DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 383 883 CE 069 248

AUTHOR Joyner, Randy L., Ed.TITLE AERA Vocational Education Special Interest Group

Proceedings. American Educational ResearchAssociation Annual Meeting (San Francisco,California, April 18-22, 1995).

PUB DATE Apr 95NOTE 166p.; For the 1994 proceedings, see ED 368 960.PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Career Choice; Comparative Analysis; Developed

Nations; *Educational Environment; EducationalResearch; *Education Work Relationship; Females;Foreign Countries; High School Graduates; IndividualDevelopment; Integrated Curriculum; *Joh Skills; JobTraining; Models; Nontraditional Occupations; ProblemSolving; Program Implementation; Public Policy;Secondary Education; Teacher Attitudes; TechnologyEducation; *Tech Prep; Thinking Skills; VocationalEducation

ABSTRACTThese proceedings contain 13 papers: "A Study of the

Impact of a Community-Based School to Work Program for High SchoolYouth" (Adler et al.); "A Comparison of Workforce PreparationPolicies in the United States and Finland" (Lasonen, Frantz, Jr.);"The Association of Social Position to Restructuring Ability andSymbolic Orientation" (Fritz); "Factors that Influenc-e Women's Choiceto Work in the Trades" (Greene, Stitt-Gohdes); "Ideology andVocational Curriculum: Problems, Politics, and Possibilities"(Gregson); "Usable Knowledge and Problem-Solving Proficiency inOccupational Training" (Krischer); "Use of Thinking Skills in aSelected Work Environment" (Bacchus, Schmidt); "Evolving a Model forEvaluating Tech Prep Implementation" (Ruhland et al.); "On BecomingReflective Vocational Educators: An Inductive Case Study" (Schell,Black); "Mathematics, Reading, Science, Speaking, and Writing SkillsEmphasized in High School Vocational and Academic Classes" (Schmidt);"Educational Environment of Tenth Grade Students: Comparison byGrades, Ethnicity, and GPA (Grade Point Average)" (Newsom-Stewart,Sutphin); "Skills Required of Employees with Only a High SchoolDiploma" (Volk, Peel); and "Integration of Mathematics intoTechnology Education as Perceived by Technology Education Teachers"(Zhang, Suess). (YLB)

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U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educahonal Research and Improvement

ATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERICI

This document has been teptOduCed asreceived horn the person Or Ozganizationoriginating II

CI Mono; changes have been made to ImprOverePloductIon Quality

a Points of view or opinions stated .1'1 I hi% document do not necessarily epresent offiCialOERI position or vohcy

-PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC1

e N.

AERAVOCATIONAL EDUCATION

SPECIAL INTEREST GROUP

PROCEEDINGS

American Educational Research Association

1995 Annual MeetingSan Francisco, CA

April 18-22, 1995

Randy L. Joyner,SIG Program Chair and Proceedings Editor

East Carolina University

NOTES FROM SIG PROGRAM CHAIR

The 1995 American Education Research Association (AERA) AnnualMeeting was held in San Francisco, April 18-22, 1995. The theme for theAERA Conference was grounded in growing acceptance of the need forinterdependence among the human service processions (e.g., education,social work, school psychology, public health administration) in order toeffectively serve children, adults, and families in America. The 1995AERA Annual Meeting focused on pioneering research and scholarlyefforts associated with interdisciplinary partnerships and the resultinginterprofessional collaboration.

The AERA Business Education and Information Systems Research SpecialInterest Group (SIG) had seven sessions: four paper presentationsessions, two roundtable sessions, and a business meeting. A copy of theSIG program agenda is provided on page v-xi. The 27 papers presentedat the conference were selected through a blind, peer refereed process.There were a total of 15 reviewers, with each proposal being read by threereviewers. The 13 papers contained herein are from authors who wishedto have their papers published in the Proceedings and also submittedthem within the designated time frame and in the appropriate format.

Lt. CL c.Ran L. Joyiter, PrjgraVocal Education SIG1995 AERA Annual Meeting

ai

For further information, contact

nd Proceedings Editor

Randy L. Joyner, Ed.D.East Carolina UniversityBusiness, Vocational, and Technical Education2317 General Classroom BuildingGreenville, NC 27858

(919)328-6175

E-Mail: bejoyner@ecuvm.cis.ecu.edu

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Notes from 1995 Vocational Education SIG Program Chair ii

SIG Program

Paper Presentations:

A Study of the Impact of A Community Based Schoolto Work Program for High School YouthLaurel Adler, John Cragin, Peter Sear Is, Rita Hems ley& James Dick; The Los Angeles Area Business/Education Partnership 1

A Companison of Workforce Preparation Policiesin the United Statz-s and Finland

Johanna Lasonen, University of JyvaskylaNevin R.Frantz, Jr., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 19

The Association of Social Position to RestructuringAbility and Symbolic OrientationRobert L. Fritz, University of Georgia '31

Factors That Influence Women's Choice to Work in the TradesCherry K. Greene, Middle Georgia CollegeWanda L. Stitt-Gohdes, University of Georgia 40

Ideology and Vocational Curriculum: Problems,Politics, and PossibilitiesJames A. Gregson, Oklahoma State University 45

Usable Knowledge and Problem-Solving Proficiencyin Occupational TrainingMichael Krischer, Western Michigan University 57

Use of Thinking Skills In a Selected Work EnvironmentRobert C. Magee Bacchus, Morehead State UniversityB. June Schmidt, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 70

Evolving A Model for Evaluating Tech Prep ImplementationSheila K. Ruhland, Rodney L. Custer, andBob R. Stewart, University of Missouri-Columbia 74

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On Becoming Reflective Vocational Educators:An Inductive Case Study

John W. Schell and Rhonda S. Black, University ofGeorgia 95

Mathematics, Reading, Science, Speaking, and WriiingSkills Emphasized in High School Vocational andAcademic ClassesB. June Schmidt, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 114

Educational Environment of Tenth Grade Students:Comparison by Grades, Ethnicity and GPAMhora Newsom-Stewart and H. D. Sutphin, Cornell University 124

Skills Required of Employees With Only a High School DiplomaKenneth S. Volk and Henry A. Peel, East Carolina University 133

Integration of Mathematics Into Technology Education AsPerceived by Technology Education Teacher

Chi Zhang, Michael Reese Hospital Medical Center &University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine andBill Suess, Cape Henlopen High School 145

IV

OM AEU

VOCATO@NNI, EDUCATION Mau INTEREST GROW

IMS PROGRAM

SAN [FRANCISCO, CALOTORNIAMEL IE3-22.

4.38 RoundtablesTuesday, April 18, 19952:15 p.m. - 2:55 p.m.Hilton, Plaza Ballroom, Lobby Level

Tables:

Perkins II Performance Measures and Standards: Lessons Learned From EarlyImplementersBrian Steelier, Lawrence Hanser, Bryan Hallmark, RAND Corporation;Mikala Rahn, Karen Levesque, Gareth Hoachlander, Dave Emanuel, Steve Klein,MPR Association

Evolving a Model for Evaluating Tech Prep ImplementationSheila K. Ruhland, Rodney Custer, Bob Stewart, University of Missouri-Columbia

Home Study Environments of Tenth Grade Students: Implications for SchoolReform of Academic and Vocational EducationMhora Newsom-Stewart, H. D. Sutphin, Cornell University

An Exploratory Examination of A Framework for Evaluating VocationalEducation ProgramsDonald D. Peasley, Cornell UniversityN. L. McCaslin, The Ohio State University

Families' Contribution to Preparation for Work: A Lifespan PerspectiveWendy L. Way, University of Wisconsin-MadisonM. M. Rossman, University of Minnesota

5.02 RoundtablesTuesday, April 18, 19953:05 p.m. - 3:45 p.m.Hilton, Plaza Ballroom, Lobby Level

Tables:

Job Profiles of Secondary Vocational Education Teachers in The NetherlandsW. G. R. Stoel, J. N. Streunzer, University of Twente

The Relationship of Social Position to Restructuring Skill and SymbolicOrientationRobert L. Fritz, University of Georgia

Integrating of Mathematics into Technology Education as Perceived byTechnology Education TeachersChi Zhang, Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center; William Suess,Cape Henlope High School

Developing Leadership in Vocational Education Through On-The-JobExperiencesJudith J. Lambreclzt, Charles Hopkins, Jerome Moss, Jr., Eric C. Crane,University of Minnesota; Curtis R. Finch, Lex Bruce, Virginia Tech

Evaluation of Youth Apprenticeship Programs in GeorgiaClifton L. Smith, University of Georgia

Reform of Vocational and Technical EducationRichard L. Lynch, University of Georgia

6.50-Current Trends in Vocational Education:School-to-Work and Tech Prep

Tuesday, April 18, 19954:05 p.m. - 6:05 p.m.Parc 55, Ruebens Room, 4th Floor

Chair/Discussant:

Robert C. Magee Bacchus, Morehead State University

Participants:

Tech Prep Program Evaluation in the United States: A Panel DiscussionFrank T. Hammons, Florida International UniversityMarion Asche, Virginia TechDebra Bragg, University of IllinoisThomas Owens, NWRELMichael Rubin, ETICarolyn Dornsife, NCRVE.

Study Adolescent Work: A National PerspectiveBarbara Schneider, NORC and The University of ChicagoCharles Bidwell, The University of ChicagoJames Rosenbau, Northwestern UniversityNorton Grubb, University of California at BerkleyBetsy Brown Ruzzi, Workforce Skills Program National Center on

Education and WorkJohn Porter, School-to-Work National Alliance for Restructuring

EducationJoseph Conaty, US Department of Education

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8.12 Business MeetingTuesday, April 18, 19956:15 p.m. - 7:45 p.m.Hilton Union Square 11, 4th Floor

President:

Larry Pucel, University of Minnesota

Program Chair:

Randy L. Joyner, East Carolina University

Secretary:

Vivian Arnold, East Carolina University

Invited Speaker:

An Outside on the Inside--A Candid View of the United States Department ofEducation

Karen Kuhla, University of Virginia

Paper Presenters:

A School District Response to Tech Prep: A Study for Academic and VocationalEducation Integration and Community Partnerships

Michael J. Herrick, University of Wisconsin--Eau Claire

Los Angeles Area Business/Education Partnership: A Study of the Impact of aCommunity Based School-to-Work Program on High-Risk Youth

Laurel Adler, John Cragin, E. San Gabriel Valley RegionalOccupational Program; Rita Hensley, University of California-Riverside; Chris Almeida, California Department of Education

14.49 Career Development Through Vocational EducationWednesday, April 19, 199510:35 a.m. - 12:05 p.mNikko, White Pearl II Room, 2nd Floor

Chair/Discussant:

Shirley W. Hall, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Trevis Air ForceBase, California

Participants:

Evaluating State and Local Initiatives in Planning and Implementing School-to-WorkTransition Programs

Floyd L. McKinney, Western Michigan University

Factors Influencing Women's Choices to Work in Skilled TradesWanda L. Stitt-Ghodes, Cherry Greene, University of Georgia

Vocational Education and Values Regarding LaborWiel Veugelers, University of Amsterdam

Voices of Diversity in Emerging Vocationalism: Student Perspectives on School ClimateVictor M Hernandez-Gantes, L. A. Jones, J. Jones, T. Holub, D. Sanchez,University of Wisconsin-Madison

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16.50 A New Vision for Vocational EducationWednesday, April 19, 199512:25 p.m. - 1:55 p.m.Nikko, White Pearl II Room, 2nd Floor

Chair/Discussant:

Randy L. Joyner, East Carolina University

Participants:

Research-Based Case Studies: Creating Resources to Assist Teachers in the Integration

of Academic and Vocational EducationCurtis R. Finch, B. June Schmidt, Susan L. Faulkner, Virginia Tech; JerryKandies, Delta State University

Mathematics, Reading, Science, Speaking, and Writing Skills Emphasized in High School

Vocational and Academic ClassesB. June Schmidt, Virginia Tech

On Becoming Reflective Vocational Educators: A Case Study of a Professor and His

Co-LearnersJohn W. Schell, Rhonda Black Stout, University of Georgia

Ideology and Vocational Curriculum: Problems, Politics, and PossibilitiesJames A. Gregson, Oklahoma State University

18.56 Workplace Skills NeededWith A High School Diploma

Wednesday, April 19, 19952:15-3:45 p.mNikko, White Pearl II, 2nd Floor

Chair/Discussant:

Phyllis Bunn, Virginia Tech

Participants:

A Comparison of Contemporary Approaches to Workforce Preparation of Youth in theUnited States and FinlandNevin K Frantz, Virginia Tech; Johanna Lasonen, University of Jyvaskyla

Skills Required of Employees With Only A High School DiplomaKen Volk, Henry Peele, East Carolina University

Use of Thinking Skills in a Selected Work EnvironmentRobert C. Magee Bacchus, Morehead State UniversityB. June Schmidt, Virginia Tech

Usable Knowledge and Problem-Solving Proficiency in Occupational TrainingMichael Krischer, Portage, MI

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R Study of the Impact of aCoomovoity hated School toIffolk ',aglow lot Nigh filekYouth

Laurel Adler, John Cragin, PeterSurfs, Rita Hemsley & James DickThe Los Angeles Area Business/Education Partnership'

Background: The New EconomyIt has been widely documented

that the income disparity between therich and the rest of American societyhas been steadily widening for morethan two decades. As Walter RusselMeade (Los Angeles Times, 1994)points out, "rising (Gross DomesticProduct) no longer means a higherstandard of living for the majority ofAmerican households." A broad rangeof policies have been proposed toreverse the trend. However, what hasbeen less apparent is the strong parallelbetween the economy of the 1990s andthat of the 1 890S.

