals have rights as important and as deserving

of regard as those human. Thus, to ill an animal, whether for research, food, or

fur, is the moral equivalent of murder. owever, it has also led to panic*stricen in

class animal dissections, the destruction of research records, and the theft of

research materials #including animal%. This attitude has led to important reforms in

the treatment of animals, to the development of several alternatives to use animals

in research, and to considerable reduction in the number of animals used in

research.

?AEaston, Thomas !. #1HH@% #akin$ Sides: !lashin$ 'ie2s on !ontro1ersial Issues in Science&

#echnolo$y 8 Society.Iowa/ 5c)raw ill, pg. 1>+

* ?A *


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Research Ethics

hile proper care of animals used in research has been an ongoing priority for

the ma-ority of the scientific community, and there have been some instances of

mistreatment of animals in research laboratories. !s a consequence of these

occurrences, as well as pressure from animal protection groups and the public,

government enacted laws and policy to regulate the care and use of laboratory

animals. In the following sections, the author will argue on the development of

selected documents in rules and regulation. This is to give more stress to the value

of animals in research and to approve the best guideline towards the use of animals

in experimentation.

*%,%$ The Princi!(e o Hu'ane Techni2ue


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Research Ethics

!s has been noted, Russell and ;urch recommended reducin#the number of

animals used in experiments to the minimum number required to obtain statistically

relevant data. Reinin#of technique or procedures to reduce pain and distress in

experimental sub-ects and provide their well*being based on their behavioral needs.

Re!(acin#' or in other word, an alternative is used to describe any changes of

experiments involving whole animals i.e. computer model program or in*vitro

models lie tissue and cell culture when possible. ;ased on recommendations data

acquired in the course of their study, and they predicted that implementation of the

6Rs would enhance the scientific value of experiments.

The Royal $ociety?F signified that the use of animals is not permitted where a

replacement alternative is available. 5eans, when there is no replacement

alternative is available, and then experimental protocols should be refined in such a

way as to reduce any pain or suffering to a minimum, using for example, analgesics

and humane end*points. Refinement of experimental methods, for instance through

adequate post*operative care, good housing, and improved anesthesia and analgesia

has been standard practice in biomedical research for many years.

3inally the number of animals used should be reduced to the minimum

consistent with achieving the scientific ob-ectives of the study. The numbers

needed will depend on the variability of the animals, the minimum sie of any

?F-p.cit., 9ouncil of the Royal $ociety #3ebruary 1HH?%, pg. ++.

* ?> *


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statistically significant difference between treatment groups and the chances of

obtaining misleadingly negative conclusions. 7sing animals of similar age, weight,

genetic composition and so forth can reduce variability of the animals. ;est use of

the animals can be obtained by appropriate experimental design and by correct

statistical analysis of the data. 3ailure to use good design will result in more

animals being used than it is necessary.

*%,%* The 3uide

The )uide for the 9are and 7se of Baboratory !nimals #&The 3uide(% was

first published in +>6 as a manual for institutionsthat use animals in research. The

)uide must followed by researchers and facilities funded by 8ational Institutes of

ealth #8I%. It serves as the basis for inspection standards for such groups as the

!ssociation for the !ssessment and !ccreditation of Baboratory !nimal 9are?>

#!!!B!9%, an independent, and peer review accreditation agency. )uide

published by the 8ational Research 9ouncil and the Institute for Baboratory

!nimal Research #IB!R%, is not only the basis for !!!B!9 but it is also a central

part of 0ublic ealth $ervice 0olicy on the humane care and use of laboratory

animals.

?> !!!B!9 monitors animal care and accredits research institutions on a voluntary basis by

evaluating laboratories every 6 years to ensure scientists comply with the guidelines set forth in the

Guide. !!!B!9 International is also now accrediting research and testing programs throughout theworld.

