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Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid Ho Kyung Kim [email protected] Pusan National University Introduction to Medical Engineering

Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/IntroMedEng/… · • Blurring or unsharpness due to x‐ray focal‐spot

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Page 1: Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/IntroMedEng/… · • Blurring or unsharpness due to x‐ray focal‐spot

Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid

Ho Kyung [email protected]

Pusan National University

Introduction to Medical Engineering

Page 2: Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/IntroMedEng/… · • Blurring or unsharpness due to x‐ray focal‐spot

Outline

• Filter– patient dose reduction– beam hardening

• Collimator– FOV restriction

• Antiscatter grid– air gap– scanning slit– scatter‐to‐primary ratio

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Projection radiography

• Most commonly used method of medical imaging utilizing x rays, called conventionalradiography

• Regarding shadow cast by a semitransparent body illuminated by x rays• Representing a projection of the 3‐D volume of the body onto a 2‐D imaging surface

limiting depth resolution; hence limiting contrast(conspicuity: "hide" important lesions)

• Representing the “transmission” of the x‐ray beam thru the patient, weighted by the integrated loss of beam E due to scattering & absorption in the body

• To screen for pneumonia, heart disease, lung disease, bone fractures, cancer & vascular disease

• Overall imaging conditions of projection radiographic system– Exposure time ~0.1 sec– Image size 14  17 in.– Exposure level 3–4 mR of a chest radiograph (= 1/100 of the annual background dose)

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Instrumentation

• X‐ray tube• Filters/collimators• Grids• Detectors

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Filtration & restriction

• Filtration– Process of absorbing low‐E x‐ray photons before they enter the patient– X‐ray spectrum: polyenergetic = bremsstrahlung + characteristic radiations– Very “undesirable” for low‐E photons to enter the body

• Almost entirely absorbed w/i the body  contributing to “patient dose” but not the image

– Inherent filtering• Tungsten anode itself• Glass housing of the x‐ray tube & the dielectric oil• Accentuated over time due to the aging of x‐ray tubes (vaporization of W filaments)

– Added filtering• Placing metal in the x‐ray beam outside of the tube

– Al (1–3 mm thick) typically– Higher‐E systems: Cu + Al (to attenuate the 8 keV characteristic x rays from Cu, typ. 1 mm)

• Additional 1.0 mm Al/Eq of filtering by the “silvered mirror” placed w/i the "collimator"

– Beam hardening• The increase in the beam’s “effective energy” as a progressive shift in the position of the spectrum “to the 

right” due to filtering

Note that the National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements (NCRP) recommends a min. filtration of 2.5 mm Al/Eq at the exit port of the x‐ray tube for the reduction of patient dose

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Beam hardeningdue to progressive shift in the position of the spectrumcaused by preferential absorption of low‐E photons

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Example

For radiography systems operating above 70 kVp, the NCRP recommends a min. total filtration of 2.5 mm Al/Eq at the exit port of the x‐ray tube. Although such filtration reduces high‐energy as well as low‐energy x‐rays, thus requiring longer exposure times to properly expose the x‐ray film, the overall dose to the patient is reduced because of the reduction in low‐energy x‐rays are absorbed almost entirely by the patient. At 80 kVp, what thickness of Cu would provide 2.5 mm Al/Eq of filtration? (Note: 𝜇 𝜌⁄ (Al) = 0.2015 cm2/g & 𝜇 𝜌⁄ (Cu) = 0.7519 cm2/g at 80 kVp; 𝜌 (Al) = 2.699 g/cm3, 𝜌 (Cu) = 8.960 g/cm3) 

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Page 8: Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/IntroMedEng/… · • Blurring or unsharpness due to x‐ray focal‐spot

Example

For radiography systems operating above 70 kVp, the NCRP recommends a min. total filtration of 2.5 mm Al/Eq at the exit port of the x‐ray tube. Although such filtration reduces high‐energy as well as low‐energy x‐rays, thus requiring longer exposure times to properly expose the x‐ray film, the overall dose to the patient is reduced because of the reduction in low‐energy x‐rays are absorbed almost entirely by the patient. At 80 kVp, what thickness of Cu would provide 2.5 mm Al/Eq of filtration? (Note: 𝜇 𝜌⁄ (Al) = 0.2015 cm2/g & 𝜇 𝜌⁄ (Cu) = 0.7519 cm2/g at 80 kVp; 𝜌 (Al) = 2.699 g/cm3, 𝜌 (Cu) = 8.960 g/cm3) 

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Sol.)𝜇 Al 𝜇 𝜌⁄ 𝜌 0.5438 cm‐1; 𝜇 Cu 6.737 cm‐1 

𝑒 𝑒

𝑥 Cu 𝑥 Al 0.2 mm

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• Restriction beam– Process of absorbing the x rays outside a certain field of view– To avoid exposing parts of the patient that need not be imaged– To help reduce the deleterious effects of “Compton scatter”– Basic kinds of beam restrictors