A century ago the averageAmerican family was still struggling tocope with the economic dislocationsengendered by the Civil War and thePanic of 1873, which had combined toreverse nearly 30 years of growingequality of wealth and a rise of amiddle class. Income distribution hadbecome radically skewed. Immigrantscrowded our major cities, competingfor work with hordes of American bornfarm laborers made jobless by advancesin agricultural technology. In amonumental example of short-sightedness, the director of the U. S .Patent Office resigned because "every-thing useful or necessary has alreadybeen invented." Newspapers printedhundreds of articles warning of theimpending collapse of American societyand perhaps of all civilization.

LTo be sure, the oncomingscientific revolution was already inevidence. But it was a future manyfeared rather than welcomed,

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apprehensive that only a wealthy elitewould benefit from the new technologywhile the masses would be reduced topoverty. Of course, as we all know, theensuing decades brought enormousriches and prosperity and the creationof undreamed of employmentopportunities. In the 1890s no oneforesaw a society needing automobileassemblers, machinists, flight atten-dants, X-ray technicians, punch pressoperators, airframe mechanics, dry-wailers or a host of other occupationswhich did not exist then but which arein demand now.

Today, however, the manufac-turing jobs which brought prosperity toso many are disappearing, going theway of nineteenth-century farm labor.

Secretary of Labor Robert Reich(December, 1994) describing how jobskills are affecting the social structure ofthe United States, explains that the oldmiddle class which has dominated theeconomic scene in America since WorldWar II has splintered into anunderclass, an overclass and an"anxious class". The educationalbackgrounds of people in the formermiddle class may have differed, butthere was an underlying unity. Now themiddle class has developed intoanxious group of people who hold jobsbut are justifiably uneasy about theirown standing in the economy andfearful for their children's futures. Theremainder have fallen into either anunderclass that is increasingly isolatedfrom the core economy or an overclassthat is well-positioned to move up,capitalizing on market place changes.The fundamental fault line according toReich between these groups is based oneducation and skills.

Drucker (November, 1994)describes the current trend as movingtoward what he calls the "knowledgebased society". According to Drucker,in this economic order, knowledge, notlabor or raw material or capital is thekey resource. Drucker notes that theknowledge workers require a good dealof formal education and the ability toacquire and to apply theoretical and

analytical knowledge. They must have adifferent approach to work and adifferent mind-set. Above all, they mustdevelop a habit of continuous learning.Displaced workers cannot simply moveinto knowledge work or services theway displaced farmers moved intoindustrial work. At the very least theyhave to change their basic attitudes,values, and beliefs (Drucker, 1994).Farmers were not "pushed off" or"displaced". They went into industrialemployment as fast as they could.Industrial jobs required no skills theydid .not already possess and noadditional knowledge. But as Druckeracknowledges (1995), in the knowledgesociety, more and more skills will beneeded.

Changing the mind-set of theAmerican public from anindustrial-based economy in which lowskilled workers could earn high pay, toan economy in which the acquisition ofknowledge is the key, is the socialchallenge of the knowledge society.However, as Marshall and Tucker notein Thinking for a Livjag, (1992), for mostof this century, American enterprise hasbeen organized on the principle thatmost of us do not need to know muchto do the work that has to be done. TheUnited States economy has beenstructured to operate largely on thep.emise that, for the country to besuccessful, only a few need to know orbe able to do very much. The Americanworkforce has been split into twodisparate parts (Department of Labor,1992). A small minority, empowered byeducation, is highly skilled and highlypaid. Others have been isolated andrelegated to low pay for work requiringminimal skills.

Students now need to developboth broader and deeper skills in orderto meet new competitive standards andto complement flexible organizationalstructures and technology (Carnevale,1993). American workers needcompetencies that go far beyond thetraditionally recognized "Big Three" ofreading, writing, and arithm 'ic(Foucar-Szocki, 1992). On-the job

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diverse tasks have been combined innew ways and even entry-level workershave been given new responsibilities.Employees today need to know how tocommunicate effectively and how tothink creatively and independently.They need to be problem-solvers. Theymust be adept at negotiating and atworking as part of a team. They mustknow how to lead, how to motivate,how to improve continually. FortuneMagazine (June, 1994) describes thenew kind of employee as one who isempathetic, flexible, inventive, and ableto work with minimal levels ofsupervision. The competitive workplaceof today, regardless of the product orservice, is a high skill environmentdesigned around technology and peoplewho work as part of a much largerwhole.

Education and the Economy

Education in America has beencharacterized by a duality of its own.According to Reich (1992), the vastmajority of America's students arebeing subjected to a standardizededucation designed for a no longerexisting standardized economy. By thisReich explains that America'seducational system at mid-centurymirrored the national economy of high-volume production with an assemblyline curriculum. Reich, like Marshalland Tucker, observes that although theeconomy is changing dramatically, theform and function of the Americaneducation system has remained roughlythe same (Reich, 1992) . This system,while continuing to serve the needs ofthe university bound student in asomewhat acceptable manner, hasvirtually ignores: the more than 50% ofstudents who do not pursue atraditional four year college education,even though these students face themost daunting obstacles in attemptingto find well-paying jobs. The mismatchbetween the focus of K-12 schools andserious, coherent econotnit_ preparationof students is deeply rooted in hedualism between culture and vocation,

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head and hand, abstract and concrete,theoretical and applied (Berryman,1992).

Stern (1992) notes that since the1917 Smith-Hughes Act, vocationaleducation has been defined aspreparation for occupations notordinarily requiring a bachelor's degreeor advanced degree. Accordingly,students aspiring to the more highlypaid and prestigious jobs for whichcollege degrees are required haveavoided vocational education. Theunintended result has been toinstitutionalize a superficial dichotomybetween academics and vocationaleducation. In the schools, this dualismmanifests itself in decontextualizedacademics and academically debasedvocational education (Berryman, 1992).This duality is currently lockingindividuals out of the economicmainstream, either precluding theirentry into or making them marginal tothe labor market.

Academic and Vocational Integration

The integration of vocationaland academic learning is intended toeliminate the dichotomy that existsbetween vocational and academiceducation. Integral to the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994, thecore of this concept is to organize thebest curricular and pedagogicalpractices of academic and vocationaleducation into a single, "integrated"experience. The goal of an integratedcurriculum is to ensure that eachstudent learns both theory andapplication in specific careerpreparation, learns transferableacademic and vocational skills that areneeded in the workplace, anddemonstrates competence in those skillsthat assure successful transition fromhigh school to postsecondary education.According to the Rand Corporation(1993), this approach is designed torectify the following perceivedproblems: 1) Poor basic and genericwork-related skills; 2) Inability to applyknowledge drawn from theory to solve

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workplace problems; 3) Lack ofengagement on the part of studentswho have dropped out of school; 4)Poor school transition in which studentsgraduate from high school unpreparedfor the transition to college or the workworld; and, 5) Negative effects oftracking.

Norman Grubb of the NationalCenter for Research in VocationalEducation (NCRVE) (1993), hasidentified three types of academicvocational integration: I ) Academicand Vocational Education in whichthere is horizontal (coordinatingcourses) and vertical (creatingsequences of courses) alignment ofacademic and vocational curriculum; 2)Secondary and Postsecondary Edu-cation where course content is artic-ulated to provide 2+2 and 2+2+2 coursesequencing; and, 3) School-to-Work inwhich curricula outcomes match theneeds of high-skills, technologicalworkplaces. Businesses are majorpartners in curriculum planning,program evaluation, and providingworksite instruction which allow thestudent to apply both academic andtechnical skills in a real life worksetting.

The Los Angeles Area Busi-ness/Education Partnership has de-veloped an academic/ vocational inte-gration reform model that has as itsmajor goals the reform of currentcurriculum and pedagogy along thethree types of integration outlinedabove by Grubb. The model for thisreform program is reflected in thetheories of Berryman (1992) andGardner (1991) and their work incognitive science. At the heart ofcognitive science is the presumptionthat intelligence and expertise are builtout of interaction with the environment,not in isolation from it (Berryman,1992). It thus challenges our traditional,and for the most part superficialdistinctions between head and hand,academic and vocational education,knowing and doing, abstract and

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applied, education and training, andschool-based and work-based learning.

Gardner (1991), notes thatultimately, any form of learningrequires performance. For thisperformance to have meaning, it mustbe offered in context, what Gardnercalls contextual learning. Gardneradvocates a learning structure builtalong the same lines as anapprenticeship, what Berryman callscognitive apprenticeships. Cognitiveapprenticeship according to Berrymanis a paradigm of instruction for all.

students, it is not a dever renaming ofvocational education. Cognitive appren-ticeships modify traditional appren-ticeship to include symbolically-basedand therefore less observable activities,such as reading, writing, andmathematics. The focus of cognitiveapprenticeship is on learning throughguided experience, emphasizingcognitive skills and processes, inaddition to the physical ones thatcharacterize traditional apprenticeship.Thurow (1992), cautions that work-based apprenticeships alone tend toproduce workers with very narrowskills who cannot absorb newtechnologies. Berryman (1992), notesthat work-based apprenticeships andschool based cognitive apprenticeshipstaken individually have pluses andminuses. She asserts however, that amixed strategy of school basedcognitive apprenticeships and work-based apprenticeships (paid or unpaid)may offer the optimal opportunity tointegrate vocational and academiceducation. The curriculum and

acti,n41 strategies of the LosAngeles Area Business/EducationPartnership combine work-based ap-prenticeships and school-based cog-nitive apprenticeships to provideoptimal learning experience forstudents. This Program model focuseson instruction that is project orientedand is integrated into academic/vocational clusters rather than beingdivided into isolated courses.Business/education partnerships pro-

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vide an avenue where project orientedlearning can optimally occur withinintegrated academic/vocational clusters.

Model Project TARGET COMMUNITY

Target students of thisdemonstration project are studentsfrom participating high schools inEastern Los Angeles County. Thespecific area has been identified byRebuild LA (RLA), the communitygroup formed to help Los Angelesrecover from the riots, as "a neglectedarea". Los Angeles has been describedas "an international metaphor for theurban challenge" (Tuttle, 1993). Thetarget community of this study is amicrocosm of the larger Los Angelescommunity and is predominantly madeup of ethnic minorities with Hispanicsbeing the largest ethnic group at over65% of the population. United Way ofLos Angeles conducted a survey of theprimary target area and found that ithas the highest growth rate andpopulation density as well as the largesthousehold size and youngestpopulation in Eastern Los AngelesCounty. The unemployment rate in thearea is among the highest in the easterncounty and has the lowest per capitaincome and the highest percent ofpeople living in poverty. Nearly one-fourth of all children aged 0-17 live inpoverty. the dropout rate at some areahigh schools is as high as 55%. Clearlybusiness as usual does not suffice forthis population. There is an acute needfor reform that addresses student,academic, and vocational training needswhile providing necessary supportservices.

The program under review hasfocused on these major goals:

1. To provide students theinstructional and support servicesbeyond those traditionally offeredin a high school setting, which areneeded to help them graduate fromhigh school.

2. To provide students the skills ..1:03attitudes needed for successful

competitive entry into the work-force.

3. To articulate the program cur-riculum with college and universityinstruction, therefore providingstudents the motivation as well asthe opportunity to pursue highereducation.

4. To utilize business and industry formajor portions of studentinstruction.

5. To provide a comprehensivecurriculum, reviewed regularly bybusiness and industry, thatemphasizes the integration andacquisition of both academic andcareer related skills.

6. To produce students withmarketable job skills, includingentrepreneurial and networkingskills, as well as a clearunderstanding of the work ethic.

7. To produce competent, aggressiveleaders capable of advanced careerpositions.

The model operates under thephilosophy that true educational reformmust be locally initiated and that rigidactivities that might work in one settingmay not be appropriate in another.Therefore the model emphasizes thedevelopment of the process forproducing an integrated program thattaps into local resources along withactual curricula that can be replicated indiverse settings. A major component ofthe project is a series of integratedcurricula which utilize projects, games,and worksite learning. A major goal ofthe project is to demonstrate that thespecific strategies that the modelutilizes has a significant positive effecton high-risk youth in terms of highschool graduation, academicachievement, progress to postsecondaryeducation and employment.

The model program achievesthese goals by utilizing several keycomponents. They are:1. Clustered instruction that com-

bines subject matter such as math/physics/computer assisted draft-ing into a unified program area

and which provides instructionwithin the context of specific careerpathways.