* @H *


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Research Ethics

*%,%+ Ani'a( .e(are Act

The first federal law regulating animal research was the Baboratory !nimal

elfare !ct #!!% passed by 9ongress in +>. This public law regulated the

transport, sale, and handling of animals and provided for licensing of animal

dealers to prevent pet theft and their sale to research facilities. The original act

covered dogs, cats, nonhuman primates, guinea pigs, hamsters and rabbits. The

passage of the !! was also stimulated by public outrage. It was aroused in +>Hs

by the depiction of 9ife magaine that graphically documented starving dog

research, and the practice of pet theft for sale to research facilities .It protects all

species of animal in all types of research within the exception of rats, mice, birds

bred and agricultural animals used for production purposes. This includes oos,

circuses, research labs, hospitals, businesses, federal agencies, dealers, breeders,

etc.

In +>F@, the !! was amended to provide the formation of Institutional

!nimal 9are and 7se 9ommittees #I!979% to review research proposals involving

animal and to oversee institutional animal care and use programs. The 0ublic

ealth $ervices #0$% 0olicy on umane 9are and 7se of Baboratory !nimals and

the )uide also address the formation, duties and membership of the I!979.

* @+ *


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*%- Conc(usion

This chapter discussed on some examples to demonstrate some evidences to

show that development in scientific nowledge depends on animal experiments. It

is illustrated that evaluation regarding research and the complexity of the issues

cover animal experimentation. In writing the historical portions of this dissertation,

the author nevertheless tried to record some of great causation for historical

evolution. !s giving more focus to the value of animals in experimentation, the

scientific community must continue to stress out the benefits of using animals in

research and the role of scientists in protecting and regulating the welfare of

laboratory animals. !ll in all, the previous stage showed the importance of

historical development that is significant for modern science. !pproaching these

substances, the next step is to put in enough detail of process in order to grasp the

finding towards hypotheses.

* @1 *


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Research Ethics

CHAPTER THREE

ETHODO1O3=

9hapter two and three encompass the research ethics in animal

experimentation. It has been analyed that the impotency in one side and the other

on controversies amongst animal experimentation. ;ut this is deliberate. There

were so many strong views about animal research that the author felt it was more

constructive in the long run to give an account of field study rather than own

opinion. Entailing to this, this chapter will go ahead for research 'ethodo(o#",

resu(t, research (i'itation, and conc(usion of the chapter.

* @6 *


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Research Ethics

provide clues about cause and effect, but the author yield descriptive findings,

painting a sample of selected student:s view on issue of research ethics.

Sa'!(e

! survey targets some population of first year students who tae

Introduction to $cience and Technology $tudies course. owever, handling all +6F

student overwhelmed although all +6F student been distributed the question

whereof only ?? is to be returnedW 3ortunately, there is an easier way that yields

accurate results/ the collected of data from a sample of ?? students, a part of

population that represent the whole. ;y that, in reaching this conclusion the author

is maing a -udgement about all students of $cience and Technology $tudies course

#the population% from analying some of the students #sample%.

ere, there are still pragmatic reasons why a sample should be taen rather

than a complete population. ;udgets and time constrain is common problem in

doing research. $ame goes to author because can:t afford the time and money to do

a census, i.e. distributed questionnaires to every single students in the course. The

irony of it is that sometimes sample can be accurate than all students. ! small

group of students in tutorial class and closely supervised can do a better -ob than a

large group of poorly coordinated by researcher. 9oming to this, it also helps the

author to analye in detail for answers.

* @@ *


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Research Ethics

6uestions

andling sample is the first step in carry out a survey.;esides, it also needs

a plan for asing questions and recording answers.This survey used questionnaires

for this purpose.


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Research Ethics

In this way, researcher managed to maintain the motivation and co*

operation of the students. $elf*administered questionnaires had been completed in

the presence of researcher. 3or this, students had been given selected articles that

represent the comments of leading scientist, technicians, and social commentators.

Then, students have to give respond by analysing the opposing viewpoints and fill

in blans in the box that been given #table +%. This requires students to argue issue

between yes: and no: after read the articles then students considered to comments

via students: critical thining sills.