① Diaphragms– Flat pieces of lead w/ holes– Simple & inexpensive– Fixed geometry used in dedicated systems that have only one purpose (e.g., chest imaging)

② Cones or cylinders– Fixed geometry & better performance than diaphragms

③ Collimators– Variable diaphragms comprised of movable pieces of lead– Expensive but flexible– Usually two collimators: one near the tube & one farther away from the tube

» “Mirror” btwn them to illuminate (using a light from side) the FOV w/ an alignment grid

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Compensation filters & contrast agents

• Attenuation: the process by which x rays are absorbed or redirected (scattered) w/i the body or other objects in the FOV– Different amounts of attenuation in body tissues ~ , E

differential attenuation  contrast

• Sometimes need to artificially change the natural attenuation of the body prior to detecting x rays, which can be obtained by using compensation filters & contrast agents

• Compensation filters– Used when difficult to obtain images of subjects having big differences in attenuation over area 

w/i the same exposure because of the limited dynamic range of x‐ray detectors• overexposed in lowly attenuated region while underexposed in highly attenuated region

– Specially shaped Al or leaded‐plastic object for an x‐ray detector w/ smaller dynamic range– Placed btwn the x‐ray source & the patient or in some cases btwn the patient & the detector

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• Contrast agents

– Used when difficult to visualize different soft tissues due to insufficient intrinsic contrast– Chemical compounds to increase x‐ray absorption w/i anatomical regions of interest, thereby 

enhancing x‐ray contrast

– Utilizing the K‐edge absorption effect• Leading to very high differential absorption btwn the contrast agent & the surrounding tissues; enhancing 

contrast

– Iodine (Z = 53): EK = 33.2 keV• Intravascular injection or ingestion• Blood vessels, heart chambers, tumors, infections, kidneys, bladder

– Barium (Z = 56) : EK = 37.4 keV• Administered as a chalky “milkshake”• Gastrointestinal tract (stomach and small & large bowel)

– Air• "Opposite" type of contrast to that of I & Ba because it does not readily absorb x‐rays• e.g., "inflated" lungs

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After injection Before injection (mask image) After subtraction

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Grids, airgaps, & scanning slits

• Scattering process– Causing a random “fog” throughout the image; thereby reducing the contrast of image– SPR (scatter‐to‐primary ratio)

• Reduction methods: grids, airgaps, & scanning slits– Difficult even w/ energy‐sensitive detectors because of polyenergetic x‐ray spectra

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• Grids– Thin strips of Pb alternating w/ highly transmissive interspace mat’l (e.g., Al or plastic)– Linear, focused grid– “Crosshatch” grids, “parallel” grids, …

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𝑊𝐻

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– Grid ratio• A measure of the effectiveness of the grid for reducing scatter

• grid ratio

– 𝐻 = height of the lead strips– 𝑊 = spacing btwn the lead strips– 6:1–16:1 in conventional radiographic systems– Down to 2:1 in mammography systems– Higher grid ratio (more stopping off‐axis radiation) for thick body parts (e.g., abdomen or chest)– Lower grid ratio for thin body parts (e.g., extremities)

– Grid spacing• Generally reported using its reciprocal, known as grid frequency• 60 cm‐1 for conventional radiographic systems• 80 cm‐1 for mammography systems

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Note that grids w/ higher grid ratios (tall lead strips or fine lead strip spacing) are more capable of stopping off‐axis radiation => More probable to stop primary photons, increasing image noise => Requiring higher patient dose to maintain a high‐quality image

Consider the tradeoff btwn primary & scatter radiations– Grid conversion factor (GCF)

• Characterizing the amount of additional exposure required for a  particular grid

• GCF

3 8 typ.

• Use a grid: when the tube voltage > 60 kVp (not need for isotropic scattering for low‐E photons);when imaging a body part thicker than 10 cm (increased scatter w/ patient thick.)

– Stationary grids• Introducing visible artifacts (e.g., grid lines)

– Potter‐Bucky diaphragm• Moving the grid 2–3 cm during exposure in a linear or circular path

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Page 20: Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/IntroMedEng/… · • Blurring or unsharpness due to x‐ray focal‐spot

• Airgaps– Leaving an airgap btwn the patient & the detector  an effective means of scatter rejection– Cons:

• Increased geometric magnification• Blurring or unsharpness due to x‐ray focal‐spot size effect• Need of larger field coverage

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• Scanning slits– Placed in front of and/or in back of the patient– Providing greater than 95% scatter reduction– More complex & costly system– Longer exposure times (large heat loading of x‐ray tube)

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Page 22: Filtering and Anti-Scatter Grid - Pusan National Universitybml.pusan.ac.kr/LectureFrame/Lecture/Undergraduates/IntroMedEng/… · • Blurring or unsharpness due to x‐ray focal‐spot

Wrap‐up

• Filter– patient dose reduction– beam hardening

• Collimator– FOV restriction

• Antiscatter grid– air gap– scanning slit– scatter‐to‐primary ratio

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