2. Adaptive curriculum that empha-sizes cognitive apprenticeships andexperiential learning.

3. A combination of instructionalapproaches including classroominstruction, worksite appren-ticeships, community learning,student internships, cooperativelearning groups, peer tutoring,community mentors, job sha-dowing and individualizedcomputer instruction Studentsaccess information and createprojects with various technologies.

4. Cooperative educational programswith business and industry thatenable students to receive aportion of their instruction in thecommunity. Industry-based work-site apprenticeships (paid andunpaid) allow the student toexperience, early on, the appli-cation of academic skills to ce-,ers.Worksite apprenticeships alsoafford students access totechnology routinely used in theworkplace. Learning technology isviewed by business partners as acommunity investment.

5. Articulation of Curriculum devel-oped by the project withappropriate courses at localcommunity colleges and uni-versities. Prior to the completion ofthe twelfth grade, project studentsare permitted to take the academicassessment tests required by theparticipating colleges, and ifpassed at the required level, thecollege will waive the assessmentrequirement when the studententers the college.

6. Cooperative liaisons with localbusiness and industry, colleges,universities, and high schools thatlink the high school studentsimultaneously with business,community and post-secondaryinstitutions. This allows access-ibility to both real worldexperiences and for continuation

into post-secondary education forstudents who previoush; may nothave reali7pd their potential.

7. Early identification and accessibleongoing monitoring and supportservices which monitor studentprogress, identify potentialproblems, and provide services toassist students overcome barriersto school completion. Businessvolunteers, college and high schoolstudents, and senior volunteersacting as tutors, mentors, jobcoaches and peer advisors serve asrole models that provideconfidence and assurance toparticipants. Other vital supportservices include child care for teenmothers and transportation toworksite learning.

8. Parental involvement whichincludes the parent in theassessment, goal setting, mon-itoring, support and follow-upprocess.

9. Cooperative liaison with localcommunity service agencies whichprovide a wide variety of supportservices necessary to meet thediverse needs of students and theirfamilies possess.

10. Guidance and counseling thatincludes the use of general andcareer counselors and techniciansas well as teachers, mentors, andsupport staff to assess and counselstudents for career decision-making and career pathwaypreparation. The overall coun-seling and guidance services arelinked to "early identification andaccessible support services" tomeet the additional needs of at-riskstudents experiencing academic,vocational, and/or personal bar-riers to success.

Training Process

Student Enrollment - Theproject itself operates on an open-entry,open-exit basis. Individual studentgoals are set and may include: (1)intense remediation in basic subject

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areas; (2) pre-vocational and vocationaltraining; (3) assignment to a mentorand/or tutor; (4) counseling andguidance including home-basedguidance; (5) assignment to a dustergroup (school-within-a-school) andcooperative learning groups; (6)worksite learning; and (7) summeremployment opportunities.

Assessment - Prior to andduring enrollment, students areassessed including an in-depthacademic and vocational assessment.The results of the student's assessmentare be induded in the PersonalAcademic and Career Plan (PACP)provided for each student.

Individualized Learning Plan -An Individualized Plan is developed foreach student. Included in this plan arethe specific academic skills, and jobrelated competencies each studentneeds to achieve for proficiency in hisor her training plan. Specific supportand follow-up services needed toprovide for transition into employmentare identified and provided.

Referral and Placement intoAppropriate Learning Program(s)Using Partners - Program placement isbased on assessment results andstudent goals. Business volunteers andcollege students, provide indi-vidualized, competency-based tutorialinstruction. Tutors also work with smallgroups in cooperative learning teams.Occupational skills training occurs bothin the classroom and at businesspartners, worksites. Worksite andclassroom instruction is coordinatedand sequenced in a manner whichassures each complements the other.Business and industry partnersparticipate in subject matter advisorymeetings to assure this instruction iscoordinated and relevant to currentmarket standards. Various instructionalstrategies are implemented to enhancecareer awareness, employability skillsand/or basic academic skills, andinclude individualized instruction,direct group instruction, and co-operative learning groups.

1

Support Services - Specificsupport services are provided tostudents by a wide variety ofcommunity and business partners andare initially identified at the time thestudent enrolls. At-risk students have arange of special needs that often gounfulfilled. As a result, many oftenmove through the system, fall furtherbehind and dropout. The schools andcolleges involved in this pilot projecthave formed partnerships withcommunity based organizations, socialservice agencies, State of Californiaservice providers and businesses tohelp meet these special needs.Community linkages which providenecessary social support assistar.ce forstudents and their families indude LosAngeles County Mental Health, LosAngeles County Department of HealthServices, the California EmploymentDevelopment Department, theCalifornia State Department ofRehabilitation, city parks and recreationand community service organizationsmake up a part of this social servicesnetwork. Child care is provided asneeded as is transportation. Parentingskills are taught to teen parents.

Tech-Prep Articulation Agree-ments - 2+2 and 2+2+2 Tech-Preparticulation agreements are a vitalaspect of the model project. Thesearticulation agreements allow thestudent to apply course workcompleted at the secondary level toprogram requirements at thecommunity college. In the case of a2+2+2 tech-prep articulation agreement,community college course work can beapplied at the university level.Currently over two dozen suchagreements exist.

Business Partnerships - Thereare currently over 300 partnershipagreements between business and theProgram. Project instructors developnew partnerships on an on-going basis.Business and industry provide worksiteinstruction, mentoring, job shadowing,and job placement opportunities forstudents. In addition, they provide up-to-date labor market information and

7

assist in the development andmodification of curriculum. Thebusiness component of the partnershipincludes on-the job training andplacement for students. Job placementis a key aspect of this model programfor students nearing programcompletion. Viable employment optionswhich provide for movement up thecareer ladder are an integral aspect ofthe project.

In addition to its affiliationswith business and industry alreadymentioned, the project has as itspartners a wide variety of state,Federal, and local resources whichallow it to offer a large number ofsupportive services to participants at allstages of their training. These resourcesinclude: National Council on Agingwhich provides tutors and mentors forhigh risk students; JTPA, whichprovides job development and jobplacement; Depart- ment ofRehabilitation which provides neededsupport services for students; theCalifornia Employment DevelopmentDepartment which allows access todaily up-to-date job placementinformation and services; and, localChamber of Commerce's which providejob shadowing and role modeling byhaving business and industry leadersvolunteer to be guest speakers andmentors. By utilizing a wide variety ofcommunity and other resources, themodel is a cost-effective one that offersthe prospect of being replicated inwhole or in part.

Program Evaluation

The evaluation component is astrong part of the total design of theproject. The University of California-Riverside, educational research wing ofthe California Education Researchcooperative (CERC) performs the roleof Director of Evaluation of all projectobjectives and supervises a multi-yearstudent follow-up. The followingsection describes the follow-up study ofproject students enrolled in theBusiness Marketing career cluster of the

program. Students involved in thisstudy were in the pi .3gram between1987 and 1992. Follow-up research onstudents from at least four other careerduster areas will be available inAugust, 1995.

Evidence of Program Effectiveness

Claim Statements

The claims for this program arethat, relative to other general track highschool students, participants in theprogram have a higher probability of:

graduating from highschool,continuing intosecondary education,securing employment, andon-the job upward mobility

Research Methodology forClaimsDesign

Students in the treatment groupwere identified as those who hadparticipated in the Apparel Marketingprogram from 1986 through 1991during their last two years of highschool. Program participants weregiven a structured interview after theyhad been out of high school one to fouryears. Only those students whocompleted the follow-up interview (70%of program participants werecontacted) and had sophomore GPAdata were considered as the treatmentgroup in these analyses.

A matched comparison groupwas retroactively sampled fromstudents who attended the same highschools during the same years as thetreatment group. Students in thecomparison sample were initiallymatched on the basis of: 1) not havingenrolled in any ROP, vocational, specialeducation, or advanced placementcourses; and, 2) began high schoolduring the same years as the treatmentgroup (1983-87). 672 of the initiallyidentjaed comparison group weresuccessfully contacted and interviewedwith the same instrument as the

8

treatment group. This represented amuch lower contact rate (40%), andmost of those who could not becontacted had reportedly relocatedsince high school. It was unclear fromavailable data whether the apparentlygreater mobility within the controlgroup was a condition preexisting thestudy or related to a failure to receivejob training.

This initial comparison groupwas over sampled which thus allowedfor more stringent matching proceduresto be pursued. In this effort, the initialcomparison group was stratified bysol)homore GPA quartiles, ethnicity(Hispanic & non-Hispanic) and gender,thus producing a 4 x 2 x 2 samplingmatrix. (Random sampling from eachcomparison group strata to match thedistributions in the treatment group.)Consequently, the disproportionategender distribution in both thetreatment and comparison groups isdue to more females than malesenrolling in the Apparel Marketingcourse. This disproportion couldindicate a gender effect within both thetreatment and control groups and wheninterpreting and generalizing thefindings the fact that the sampleconsisted primarily cf females shouldbe considered. However, differencesbetween the treatment and comparisongroups are the focus of this analysis andso balancing the two groups on gender,its effect is controlled.

The initial comparison groupconsisted of 67% Hispanic students anda 50% Hispanic representation waspresent in the treatment group. Afterselecting only those students in thetreatment group who had sophomoreGPA, it consisted of 48% Hispanic. Thestratified, random matching proceduresof discussed earlier created equallyproportionate samples, with 48%Hispanics in both the treatment andcontrol groups.

Sample

A total of 550 students wereincluded in the final sample. As a

2

consequence of the post hoc matchingprocedures, each group had 275students, matched on ethnicity, genderand quartile of sophomore GPA. As aresult of the stratified random matchingprocedures, no variation occurredbetween the two samples on these threevariables. Almost half of the samplewas Hispanic (48%) and 85% of thestudents were female. Sophomore GPAwas 2.04, slightly above the averagefrom that of the participating districts(1.98).

Instruments and Procedures.

The instrument used in thestructured, telephone interview wasone initially developed by the ROP andthe University of California, Riversidefor collecting information on programcompleters and leavers, as well asdetermining post program job status forstate-required annual reports. Thesefollow-up procedures have beenfollowed by the ESGVROP for severalyears, providing for ample field testingand maximizing return-rates.ESGVROP modified the standard, stateform to include more detailed questionsabout high school graduation, pursuitof higher education/training, and workstatus. A copy of the one-page list ofquestions asked in the phone interviewis included in Appendix A.

At the time of contact thetreatment group had been out of highschool for an average of 2.45 years. Theage of the treatment group was youngerthan the comparison at the time ofgraduation (T =17.65, C = 18.15) butbecause the length of time betweentarget graduation date and follow-upwas longer for the treatment group,they were older at the time of fillip (T =20.59, C = 19.38). The comparison grouphad only been out of school for 1.16years at the time of follow-up. Theserious nature, and implications, ofthese discrepancies are discussed laterin this paper.

Data Collection

Student grades for both thetreatment and control groups wereprovided by high school counselingoffices. Ethnic classification wasreduced to Hispanic or non-Hispanicbecause of the limited nature of the dataon the comparison group. Even thissimple dichotomy was derived notfrom established ethnic codes at thedistrict level, but rather by studentsurname. Gender, however, was dearlyindicated with district data.

Follow-up data were gatheredvia the phone interview describedpreviously in the instrument section.All of the phone interviews for both thetreatment and control groups wereconducted between October 1991 andMarch 1992. Two bilingual staffmembers at the ROP were selected toconduct the interviews based on theirfluency in both English and Spanish,their familiarity with the programsoffered by the ROP, and their skills intelephone communication. In themajority of cases, the information wasprovided directly by the individualstudents identified for the sample.Occasionally, however, the informationwas relayed by a parent or other closefamily member of the student.Interviewers believed the responseswere candid and accurate, attributingthis partially to the non-threateningintroduction given at the beginning ofthe interview and partially to theinherent "care" factor in any type offollow-up interview. Follow-up withbusinesses to validate information wasalso done.

The number of years thestudent groups were out of schoolwhen the follow-up interview wasmade should be considered since thelonger students are out of high schoolthe more likely they are to attend somecollege and get into good jobs.

Data AnalysisDescriptive statistics were

generated using SPSS/PC 6.0 statisticalsoftware. Because of the careful, post

9 (-) ')

hoc sampling (i.e., matching onethnicity, gender and GPA), theconfounds of ethnicity, gender andsophomore GPAs within the twogroups were controlled. As such, theclaims made with these data aresubstantiated with relevant contingencytables and the resulting chi-squarestatistic of differences.

Description of Results for Each Claim

1. Treatment More Likely to Grad-uate from High School.

A significantly larger pro-portion of treatment studentsgraduated from high school than didstudents in the control group X2 =54.30, p < .0001). Of the students withavailable data, over 90% percent ofthem graduated from high school. Thisfigure differed drastically from thestrikingly low graduation rate of 65%for the students not receiving thetreatment. The average graduation rateamong the participating districts isestimated to be about 70%, indicating acohort dropout rate of about 30%.

For both groups the sophomoreGPA (baseline) represented a "C" gradeaverage. The difference between thisbaseline and the GPA at time of exitfrom high school was significantlyimproved from 2.04 to 2.21 (F274 df =8.68, p < .001)) only or those studentsin the treatment group.