I$$7E/ Is the use of animal in research -ustified=

LE$ 8"

Issue

summary

5ar 5atfield summaried the

history of protests against the use

of animals in research and argues

that research community needs to

play greater part in

communicating the benefits of

animal use and the commitment

of researchers themselves to

protecting and regulating the

welfare of laboratory animals

Research attorney $teven a

maintains that current animal

protection laws do not adequately

protect animals used in medical

and other research and that, for

society to be virtuous, it must

recognie the rights of animals not

to be sacrificed for human needs.

+.

1.

* @A *


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Research Ethics

6.

Tab(e $8 Surve" 2uestions

+%$%* Usin# Avai(ab(e Data8 Secondar" and Historica( Ana("sis

This study is not based on empirical wor at all but contributes through the

systematic and detailed analysis of existing texts. 3or this, the author applied

secondary analysis by maing use of existing data. This method is easier than first

methodology for this study' collecting data first hand, and it allows the study of

historical issues.

+%* Resu(t


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Research Ethics

+%+ Research 1i'itation

This pro-ect will stress on explaining the history of the use af animal in

research starts from !ristotle. $econdly, the choronicle of documents developed in

order to protect animals: right. In depth, the discussion will evaluate awareness

among first year students taing Introduction to $cience and Technology $tudies

course on their understanding regarding animal experimentation.

+%, Conc(usion

Reaching out development and enumeration of hypothesis, the research

methodology describes the data that it used and the methodology adopted. In

seiing of hypothesis towards animal use in research influence moral -ustification

in students, the device is given emphasis here. 9ollectively in methodology chapter,

it taes account into three ma-or consideration' research methodology, result and

research limitation. The research methodology includes sampling method and the

sample itself. It is very important to note that by referring to this section, readers

can verify findings in this study. Encounter to this, the next chapter has

considerable depth in sorting out prior to data analyses of student:s moral

-ustification in maing decision.

* @> *


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,%$ Resu(ts

In this fragment, the results that are new nowledge to readers are

presented. Results are briefly explained and presented through charts.

!s stated in the previous chapter, students have to reproduce in order to

learn what it is made up of opposing viewpoints by filling the given box. The

reading represented the comments of leading scientist and social commentators

reflect of viewpoints. They have been selected for their liveliness and substance

because of their value in a debate framewor. ere, the author presumed that

students: answers had been influenced by their reading on article' Taing $ides/

9lashing Ciews on 9ontroversial Issues in $cience.

9onducted in 7niversity of 5alaya, the study was primarily a review of ??

surveys targeting students' both female and male. Results of survey were obtained

from ++ male and 66 female students. #see chart +%

* + *


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Gender

Female

Male

9hart +

3actors related to listed instrument include the reading from selected articles

and the questions used. 3actors related to the respondents including gender,

educational bacground and practical experiences. These imply that direct

comparisons of surveys results can be made from different course taing by the

students. owever, result of these surveys also suggests that many factors may

influence attitude of the students and effect on advantage and disadvantage of using

animal in research.

* 1 *


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Student's background

S & T majoring

Elective course

9hart 1

The factors that may affect outcome of surveys are both related to the

instrument used and to the respondent. 3rom the answers, among the list of factors

that they may have been influenced is given from question associated with the use

of animals in research. This is because factors may be relevant in a few answers on

advantage or disadvantage.

3inding of advantages in using animal in research as such' demonstrate

animal research was important for bioscience research and it was essential for

medical research. This indicated an exception results from an article such as

&anti1i1isection and animal ri$ht $roups campai$n that animal experimentation is

scientifically has ne1er produced any medical benefit( which is taen from the

briefing for subtopic entitled/ The !natomy of 9ampaign. The article illustrated on

* 6 *


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the mainstream antivivisection and animals: rights group campaign very actively.

9ome in so far that some of these campaigning organiations tae a dogmatic line,

and argue that animal experimentation is scientifically invalid and has never

produced any medical benefit

Entailing to this, most students state that a refined and relatively unexplored

morality is what scientist say, request, and research. $trengthening such ethical

structures is the hard necessities of producing

Documents

Final Complete