2. Treatment More Likely to PursueHigher Education.

A higher rate of 65% of collegeattendance was claimed for thetreatment group. Less than 45% of thecontrol group attended college. Thesefigures support the second claim thatthe treatment group would pursuehigher education more frequently thanthe control group (X2 = 28.21, p <.0001).

A notable difference wasevident between the groups on thetypes of further education pursued. As

10

depicted graphically, the largest groupof college-attending students in bothgroups are attending communitycolleges. Almost twice as large aproportion of college-going students inthe comparison group are found at a 4-year college. A similar disproportion isfound between the two groupsattending Trade/Tech schools: twice asmany college-attending students in thetreatment group attended a Trade/Tech school as did in the control group.

3. Treatment More Likely to beEmployed.

A graphic representation of em-ployment status showed the mostmarked contrast between the treatmentand control groups of any of thecomparisons made. 87% of theindividuals in the treatment group werefull-time employed as compared to only64% their counterparts in thecomparison group (X2 = 61.86,p <0001)

4. Treatment More Likely to haveUpwardly Mobile Jobs.

The fourth claim supportedwith data represents the type of jobsecured by the student. Upwardlymobile jobs were defined as those jobswhere there was some managementresponsibility, (i.e., supervisor of one ormore persons) and where there hadbeen a pay increase within the pastyear. These data on employmentmobility seem to offer the strongestevidence of the advantages of thetreatment program for youth who arerecently out of high school. That almosttwice the percentage of students in thetreatment group who had jobs were inupwardly mobile jobs is quite strongevidence of the effectiveness of theprogram (X2 = 5.60, p < .05).

Summary of Supplementary Evidencefor Program Success

Quantitative analysis of theoutcome data provides strong support

for the four claims. Other, more

qualitative descriptions can alsoprovide valuable evidence of programsuccess. The anecdotal data that help toexplain the relationship of programcomponents to outcomes are providedin this section.

Increased student graduationrates and a concomitant reduction ofdropouts may be related to the abilityof the program to engage students inlearning and preparation for a career.Evidence of the level of thisengagement is shown through studentinvolvement in clubs and statewide.competitions. The higher rates ofcollege attendance may be influencedby affiliations between the ROP

program and area colleges andtrade/technical schools. The extent ofthese relationships is evidenced by alisting of those schools of higherlearning (see appendix B) with whichthe program has partnership affiliationsand curriculum articulation agree-ments.

Placement in upwardly mobilejobs related to training seems to beimproved when a training programworks closely with business andindustry. With over thirty participatingarea businesses affiliated with theprogram, support is given to the

positive link between thebusiness/school partnership modeledby this ROP program.

Connections with Business and Industry.

A characteristic of the programthat contributes to the success ofstudents in competing for quality jobs isits strong connection with business andindustry. Strong ties with business arevisible through the nearly 50 businessesthat pro-:10P on-site training ofstudents. Further, representatives ofbusiness validate course competenciesas well as the college and universityarticulation process. Businessrepresentatives serve as guest lecturersin the classroom and as professionalrole models and mentors.

Engagement of Students through Career-Related Activities.

One of the outstanding charac-teristics of the program contributing tothe high rates of graduation among theparticipants is the extent to which itengages students in learning throughincorporating into the curriculum whatis normally seen as extracurricularleadership dubs and activities. Forexample, all students are automaticallyconsidered members of a national dubof marketing students. As such, theyparticipate in local, state and nationalcompetitions which provide them theopportunity to network with studentsfrom around the nation. A great deal ofenthusiasm is generated through theparticipation in these conferences andcompetitions. Students who have wonin the competitions have been able toestablish valuable contacts and careernetworks as a result.

Incentives to Pursue Higher Education.

A key component of theprogram that may contribute to thehigh rates of continued education is thepartnerships with institutions of highereducation. Through these partnerships,various curriculum articulationagreements have been forged,providing students college credit forcourses taken at the high school levelthrough the ROP. In addition to a jump-start on college, students are giventours of the programs that represent acontinuation of their study in themarketing and merchandising field.

Program Recognition and Awards.

If public recognition is evidenceof program viability, then this programcertainly meets a high standard. Theprogram has received recognition onthe national, state and local levels for itsoutstanding quality. A partial list ofawards and recognitions is provided asevidence of overall program quality.Appendix C represents the majorrecognitions and awards that the modelprogram has achieved in the four yearssince its inception.

11 0

Interpretati.m and Discussion ofResults

This study does provide avaluable look at the differences betweena general track high school programand one that is supplemented with afocused career training component. Thefollowing sections explore therelationships between treatment andcifect that warrant further analysis andthe possible rival hypotheses.

Relationship Between Effect and Treatment

To explore alternative expla-nations of treatment effect ongraduation, one would have to assessstudent motives for entry and exit fromthe program, the extent to whichstudents felt the program influencedtheir decision to stay and complete highschool instead of dropping out, and theextent to which support servicescontributed to program and high schoolcompletion.

The program feature appearingto be linked to increased rates ofpursuing higher education was thearticulation of program curriculumwith institutions of higher education.Program administrators report that asstudents in the program earn collegecredit for their work at the ROP whilestill in high school, their own level ofself-confidence in their ability tosucceed in college seems to increasemarkedly. In addition, as students areexposed to specific career options withgreater earning potential in the field,they seem to more frequently choose tocontinue their education as the bestroute to self-improvement. To confirmthese projected relationships betweenprogram components and effects onstudent pursuit of higher education onewould have to follow-up on levels ofstudent self-confidence, improvementof grades and study skills, and students'reasons for continuing their studies.

The extreme differencesbetween the treatment and controlgroups on full-time employmentindicates a powerful treatment effect.Over ninety percent of the treatment

12

group was full-time employed, who'?only about forty percent of the controlgroup held full-time jobs. The programfeatures that could contribute to higheremployment rates for the treatmentgroup indude tutoring and mentoring,training in specific job skills, on-the jobtraining and coaching, training in jobreadiness and job finding skill , andfree placement services. Other programcharacteristics that may contribute tohigh placement and employment ratesinclude a relevant and up-to-datecurriculum, dose connections withbusiness and can be effectivelyimplemented. For a program to be ableto claim that high school students whochoose to participate will have half-again as much chance of continuing intohigher education, and more than twicethe chance of being employed withinthe first few years out of high school, isevidence enough that the program hassome advantage over the general trackhigh school program. When this istopped with the claim that programparticipants have four times the chanceof being promoted into managementlevel positions within the first two-to-four years out of high school, then itbecomes clear that this program canbring about some positive outcomes.

The educational significance ofthis program's success is that careerprepa-ration, when properly planned

Id delivered within the context of the,xisting business community call have aprofound impact. Programs with thecharacteristics contained this modelhave the potential of revitalizingsecondary career preparation. A healthycombination of academic and practicalskills in the curriculum can attract andkeep students interested in learning. Aschool climate that emphasis the valueof individual students' strengths andinterests can heal self-esteems bruisedthrough social ills. The integration ofservices from a variety of agencies cansmooth the transition from adolescenceto adulthood. A shared responsibilitywith business and industry for trainingcan insure the successful transitionfrom school to productive work life. A

(.. tZ

strong network with institutions ofhigher learning can open the chance of acollege education to underprivilegedyouth. Programs of this nature trulydemonstrate what "educationalopportunity" is all about.

Comparison of Results to Results fromOther Programs

The United States Departmentof Education (Goals 2000, 1994)indicates that no studies currently existfor a comparison of this school-to-workcareer preparation program to otherschool-to-work preparation programs.This is not surprising since school-to-work programs are a recent innovation.However, such programs are going toproliferate, in no small measure dae tothe School-to-Work Opportunities Act.This project is one of the first to befunded under this legislation. As aresult, it should be among the models,both in programmatic and researchdesign, for future projects.

Perhaps the dosest parallel tothe ROP project is the RichmondCounty Tech Prep Program in NorthCarolina. Like the ROP project,Richmond County upgraded compu-tational and communications skillsrequirements for participating students.Also, both agencies serve communitieswhich are lower in socio-economic

References

measures than the averages for theirrespective states. The ESGVROP studyis longitudinal, tracking both treatmentand control groups for seven years,while the Richmond County studypulled sample control groups from twodifferent cohorts. Each design has itsadvantages and disadvantages.However, both studies showed thatstudents who took part in the treatmentprograms performed at a significantlyhigher level on the specified measuresthan students in the control groups.Both studies evidenced a reduction inthe dropout rate among programparticipants.

However, the RichmondCounty program targets students whowould benefit from community collegeprograms. The ESGVROP program isaimed at a broader segment of thestudent population virtually allsecondary students, in factand seeksto improve opportunities to enteremployment directly, as well as toobtain further training. The ESGVROPproject does not "enrich" vocationalclasses. Rather, students in academicclasses are made aware of therequirements in the workplace for theskills they are learning.

Becklund, L. (1991, September 22). Rage and Alienation Mark Suspects in Mall Murders.The Los Angeles Times. Pg. 1, 24, 25, Pt. 1.

Brooks, N. (December 16, 1992). Sluggish Economy May Linger in State: UCLA RaisesSpecter that State's Headache Could Persist. The Los Angeles Times. Pg. 1. Pt. D

Brooks, N. & Sanchez, J. (1992, December 23). U.S. Firms Map Ways to Profit from theAccord. The Los Angeles Times. Pg. 1, Pt. 4

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Drucker, P. (1994, November). The Age of Social Transformation. The Atlantic Monthly,pp. 53-80

Drucker, P. (1995, January). The Meaning of Today's Social Transformation. SpeechDelivered at the Los Angeles Town Hall Meeting.

13

Education Resources Group, Inc. (1991). An Overview of Evaluation Research onSelected Educational Partnerships. United States Department of Education,Washington, D.C.

Flanigan, J. 0992, November 14). Can L.A. Answer Cry for Economic Equality. The LosAngeles Times Pg. 1. Pt. I

Flanigan, J. & Lee, P. (1992, October 15). Major Impact Expected on Markets, Jobs,Wages. The Los Angeles Times. Pg. 1, Pt. 1

Garreau;, J. (1991) Edge City - Life on the New Frontier. New York: Doubleday.

Justin, M. & Kameen, M. (1986). School-Business Partnerships: Working to Defuse theDropout Time Bomb. NASSP Bulletin. December 1986, pgs 107-108.

Kotkin, J. & Friedman, D. (1992, May 15). Out of the Ashes: Start Small to Rekindle theFuture. The Los Angeles Times. Pg. 2, Section T.

Marshall, R. & Tucker, M. (1992). Thinking for a Living. New York: Basic Books.

McMillan, P. (September, 19 "2). Spring Riots Continue to Haunt L.A.'s Economy. TheLos Angeles Times. Pg. 1, Pt. 4.

Meyer, M. (1992). Los Angeles Will Save Itself. Newsweek. p. 46

Nagel, T. (1992, November). Projections for the California Economy. Paper presented atthe meeting of the California Merchandising & Marketing Association, Ontario,CA.

Nasar, Sylvia (1992, December 27). Clinton Job Plan in Manufacturing Meets Skepticism.The New York Times. Pg. 1, Pt. 1

National Center on Education and the Economy (1990). America's Choice: High Skills orLow Wages. Rochester, New York.

National Commission for Employment Policy, (1985).

Osborne, D. Sr Gaebler, T. (1992). Reii.venting Government. Massachusetts:Addison-Wesley.

Reich, Robert B. (1994). Job Skills Split Middle Class Into Three New Groups. VocationalEducation Journal, Volume 69, Number 8.

Reich, Robert B. (1992). The Work of Nations. New York: Vintage Books.

Stone, N. (1991). Does Business Have Any Business in Education? Harvard BusinessReview, Mar/Apr, p. 46.

Thurow, Lester (1992). Head to Head The Coming Economic Battle Among Japan,Europe, and America. New York: William Morrow and Co.

Van Adams, A. (1991, November 12 Preparing for a World Market Economy. Paperpresented at the American Vocational Association Conference, Los Angeles, CA.

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Vartabedian, R. (November 15, 1992). L.A. Defense job Losses Twice the U.S. Rate. TheLos Angeles Times. Pg. 1. Pt. 4.

Appendix AFollow-up Phone Interview Qvestions

Introduction

Introduce yourself in the following manner:

Hello, my name is , I am performing a follow-up study of students who haveattended high school. I would like to ask you a couple of questions about what you'vebeen doing since you left high school. Your name will not be used or revealed. We'reonly interested in how all students who attended high school are doing now.

Questions

1. Did you finish high school at high school and receive your diploma?

2. (if not) Did you receive a diploma from another high school?

3. (if neither of the above) Did you take and pass the GED?

4. Are you working now?

5. (if yes) How much? (full-time or part-time) What is your job title or position?

6. (if not working) Have you ever worked since high school? Are you presentlyseeking employment?

7. (if working or has worked) Was or is your job related to the training you hadwhile in high school?

8. Are you now going to school? If so, what and where are you studying?

9. (if not in school) Have you taken any schooling since high school? If so, whereand what did you study?

Notes

If the student is not at the address you call, ask if you can have the telephone number ofwhere they can be located. You do not need to speak to the student directly. If there issomeone else willing to give you the information, they may be used. Grandmothers areespecially helpful.

16

Appendix B

Educational Partners with Articulation Agreements

California State University, Los Angeles: CSULA has always had an unusuallylarge proportion (over 55%) of minority students and is recognized nationally as aleader in educational services to minority and urban students. The Federal Governmenthas designated CSULA as a recognized Minority Institution and the student bodyrepresents the greatest cultural richness and broadest ethnic diversity of any campus inthe nation. Located in East Los Angeles, it has a student body of 21, 596. In 1990, thelargest number of Bachelor degrees awarded were in the areas of BusinessAdministration and Engineering. CSULA offers a wide range of support services forspecial needs students, such as low-income, disabled, and academically disadvantaged.Both its diverse student body and its central location in Los Angeles make it an idealpartner in the Los Angeles Trade Technical Education Consortium.

Los Angeles Trade Technical College: Located in the center of downtown LosAngeles, LATTC brings to the consortium strong bonds with the Los Angeles businesscommunity as well as a reputation as one of the finest community colleges in California.It currently has a student enrollment of 11,600, 89.4% of which are minority. uarc isknown for its strong contacts with and participation of business and industry. Itsclassrooms are designed and operated as if they were actual businesses. Equipment isstate -of- the -art.

Los Angeles Southwest College: Founded in 1967, Los Angeles SouthwestCollege is located in South Central Los Angeles. It currently has an enrollment of 7,000,89% of which are minority. In addition to strong academic and vocational trainingprograms, the cone& has a wide variety of student support services such as ESLassessment, tutorial as stance, peer counseling, employment transition and child care.

Mount San Antonio College: Located in the eastern section of Los AngelesCounty, Mount San Antonio College (MSAC) is the largest community college campusin California with an enrollment of nearly 30,000. MSAC was an early leader in the statein advocating tech prep agreement, and operated one of the first California pilotdemonstration projects in 2+2 articulation.

17

Appendix C

Awarded as a United States Department of Education OutstandingVocational/Technical Program

Selected by the United States Department of Labor as a SCANS exemplary program

Selected by the California State Department of Education as a model program inseveral key area including assessment, training and job placement

First vocational program in California to be certified for excellence by the CaliforniaState Department of Education

Chosen by the California State Department of Education as OutstandingVocational/ Technical Program in 1990

Selected by the California Chancellor's Office of Community Colleges as a modelsite for 2+2+2 secondary-to-college articulation and transferable credit

18

9o i

Compotizoo of Sloth/fameNepal° nos Po Hole, la thehalted Pole/ and !Wood

Johanna LasonenUniversity of Jyvaskyla

Nevin It Frantz, Jr.Virginia Polytechnic Institute andState University

The formation of globaleconomic linkages between nations hascreated changes in the relationshipsbetween countries and among thepeople who reside within theirboundaries. In North America, therecent approval of the North AmericanFree Trade Agreement is creating a newgeographic marketplace that will rivalthe emerging European Union ofNations. In the far east, Japan and otherPacific Rim countries are alsochallenging the economic supremacy ofthe western industrialized world. Asthese economic consortiums developand free trade continues across allnations, there are increasing demandson each nation to remain competitive inthe world marketplace and provide ahigh standard of living for it's citizens(Thurow, 1 992).

National Goals and StrategiesThe challenges of remaining

competitive in a global marketplace arebeing addressed by both the privateand public sectors within each nation.Business and industrial organizationsare addressing the competitive issue byusing new technologies to producegoods and services, moving theprocessing of information and materialsto locations of lower costs, finding nichemarkets, and customizing products tomeet consumer needs, and reducingand reorganizing the workforce(Carnevale, 1991).

In the public arena, the mostubiquitous strategy has been the

19

improvement of workforce qualitythrough a reform of the nation'seducational system. In the UnitedStates, federal and state legislation hasbeen approved to raise standards ofachievement and develop newinitiatives for the preparation andcontinued retraining of the workforce.In Finland, two extensive experimentalprojects have been launched at thesecondary and tertiary education levels.The major concern in both nations is thedevelopment of human resources thatwill enable the countries to remaincompetitive in Europe and across theglobal economy.

Organization of Education

Education in Finland. In Fin-land a national priority has been madeto provide equal educational oppor-tunities to all populations in each regionof the country. This goal isaccomplished through the compre-hensive school which provides acompulsory education for all childrenages seven through sixteen. Astandardized curriculum is taken by allstudents for further studies beginningat age sixteen in the upper secondaryschools or in the vocational schools. Theupper secondary school offers ageographically homogeneous three yearprogram of studies which preparesstudents to take the matriculationexamination which is the generalcriterion for admission to theuniversity. The academic high schoolstudents can choose their major areas ofstudies in languages, mathematics andnatural sciences, humanities, sports andgymnastics, music or dance. Studentsenrolling in the vocational schools mayselect from twenty-six (26) basicprograms within which a total of over200 very specialized lines of study. Thestudents entering the vocational schoolscan obtain a diploma after two or threeyears depending upon their special-ization. Upon graduation they may seekemployment or continue toward a

higher vocational diploma whichprovides additional preparation in atwo to three year program leading tosupervisory and managerial roles intheir areas of specialization. Studentswho complete the upper secondaryschool who are not admitted or chosenot to continue their education at auniversity may also enroll in thevocational schools after graduation foroccupational preparation.

All of the schools are located ina separate physical location and have amixture of ownership and financialsupport that includes national/state,municipalities, and private ownership.Ninety-two percent of the uppersecondary academic schools are fundedby the municipal or local government,six percent are funded by privateagencies and two percent get theirresources from the state (Tilastokesaus,1993). The comprehensive vocationalschools, which offer courses in thetechnical specializations, are owned andoperated by the state or municipal orthe federation of municipals. Within agiven municipality or region of thecountry there are also additional typesof vocational schools for commercialsubjects, health, social services anddesign and handicraft that may beowned publicly or privately. In 1992,fifty-five percent of vocational studentsstudied in the municipality, or thefederations of municipal owned, thirty-five percent studied in state owned andten percent studied in privatevocational schools (Tilastokesaus, 1993).

The curriculum in the uppersecondary academic schools is veryoriented toward the matriculationexamination which requires fourcompulsory subjects that includeFinnish or Swedish (depending uponthe school location), a second officiallanguage, another foreign language,and mathematics or social studies. Twoadditional subjects are optional.Academic high school students' three-or four-year programs include aminimum of 75 study units (studyweeks with 38 contact hours) in 14subjects. The study program consists of

20

core courses (30-50%), advancedoptional courses (30-40%), and freeoptional units (10-30%). In thevocational schools the core curriculumalso requires the two official languages,Finnish and Swedish, a foreignlanguage, mathematics, physics andchemistry, civics, informationtechnology, physical and healtheducation, and art education. Most ofthe studies are concentrated in thespecific line of specialization.

According to 1991 statistics,fifty percent of the students completingthe comprehensive school willimmediately continue on to the uppersecondary school with the remainingthirty-two percent enrolling in thevocational school, six percentcontinuing on to the volunteer tenthgrade, and twelve percent going towork and delaying their studies. InFinland many of the studentsgraduating from the upper secondaryacademic high schools are not able tocontinue their studies at the universitybecause there are not enough studyplaces available for them. Two thirds ofall upper secondary school graduatesapply for admission but only one thirdare admitted. Many of these studentswill then enroll in the vocationalschools and colleges. Some students arewaiting for a opportunity to beadmitted to the universities. Thisresults in redundant education andprolongs the time required for entryinto the workplace or the university asevidenced by the fact that one-fearth ofthe beginning university students areover 25 years of age. The studentsenrolled in the vocational schoolsgraduate with an intense, high level ofknowledge and skill in a veryspecialized occupational preparationprogram that prepares them very wellfor a specific job but causes difficultieswhen economic conditions are poor orchanging workplaces no longer requirethe specific skill occupational skills.

As a result of these problemsand the growing concern about thecountry's place in the global economy,in particular future linkages with the

emerging European Community, policymakers at the national level instituted aplan for the educational system to bedeveloped with "greater clarity andinternational compatibility. The aim is asimple basic structure with flexibility inindividual choice" (Ministry ofEducation, 1994).

Education L.( the United States. Inthe United States public education is ahigh priority which is organized at thelocal level under state guidelines withlittle direct control by the centralfederal government. Students enter theschools at age five and are required toattend to age sixteen which is thesecond year of the four year highschool. Approximately 90 percent of thestudents entering high school willcomplete the four years and obtain adiploma upon graduation. About fiftypercent of the high school graduateswill continue their education in a fouryear college or university and abouthalf of these will obtain the first basicdegree, the baccalaureate. Theremaining will enter the military, obtainemployment, or continue theireducation at a two year communitycollege located nearby which offers acollege transfer program and anoccupational preparation program.Others may enroll in a privateoccupational preparation school or apublic technical college dependingupon the educational organizationalpattern of the state. Most of theacademic education and vocationaleducation in the United States is locatedwithin one school building althoughseveral states have a system ofseparately located vocational educationcenters for students to obtainoccupational preparation in half daysessions and return to their home highschools for their academic preparation(U. S. Department of Education, 1994,p. 62).

The curriculum provided tostudents in the high schools will varyfrom state to state and within localschool divisions but generally willrequire for graduation form high schoolfour courses in English (4 units) three

u

courses in mathematics (3 units), twounits in the sciences, a course in U. S.history, American government, ge-ography, physical education, with theremainder in electives chosen by thestudent. A total of 20 units is generallyneeded to graduate from high schooland the required courses will compriseabout 12 to 14 units or courses in atypical student program of studies.Students elect vocational courses andwould need to acquire a minimum ofthree (3 units) courses to complete aconcentrated program of vocationaleducation leading to employment upongraduation (U. S. Department ofEducation, 1 993).

The Study

This study was designed toinvestigate the implications of nationalpolicies for workforce preparation ofyouth in the United States and Finland.The study was conducted by utilizing atraditional evaluation study of policy -oriented research. A retrospectivereview of past policy decisions wereexamined by comparing the goals andobjectives of the policy beforeimplementation with the performancethat actually occurs. Patton and Swicki(1986) called this kind of researchdesign as an ex-post evaluation modelwhere the analysis of policy imple-mentation focused on specific goals andtargets for preestablished criteria forknown time periods. The researchquestions to be addressed were: (1 ) Didthe actual performance meet the goalsand target performance? (2) What werethe internal and external factors thatwere enhancing or inhibiting theprocess of workforce preparation inhigh schools? The outcomes of thestudy would enrich the understandingof strategies used by each nation inhuman resource development and serveto enlighten the future formulation ofpolicy and implementation of practicein both nations.

The qualitative data werecollected for the research using policy

document analysis and a focus groupinterviews technique as presented byMorgan (1990) and Majchrzak (1984).An analysis was first made of thecurrent national policy documents forpreparing youth in the United statesand Finland for entry into theworkforce. The results of the analysiswas used to develop protocols for thefocus group interviews. The interviewswere conducted among reform stake-holders within three experimentalschool divisions in Finland and threetechnical preparation consortiums inthe United States. In Finland, the focusgroups were selected from the sixteentownships having experiments andthree different municipal systems thatwere representative geographically. Thehigh school units where visitations weremade located in the northwest, eastern,and southern areas of Finland. Focusgroup interviews were conducted withthe representatives of the uppersecondary and vocational schools(academic and vocational high schools)who participated in the experiments.Supervisors, principals and viceprincipals, teachers, counselors, andstudents in each were interviewed infocus groups. The interviews wereconducted in combinations of Englishand Finnish depending upon thelanguage skills of the participants.There were always two researcherspresent, both of whom had Englishspeaking proficiency and one withFinnish as her native language. Theinformation collected during theinterviews was recorded in writing anda report of the discussion was compiledby the researchers. The report was thenreturned to the experiment coordinatorsand/or supervisors for their review andverification.

In the United States a similarstrategy was used in conducting thefocus group interviews. The interviewswere conducted among selectedtechnical preparation consortiumsrepresenting rural, urban, and suburbanareas of a single state. The stakeholdersinterviewed represented communitycollege and high school administrators,

22

teachers, counselors, and students. Theinterviews were recorded and sum-maries were prepared and returned tothe participants for their verification.

The results of the focus groupinterviews were analyzed by firstcomparing the responses of each of thethree groups within each country andthe national goals of workforcepreparation as identified by the policydocument analysis process. The majorquestions was to determine (1 ) thelevel of agreement for each group withthe prestated policy goals andobjectives, and (2) the consistency ofagreement across the stakeholdersgroups. In other words, what was theperception of the participants in theexperiments with respect to the needand underlying rationale for the reformin the secondary schools of Finland andthe United States? The research wasstarted with diagnosing the level ofintra- and inter-group agreement whichwould be a possible source ofunderlying factors associated with anydifferences between policy targets andperformance.

Contemporary Approaches to Work-force Preparation

Experiments in Finland. Finlandis currently conducting an experimentin secondary education, providing awider range of opportunities thanbefore for completing a vocationaldiploma, upper secondary syllabus or acombination of the two through thecollaboration of vocational institutionsand upper secondary schools. Sixteenlocalities which comprise one fifth ofthe age cohort, are taking part. A wide-ranging experiment in vocational highereducation is also in progress, with 22temporary polytechnics participating.Eighty-four percent of all occupationalhigher education specializing areas arecovered in experiments (Numminen &Piilonen, 1992). The purpose of thisexperiment is "to raise the standard ofhigher vocational studies and devisenew programs leading to higher

3 5

vocational diplomas via collaborationbetween vocational institutions"(Ministry of Education, 1 994a, p. 36).

The underlying rationale andreasons for conducting the experimentsin secondary and post secondaryeducation according to the Ministry ofEducation are the following: prolongedstudy times, increased dropout,overlapping education, a growing gapbetween general and vocationaleducation, an excessive number ofmatriculated school leavers comparedwith educational opportunities, theunderrated status of college-leveleducation in international comparisons,and the lack of flexibility of educationin responding to changing skill andknowledge requirements. The purposeof the experiments is to study howinter-institutional cooperation can beused to raise the standard of post-compulsory education and to meet thechanging demands for knowledge andqualifications Another objective is toexplore possibilities to diversifyeducation and create flexible andindividualized programs. One centralfocus of the experiment is inter-institutional cooperation, with a view tolowering the barriers between differentforms of education and offering moreoptions to students (Ministry ofEducation, 1994b, p. 8).

The Government DevelopmentProgram (1994) suggested that theeducation structure will be streamlinedand made internationally compatible.The polytechnic program essentiallyoffers opportunities for raising thestandard and quality of education. InFinland, higher education will consist ofa non-university sector and a universitysector. Sixty to sixty-five (60-65) percentof the age group will have access tohigher education, one third in theuniversity and two-thirds in the non-university sector (Government Office ofPublications, 1991).

Internationalization is the keyto a successful policy in Finnisheducation. The goal is to provide thestudents of all educational levels withskills needed in global environments.

23

Internationalization of vocationaleducation in Finland focuses oninternational collaboration and studyprojects, student and teacher exchange,work practice in another country isincluded in the study programs, qualityof languages study programs, bilateralcollaboration with emergent countries,and teaching in many languages(Numminen & Piilonen, 1994).

International education has beenimplemented in diversified ways inFinnish schools. The countries of theEuropean Union are aiming to promotefree moving workforce policies inEurope. The European Union countrieshave started to produce and certifyequivalent occupational andprofessional qualifications in order toenhance workforce mobility and raisestandards.

Federal Legislation in theUnited States. In the United Statesthere is also a growing concern aboutthe level of education need by highschool graduates to enter the workforceand have the skills and knowledgerequired to function in neworganizational structures that utilizecommunication and problem solvingskills. The new technologies to producegoods and services will also demandhighly trained and skilled workers andtheir is a concern on the part of policymakers at state and federal levels thatAmerican students do not have theknowledge and skills of theirinternational competitor's workforce.This concern was first introduced in awidely distributed and discussed reportentitled A Nation at Risk (The NationalCommission on Excellence inEducation, 1983) which begaila massivereform movement in almost every statein the United States. One of the mostwidespread aspects of the educationalreform movement was the increase inthe number of academic coursesrequired for graduation from highschool. From 1983 to 1989 most states inthe United States increased the numberof courses and developed specificcourse requirements in academic

subjects as a qualification for a highschool diploma (Clune, et al., 1989).

In the United States the passageof the Carl D. Perkins Vocational andApplied Technology Act in 1990 statedas its purpose "to make the UnitedStates more competitive in the worldeconomy by developing more fully theacademic and occupational skills of allsegments of the population" (PublicLaw 101-392. 1990). The basiccomponents of the Act are: (1 ) theacquirement of basic knowledge andoccupational skills through theintegration of academic and vocationaleducation and (2) the opportunity toreceive additional education by linkingsecondary and post-secondary technicaleducation curriculums through theconcept called "Tech-Prep" Technical-Preparation), and (3) accountability forstates and local schools to demonstrateachievement of academic andoccupational preparation outcomes.

The Act addresses the chal-lenges of preparing students foremployment in a changing workplaceby requiring the Federal funds be usedfor programs that "integrate academicand vocational education ... throughcoherent sequences of courses so thatstudents achieve both academic andoccupational competencies." (P. L. 101-192, 1990) As a result of this provisionschools across the United States arenow developing various approaches tomaking connections between theknowledge taught in an academicdassroom and the skills learned in thevocational laboratory (Bottoms, 1993;Grubb, et al., 1991).

The Perkins Act providesfunding to each state in the UnitedStates to deliver Tech-Prep programswhere cooperative linkages betweensecondary and post-secondaryeducational institutions. These post-secondary linkages may include a twoyear community college, anapprenticeship program, or a privateproprietary school. Most tech-prepprograms operate on a two plus two(2+2) concept with two years of aplanned series of high school courses

24

that are articulated with a two yearcommunity college program leading toan associate of applied science degree(Hull and Parnell, 1991). Across thenation consortiums have been formedwith community colleges and highschools planning and delivering techprograms for students to earn a highschool diploma and continue theirtechnical education with an associatesof applied science degree.

Comparisons of Workforce Preparation

The two countries haveembarked on national policies whichare intended to keep both nationseconomically competitive in the globalmarketplace. In the United States,Congress passed the North AmericanFree Trade Act which established lowertariffs for trade between Mexico,Canada, and the United States. Morerecently, Finland joined the EuropeanUnion which will strengthen theireconomic ties to other member nationsin Western Europe. Both nations have acommon goal of maintaining strongnational economies and are usingsimilar strategies of joining regionalgeographical economic and politicalconsortiums.

The *goal of joining theseeconomic partnerships is to continueproviding a high standard of living forthe citizens of each nation. In order toaccomplish the national goal ofeconomic competitiveness andmaintaining a high standard of livingfor their citizens, both nations havefocused their attention on improvingthe quality of education for preparingyoung people to enter the workplace.Both nations passed legislation toreform and restructure the educationalsystems at the secondary and post-secondary levels of education. In theUnited States the Carl D. PerkinsVocational and Applied TechnologyEducation Act of 1990 was passed withthe stated purpose of "making theUnited States more competitive in theworld economy by developing more

e))

fully the academic and occupationalskills for all segments of thepopulation." (P. L. 101-392, 1990) InFinland, the Finnish parliament adoptedlegislation to seek alternative solutionsto educational development by testingreforms in post-compulsory education.The purpose of the experiments are tostudy how inter-institutional coopera-tion will (1) seek greater clarity andinternational comparability, (2) raise thestandard of post-compulsory educationto meet the changing demands forknowledge and qualifications, (3) lowerbarriers between different forms ofeducation and offer more options tostudents (Ministry of Education, 1

994b).In comparing the purposes of

the federal/state policies for improvingworkforce preparation one will findsimilar purposes as well as differencesin the intent of the legislation. Bothpolicies are aimed at developingworkers for their adapting to the globaleconomy. However, the Finnish goal isto clarify the education received bystudent so that it will be morecompatible with the educationalrequirements and certification of othernations, particularly those in WesternEurope. The purpose of the Perkins Actstates very clearly that the intent is tomake the United States morecompetitive or dominant in the worldmarketplace. This difference in theintent of the purposes may be explainedby the geographical proximity ofFinland to other European nations andthe requirement for commoneducational standards among themembers of the European Union. In theUnited States, economic and politicaldominance of the world followingWorld War 11 to the present has shapeda national concern for continued worldleadership among the nations of theworld. The relative geographicalisolation from most other developedcountries does not create the urgentneed for the United States to cooperateas is the case in Finland. These factorscreate a competitive position ratherthan a collaborative one when defining

25

the major outcomes of workforcepreparation reform in the United States.

Both policies emphasize theraising f educational standards withthe Finnish strategy for improvementfocusing on inter-institutional coopera-tion while the strategy in the UnitedStates is aimed at developing more fullythe academic and occupational skillsthrough an integration or inter-disciplinary approach. This difference isthe result of the need in Finland forexpanding the options of secondarystudents to acquire a broader base ofpreparation that provides options forworkplace preparation as well ascontinuing their education in the newlyformed polytechnics. The aim of thispolicy is to provide a more practicalpost-secondary education than theexisting university route which is notreadily available to a large number ofFinnish students desiring to continuetheir education after completing theirsecondary schooling. In ihe UnitedStates much public attention has beendirected at the lack of "basic skills"among high school graduates and thePerkins Act translates this concern intoa strategy which requires academic andoccupational skills for improvingworkforce preparation.

The removal of barriersbetween different forms of education isa common goal for both the UnitedStates and Finland, but the contexts andstrategies for implementation in eachnation are quite different. In Finland,the separate physical sites for uppersecondary academic and vocationaleducation programs with each schoolhaving a prescribed state mandatedcurriculum is problematic inresponding to changing skill andknowledge requirements. A new formof upper secondary education is beingintroduced in the experimental schoolswhich features a movement towardincreasing the number of electiveavailable for students, eliminating yealong courses, and giving students theopportunity to choose courses indifferent upper secondary schools. Thegoal of the experiment is to provide

students with more diversified optionsfor a program of studies. Students in anacademic high school can take coursesin the vocational schools as well asstudents in the vocational schoolstaking academic courses. Some studentsmay also choose a combination ofacademic and vocational courses thatprovide them with a vocationalcertificate as well as the academicdiploma. The vocational educationsystem has also introduced the conceptof flexibility in the experimental schoolsby reducing the occupational lines ofspecialization from 250 to 160occupational preparation programs.Students in several of the experimentalschools are allowed to develop aconcentration in a major area ofspecialization and obtain a minor areain another program or duster. In thisapproach students will have theflexibility to prepare themselves forqualification to enter r latedoccupational fields and better respondto structural changes in the labormarket and shorten the time required tobe retrained for another occupation.

A third component of theexperimental reforms in Finland is theformation of polytechnic institutions ofhigher education. This is beingaccomplished in twenty-two locationsacross Finland by combining theseparate higher vocational educationschools offering occupationalpreparation in allied health, agriculture,forestry, business, etc. into a singleadministrative unit. The aim is to raisethe level of qualifications by combiningthe theoretical with vocational studiesand allow students to developindividual relevant study programsamong the occupational areas found inthe schools comprising the newpolytechnics. For example, a student inforestry could choose courses frombusiness to develop their expertise andpreparation to enter management in theforest products industry. The newlyformed polytechnics will create moreopportunities for students to continuetheir education after graduation fromthe upper-secondary school, and link

26

their vocational education courseworkwith advanced practical and theoreticalpreparation at the polytechnicinstitutions.

In the United States theeducational reform movement hasstimulated an effort to improve thequality of education by reducing theoptions students have had in the past ingraduating front high school. Everystate in the nation has increased thebasic requirements for high schoolgraduation reducing the opportunitiesfor taking electives such as vocationaleducation courses at the same time.Proponents of educational reform arealso recommending . that the "general"program of studies be eliminated andstudents be better prepared to enter theworkforce and/or continue theireducation. These reforms becamenational policy in the Perkins Act withthe tech-prep initiative. The major goalof the initiative is to develop aprescribed program of studies whichwill include higher levels ofmathematics, science, and com-munication skills and link theoccupational preparation courses at thehigh school level with technicalpreparation programs at the post-secondary level. In this manner,students in the United States woulddevelop a career path that would betterqualify them for entry into theworkplace and allow them to continuetheir depth of specialization through anarticulated program of technical studiesfound in a community college,proprietary school, or apprenticeshipprogram.

Comparisons and Conclusions

In comparing these policies andpractices, it is interesting to observethat both nations are seeking to removebarriers within as well as between thesecondary and post-secondary schoolsand programs. In the United States theintegration of vocational and academiceducation and the tech-prep linkagesare the strategies being used to

accomplish the goal. In Finland thestrategy is to develop flexibility forstudent options and electives throughinter-institutional cooperation andadministrative consolidation amongseparate schools and programs at boththe secondary and post-secondarylevels. The difference in strategiesamong the two nations is accounted forby the values of the two cultures. InFinland with a relatively smallpopulation of five million located in amoderately sized nation, a strong stateor federal control of education emergedwith prescribed standards for schooladministration and curriculum whichhas been quickly decentralized in recentyears. The European tradition for in-depth preparation for work or for entryinto higher education facilitated thedevelopment of a separate system ofsecondary schools devoted to eitheracademic or vocational preparation.Changes in the economy of Finland,with a severe recession creating largenumbers of unemployed and underemployed and the necessity to formcollaborative economic and politicallinkages with other nations particularlyWestern Europe, created the need formore flexibility in preparing studentsfor a rapidly changing environment.

In the United States theformation of a decentralized system ofstate governments with divergententities within states created a morelocalized governance of publicschooling. Most communities across thenation began to establish high schoolsduring the early part of the century andfederal legislation in 1917 promoted theplacement of vocational education inthe emerging high schools. TheAmerican norm became thecomprehensive high school containingboth college and workforce preparationprograms.

The establishment of awidespread network of communitycolleges and technical institutes in theUnited States following World War 11provided technical preparation in everystate of the country. The availability ofthese existing programs enhanced the

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development of local articulationagreements between high schools andpost-secondary institutions during thepast ten years which eventually becamepublic policy with the tech prepinitiative in the 1990 Perkins Act. Thesedevelopments have produced federalleadership in promoting linkagesbetween secondary and post-secondaryprograms for workforce preparationfunding support to encourage theplanning and development of tech prepprograms across the nation.

The future prosperity ofFinland and the United States is ashared concern among the citizens ofboth nations. These concerns have beetranslated into common national go; iswith both countries seeking economicgrowth in a competitive worldmarketplace that provides employmentopportunities to continue a highstandard of living for members of eachsociety. Both countries have placedpriority on improving the quality ofeducation and have approved federallegislative policies and initiatives toaddress specific concerns aboutimproving the quality of workforcepreparation for youth and adults. Eachnation has also established a tradition ofdelivering the preparation of youth foremployment through a school basedapproach at the secondary and post-secondary levels.

Although both nations sharecommon goals and have launchedefforts to improve the workforcepreparation of youth, the social andpolitical contexts of each country haveinfluenced the development of differentpolicies and strategies to address theissue. The Finnish experiments areaimed at raising the standards ofvocational education studies andeliminating barriers between differentforms of education that will producegreater flexibility for students and bemore compatible with educationalsystems of the European union nations.The United States has ft...:used onimproving the academic as well as theoccupational skills of youth belongingto all populations and increasing

opportunities for highly specializedtechnical preparation through linkageswith post-secondary institutions andorganizations.

The strategies for accom-plishing these goals in Finland can becharacterized as moving away fromstate mandates to local control with aloosening of rigid curriculumrequirements and allowing studentsmore opportunities to elect coursesfrom both academic and vocationalschools. The opportunity to continue inan area of in-depth specialization in atechnical area is being changed byupgrading post-secondary highervocational studies into an emergingnational system of four year polytechnicinstitutions of high education. Thisinitiative will also produce greatercompatibility with the credentialingsystems and standards being used byother nations belonging to the EuropeanUnion.

In spite of the prevailingrecession, Finland is taking up thechallenges of the future. The agreementon the European Economic Area andofficially joining the European Union in1995 will increase international com-petitiveness of Finland and pave theway for closer cooperation in educationand research. Finland has chosen thestrategy to invest in education andresearch even during recession.

In the United States thestrategies for improving the workforcepreparation of youth is focused onreducing the options and electives ofhigh school students by increasing theacademic achievement of studentsthrough increased graduationrequirements and the integration ofacademic and vocational educationcourses. Whereas, Finland is in theprocess of transforming their post-secondary technical preparationprograms into the polytechnics, theUnited States has well establishedcommunity college and technical

28

college systems and federal resourcesare being used to strengthen and raisethe level of workforce preparationthrough the development of linkagesand articulation of secondary and post-secondary programs with the tech prepinitiative. The aim of these efforts is toimprove the quality of the workforce inorder to better compete in theinternational marketplace rather thancollaborate with other nations informing common markets andeducational credentials.

As both nations move forwardin reforming and restructuring theworkforce preparation programs fortheir youth, the outcomes will bedependent upon the effect of theinitiatives and strategies being used toimplement the goals of each nation'spolicy. The ultimate goal of bothinitiatives is to raise the level ofachievement and provide a wellqualified person to enter the workforceand/or continue their career andtechnical preparation through a four-year polytechnic institution in Finlandor a two-year post-secondary com-munity college or apprentice programin the United States. The results of thesereforms in workforce preparation willbe a contributing factor in the futureeconomic development and progress ofeach nation.

References

Bottoms, G., & Presson, A. (1993). Making High Schools Work. Atlanta, GA: SouthernRegional Educational Board.

Carnevale, A. P. (1991). America and the New Economy. San Francisco, CA: Jossey BassPublishers.

Cline, W. H., White, P., & Patterson, J. (1989). The Implementation and Effects of HighSchool Graduation Requirements: First Steps Toward Curricular Reform.New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Policy Research in Education, Rutgers, The StateUniversity of New Jersey.

Grubb, W. N., et. al. (1991). The Cunning Hand, the Cultured Mind: Models forIntegrating Vocational and Academic Education. Berkeley, CA: NationalCenter for Research in Vocational Education.

Hull, D., & Parnell, D. (1991). Tech Prep/Associate Degree: A Win/Win Experience.Waco, TX: Center for Occupational Research and Development.

Government Office of Publications. (1991). Koulutuksen ja korkeakouluissaharjoiteffavan tutkimuksen kehiffamissuunitelma vuosille (1991- 1996) (TheGovernment Development Program of Education and Research for 1991-1996).Helsinki: Government Office Publications.

Majchrzak,A. (1984). Methods for Policy Research. Applied Social Research MethodsSeries, Volume 3. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

Ministry of Education. (1994a). Higher Education Policy in Finland. Helsinki:Nykypaino Oy.

Ministry of Education. (1994b). Developments in Education 1992- 1994. Helsinki:Painatuskeskus.

Morgan, D. L. (1990). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research (3rd printing). QualitativeResearch Methods Series 16. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk: TheImperative for Educational Reform Washington, DC: National Commission onExcellence in Education.

Numminen, U., & Piilonen, A. R. (1994). Nuorisoasteen koulutuskokeilufjaammatikorkealcoulukokeilut. Raportti 2. Lukuvuosi 1992-1993 (Experiments ofyouth education and polytechnics education. The second report). Study yea:1992-93. Helsinki: Ministry of Education.

Numminen, U., & Piilonenm, A. R. (1992). Nuorisoasteen koulutuskokeilut jaammatikorkeakoulukokeilut, perusraportti (Experiments of youth educationand polytechnics education, the first report). Helsinki: Ministry of Education.

Patton, C. V., & Swicki, D. S. (1986). Basic Methods of Policy Analysis and Planning.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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Public Law 101-392. (1990). The Car/ D. Perkins Vocational and Applied TechnologyAct of 1990 Washington, DC: U. S. Congress.

Thurow, L. (1992). Head to Head: The Coming Economic Battle Among Japan, Europeand America. New York: William Morrow.

Tilastokesaus. (1993). Koulutus (Educational Statistics). Helsinki: Paino-Centre Oy.

United States Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics.(1993). The Condition of Education. Washington, DC: U. S. GovernmentPrinting Office.

United States Department of Education, Office of Educational Research andImprovement. (1994) Vocational Education in G-7 Countries: Profiles andData. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office.

The fizAseionee of SocialPolities to Redwaulleg Abllltyand Symbolic Odeaelies

Robert L. FritzThe University of Georgia

Two factors lead attentiontoward restructuring skill and symbolicorientation. The first is the recognitionthat successful performance in a highperformance workplace is hinged toanalytical ability (Marshall & Tucker,1992). The second is The Bell Curve. Itrevives questions about the heritabilityof analytical skill, and the belief thatthis ability divides according to socialclass (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994).Analytical skill includes restructuringskill and good skill with symbols.

Questions about analytical skilland symbolic skill have surfaced invocational education. Zellner andParrish (1986) mentioned them, whilerecent attempts to distance vocationaleducation from special needs studentsseem to echo beliefs that Herrnstein andMurray (1994) tie to social class. Thechallenge to improve the nation'sworkforce, though, can not be bound bythis logic. Deeper insight and attentionto factors that mold analytical a- .7itymust dominate professional judgment.

This need is important becausenotions of competitive advantage differfrom in the past. Individuals are notexpendable, because the entireworkforce must participate in thestrengthening of the nation'sinternational stature. Consequently, nomatter what they are, factors thatcontribute to non-performance need tobe identified and understood so thatpedagogy contributes to thedevelopment of analytical skill.

So far, though, McCaslin andGood (1993) saw much educationalreform as overly simplistic. Much of itis not grounded in theories of learningor human development. The need forthis approach is based on Snow (1989),

31

that complex and demanding tasks callfor emotional and psychologicalresources. Many of them appear to bepersonality based.

Beyond this point, the value oftech-prep and school-to-work transitionseems evident. However, it could, likemost methods, be situationally effectiveif not grounded in knowledge of humangrowth and development. Becausevocational reform has been driven byvalid employer and teacher concerns, amove to incorporate this knowledgewould depart from recent practice.However, Gagne (1980) would confirmthe need for this thinking with the ideathat a lack of insight to this complexissue limits progress. Until depth ofunderstanding emerges, the progressthat Marshall and Tucker (1992)envision for the workforce could bedifficult to achieve.

The need for this study, then, isbased on the belief that progress in thedevelopment of high performance skillrequires vocational education to delveinto developmental factors thatinfluence analytical ability, such asrestructuring skill and symbolicorientation. The idea that theseattributes are linked to social class hassome support (Herrnstein & Murray,1994; Marshall & Tucker, 1992).

The common view that studentswill rise to higher expectations isdifficult to support. Theories ofpersonality and cognitive style showthat aptitude for high performancerequires the types of psychological andemotional resources Snow (1987)hypothesized. Some of them couldrelate to social position because, whilepeople are products of theirenvironments, this includes the waypersonalities are organized and howpeople learn to cope with advancedskills.

BackgroundThe theoretical framework used

in this study came from Witkin's field-dependence theory (Witkin &Goodenough, 1981), Holland's (1985)congruence theory, and Bloom's (1984)

4

view of higher-order cognitiveobjectives. The field-dependenceconstruct examined cognitiverestructuring skill (Witkin &Goodenough, 1981), an ability Bloomindicated as essential to higher-orderproblem solving. Holland held thatpeople seek environments that reinforcetheir personalities and interests. Usingcongruence to frame this study, then,the intent was to determine how itrelates to restructuring skill andattitudes toward symbols as a source ofmeaning.

Theoretical BaseIf students have learning

abilities and interests that areincompatible with task demands,Cronbach and Snow (1977) feel thatthey have an inaptitude. Thisinaptitude would indude restructuringskill. Bloom (1984) stated that peoplemust restructure knowledge to solvecognitive objectives at or above theapplication level. Restructuring is theability to independently reorganize anew problem into familiar terms and tothen select appropriate principles orconcepts to frame a response. Thisability could be an aspect of fluidability, an element of generalintelligence that enables thetransformation and manipulation ofknowledge (Cronbach & Snow, 1977;Herrnstein & Murray, 1994). It wouldbe a psychological resource in aproblem solving situation.

Bloom (1984) also believed thatstudents need to demonstrate maturejudgment, self-confidence and self-control. These would be emotionalresources in a higher-order tasksituation. They would be used toachieve the focus, concentration, anddiscernment on analytical work.However, because someone hasrequisite psychological and/oremotional attributes does not guaranteethat they will be used (Messick, 1987).Yet, those who lack them could face achallenging adaptive situation.

Because they are personality-based, some psychological andemotional resources could be difficult

32

to develop. These behavioral patternscan be automatic by middle teenageyears and thus difficult to modify(Ginzburg & Opper, 1978; Witkin &Goodenough, 1981). If they are seen asvolitional, psychological and emotionalresources can be keys to the enduringmotivation that Hilgard (1987) saw aseasily undervalued.

Beyond heritability, sociallearning theory is important in thisregard because it suggests that, asindicators of analytical skill,restructuring and symbolic orientationare predominately socially acquired(Lohman, 1992; Witkin & Goodenough,1981; Hill, 1981). Indeed, Bandura(1986) believed that modeling affectsthe development of cognitive skill. Ifsymbolic memory is added, the skillsneeded for the workforce could reflectsocial position.

Kagan and Lang (1978) believethat youths develop skills normallyfound in their everyday lives. Witkinand Goodenough (1981) suggest thatanalytical skill, which is a component ofthe field-independent cognitive style, isdeveloped in a social context. It seemsto be acquired by being nurturedtoward self-dire( d behavior. Thosewith limited restructuring skill orsymbolic orientation would lack theseexperiences.

Poverty, latch-key status, orintrusive social conditions, which arecommon, produce psychologicaldependence at disproportionate ratesfor females and special needs students(Ginzburg & Opper, 1978; Kagan &Lang, 1978; Witkin & Goodenough,1981). These experiences may causestudents not to have clear self-definitionand an independent goal orientation(Witkin & Goodenough, 1981).

Holland (1985) suggested thatbehavior change is difficult to sustainbecause people often lack sufficient andsustained reinforcement. Thus, whileMessick's (1987) reasoning suggests thatanalytical skill could be a personalitytrait, restructuring skill and symbolicorientation could be difficult to developif an individual has a narrow range ofadaptive skills. Based on this

45

perspective, this study addressed thesetwo basic questions:

1. Is there a correlation betweensocial position and restruct-uring skill as reflected by GEFTscore?

2. Is there a correlation betweensocial position and symbolicorientation?

Secondary marketing educationstudents were selected for studybecause they fulfill two importantcriteria. One, congruence theorypredicts that students who enroll inpeople-oriented courses, like marketingeducation, have a social cognitive stylethat portends limited restructuring skill.Two, observation suggests that manymarketing education students havelimited interest in symbols as keys tomeaning-making.

Method

Population. Students were in-tact groups in marketing educationprograms in five schools located inGeorgia. Of 365 students, 204 werefemale and 135 were male, while 26were not identified.

Instrumentation. Data were col-lected with the Group EmbeddedFigures Test (GEFT), the EducationalStyle Preference Inventory (ESPI), andthe Hollingshead Index of SocialPosition. Zytowski and Borgen (1983)encouraged researchers to use test andself-descriptive information to studyissues related to readiness. Thisapproach was used in this study.

Restructuring was determinedby the Group Embedded Figures Test(GEFT). The GEFT has satisfactoryreliability (.89 on test-retest over a threeyear period) and validity (a correlationof .82 between the two major sub-sections) ( Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, &Karp, 1971). Scores range from 0-18,with 0 to 3 indicates low restructuringskill and a field-dependent cognitivestyle. Scores from 15 to 18 indicating

high restructuring skill and a field-independent cognitive style.

In addition, four sub-scalesfrom the ESPI were used to assessattitudes toward words and numbers(average reliability was .7600). TheESPI was adapted from Hill's (1981)educational cognitive style test and wasused. Hill's inventory had problems ofvalidity and reliability (ACT, 1978;Clark & Sheriff, No Date) that Fritz(1992) addressed. Fritz named hisversion the Educational Style PreferenceInventory to differentiate it from Hill'sinventory.

Students rated their preferenceson the ESPI on the four scales forTheoretical Symbolsreading words,hearing words, reading numbers, andhearing numbers. Words and numbersare learned through two sensorymodalities, audio or visual. Five pointscales were used to achieve thisobjective. They ranged from 5("Usually") to 1 ("Rarely").

Hawkins, Best, and Coney(1989) reported that the HollingsheadIndex of Social Position is widely usedto indicate a family's overall socialposition in a community. A score isderived by combining parentaloccupation and education scores afterthey are rated on a 1-7 continuum.Occupation is weighted by a factor ofseven, and education by a factor offour. Appendix A indicates thecategories and data for the sample.

ProcedureStandardized test

administration procedures were used tocollect data. For the GEFT, they werethe methods outlined by Witkin et al.(1971). Students completed the GEFTfirst. It has three timed sections, one forpractice and two for actual scoring.Then, instructions developed by theinvestigator were used to complete theESPI and to collect demographicinformation. The data collectionprocess required about 45 minutes.

The investigator hand scoredthe GEFT and recorded scores on thecomputer scan sheets that studentsused for the ESPI. Data were then

33

6

tabulated and processed through TheUniversity of Georgia EducationalResearch Services Laboratory. Cron-bach's alpha, descriptive statistics,correlations and MANOVA were usedto evaluate data. These methods areconsistent with prior research of thistype.

Findings

There was a negative andmoderate correlation between GEFTand social position as indicated onTable 1. It suggests .nat higher GEFT

Table 1Correlation: Social Position by GEFT

M SD

score correlated to higher socialposition score. Scores on social positionare scored inversely, thus explainingthe negative association. One reasonthe correlation was modest is suggestedby the standard deviation. The datawas skewed and was thereforecompressed along the range. The meanfor social position was in the lower-middle strata, with most students beingin the middle to lower social position.The mean for GEFT was slightly belowthe mid-point on the 0-18 range andskewed toward the lower end.

r Prob.

GEFT 7.2626 5.0757Social Position 50.7507 13.4484

-0.1801 0.00008* 346p>.05*

For question two, Table 2

shows that there was a statisticalcorrelation between social position andsymbolic orientation with regard toreading words. Because high socialposition score means membership in a

Table 2Correlation Social Position to Symbolic Sub - Scales

lower strata, the data suggest that alower preference for reading to gainunderstanding correlated to high socialposition. Social position was defined byparental education and occupation.

r Prob.

Read Words 0.14028 0.0116* 323

Hear Words 0.04194 0.4526 323

Read Numbers 0.02149 0.7004 323

Hear Numbers 0.04308 0.4411 322p>.05

Table 3 shows that the mean forreading words was toward the middleof the 0-5 range. This signifiedmoderate preference, because the scalesread from a high of "Usually" to a low

Table 3Symbolic Orientation Basic Statistics

M

of "Rarely." In addition, the standarddeviation indicates that scores wereweighted toward the lower end of thescale, also signifying less preference toread words to derive meaning.

SD n

Read Words 2.5984 1.1590 338

Hear Words 2.7367 1.0378 338

Read Numbers 2.6834 1.1803 338

Hear Numbers 2.7737 0.8869 337

34

Statistical relationships werefound between social position andrestructuring skill and between socialposition and symbolic orientation forreading words to derive meaning.These findings are the focus ofdiscussion in the following section.

Discussion and RecommendationsThe findings of statistical

relationships between social positionand restructuring skill is consistent withexpectation, but the finding forsymbolic orientation was not. Thisfinding deviated from convention. Ingeneral, though, the data means andstandard deviations indicate that manyof these students had moderaterestructurin3 skill and moderateinterest in reading. Overall, thissuggests limited aptitude for complexand demanding tasks, thus confirmingthe need to identify specificpsychological and emotional factorsthat affect skill development.

While the general portrayal oflimited analytical skill to social class isunderstood (Herrnstein & Murray,1994; Marshall & Tucker, 1992), thisstudy went further by isolatingcomponents of analytical ability innewer ways. Restructuring ability,which Bloom (1984) equated witheffective performance on advancedtasks, could be an aspect of whatLohman (1993) called fluid ability. Thisis the general all-purpose ability tolearn and to perform on advancedtasks.

Students could have goodsymbolic skill, but the absence ofrestructuring ability almost ensures aninaptitude with the mechanics of ananalytical task. The reasoning abilityassociated with analysis, though, isportrayed by Witkin and Goodenough(1981) as part of a comprehensivepersonality structure. A large numberof these students do not have thatstructure.

Reading develops vocabularyand facilitates understanding. Moder-ate interest in reading, while not statingthat students have trouble reading or

that they have a limited vocabulary,moves toward the volitional arena,toward the automatic behaviorsstudents bring to task situations.Combined with low prefer-ence for newand ambiguous tasks, students whohave a limited vocabulary could findthe demands in a high performance taskoutside their developed abilities andinterests. The challenge to instructors,then, is to forge new preferences forstudents.

One way to mold new skill is toreinforce existing learning strengthsand abilities because they reflectpresent aptitude. Snow (1989) encour-ages this approach, as did Witkin andGoodenough (1981) in their discussionsabout cognitive style. Indeed, Fritz(1994) called for the development ofvocational programs that reinforcesocial as well as analytical interests.Because aptitude for high performancetasks is not program-specific, studentswho have limited restructuring skillmight benefit more from programs thatcall for their developed preferences andskills.

Snow (1987) was dear thatadvanced tasks call for personality-related attributes. Kagan and Lang(1978) report that, due to develop-mental experience, some students donot have access to role models thatencourage semantic memory. The samecould be true for restructuring skill.Given this void, teachers mustrecognize that they have a personalityenhancing role to fulfill for manystudents. Without instructional sup-port, some students will not mold thepsychological and emotional attributesthey need for high performance tasks.

While this group of studentswas enrolled in marketing education,students with these traits are found inall vocational programs. Fritz (1981)indicates that they also enroll in homeeconomics, while students with goodrestructuring skill enroll inAgribusiness and several TechnologicalStudies programs. Marketing edu-cation and home economics may attractmore students with limited

restructuring skill, as Witkin andGoodenough (1981) hypothesize, be-cause they emphasize people in theircontent-base.

The absence of restructuringability portends a social learning styleand limited tolerance for Lew andambiguous tasks (WitkinGoodenough, 1981). In addition,moderate to low interest in readingsuggests that learning in this manner isnot, as mentioned, an automaticbehavior for many students. Becauseanalytical skill requires bothrestructuring and reading ability andinterest, both traits must be developed.

If high performance is alegitimate educational goal, attention tocongruence factors and personalmotivators is important. The type ofinformation provided here isdiagnostic. It should be used tointerpret the impact of past experience,including non-school developmentalconditions at home and in thecommunity, as they form personality.A high performance workplace requiresthat individuals have a strongorientation toward analytical tasks. It ismost desirable that it be automatic.When it is not, the challenge is to notonly build new skill, but to motivate thetypes of interest students need to haveaccess to these occupations. In manyways, this means developing or

References

supplementing an existing personalitystructure.

In dose, this study adds insightto discussions about analytical skill thathas implications for classroom teachersand teacher education programs.Because little attention has been givento characteristics of the learner invocational research, this study mightencourage others to recognize howsocial experience molds learning habits.

Recommendations

To extend the knowledgeacquired from this exploratory study, itis recommended that the following beconducted:1. A study to establish relation-

ships between reading prefer-ences and vocabulary fortechnical occupations.

2. Identify the level of influencevocational teachers have onstudent's decisions to develophigh performance skills.

3. Determine the relationshipbetween restructuring skill andpersistence on high perform-ance cognitive tasks in avocational environment.

ACT (1978). Validation of the educational cognitive style inventory. Trenton, NJ:American College Testing Service.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Bloom B.S. (Ed.) (1984). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook I: Cognitivedomain. New York: David McKay.

Clark, F. E. & Sheriff, D. E. (No Date). Abstract of Hill's cognitive style inventory inretrospect. Division C Poster Session, AREA. Unpublished manuscript.

Cronbach, L. J. (1963). Educational psychology. (2nd Ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace& World.

s

36

Cronbach, L. J. & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods. New York:Irvington Publishers.

Fritz, R. L. (1994). Relationship of cognitive style to attitudes toward mathematics,science, and marketing education. Research paper presented at the AmericanEducational Research Association's Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.

Fritz, R. L. (1991). An analysis of selected cognitive attributes in secondary marketingeducation programs. Marketing Educators' Journal (pp. 15-28). Columbus, OH:Marketing Education Association

Fritz, R. L. (1981). The role of field-dependence and field independence in secondaryschool students' re-enrollments in vocational education and their attitudestoward teachers and programs. (Doctoral dissertation, Auburn University,April) (University Microfilms, Number 81-19,563).

Gagne, R. M. (1980). Learnable aspects of problem solving. Educational Psychologist.15 84-92.

Ginzburg, H. & Opper, S. (1979). Piaget's theory of intellectual development (2nd Ed.).Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.

Hawkins, D. I., Best, R. J., Coney, K. A. (1991). Consumer behavior: Implications formarketing strategy. (4th Ed.). Plano, TX: Business Publications.

Hill, J. E. (1981). The educational sciences a conceptual framework. Farmington, Ml:Oakland Community College.

Herrnstein, J. R. & Murray, 0. B. (1994). The bell curve. New York: Free Press.

Hilgard, E. R. (1987). Discussion. In R. E. Snow, & M. J. Farr (Eds.) Aptitude, learning,and instruction volume 3: cognitive and affective process analyses. (pp. 343-346). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hill, J. E. (1981). The educational sciences. Farmington, MI: Oakland CommunityCollege.

Holland, J. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kagan, J. & Lang, C. (1978). Psychology and education, an introduction. New York:Harcourt.

Lohman, D. F. (1993). Teaching and testing to develop fluid abilities. EducationalResearcher. 22 (7), 12-23.

Marshall, R. & Tucker, M. (1992). Thinking for a living. New York: Basic Books.

McCaslin, M. & Good, T. L. (1992). Compliant cognition: The misalliance ofmanagement and instructional goals in current school reform. EducationalResearcher, 21(3), 4-17.

37

Messick, S. (1987). Structural relationships across cognition, personality, and style. InR. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.) Aptitude, learning, and instruction volume 3:Cognitive and affective process analyses. (pp. 35-75 Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum.

Snow, R. E. (1989). Toward assessment of cognitive and conative structures in learning.Educational Researcher. 18 (9), 8-14.

Snow, R. E. & Farr, M. J. (1987). Cognitive-conative-affective processes in aptitude,learning and instruction: An introduction. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.)Aptitude, learning, and instruction volume 3: Conative and affective processanalyses. (pp. 1-9) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Witkin, H. A., & Goodenough, D. R. (1981). Cognitive styles: Essence and origins. NewYork: International Universities Press.

Witkin, H. A., Oltman, P. K., Raskin, E. & Karp, S. A. (1971). A manual for the groupembedded figures test. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Zenner, R. D. & Parrish, L. H. (1986). Critical issues in vocational teacher education.Vocational Education Journal. 61 (2), 3940.

Zytowski, A. M. & Borgen, B. N. (1983) Predictive validity in vocational development.In W. B. Walsh & S. H. Osipow (Eds.) (1983). Handbook of vocationalpsychology, volume 2 - applications. (12 - 29) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

385 I

Appendix A

Social Strata Range Populationof Scores Breakdown

Upper 11-17 3.0Upper-Middle 18-31 8.0Middle 32-47 22.0Lower-Middle 48-63 46.0Lower 64-77 21.0

Sample M = 50.7507 SD = 13.4484 n = 349

Occupation Scales (Weight of 7)

Higher executives of large concerns, major professionals 1

Business managers, prop. med bus, less professionals 2Administrators, small bus owners, minor professionals 3Clerical/ sales, technicians, and owners of small business 4

Skilled manual employees 5Machine Operators and semiskilled employees 6

Unskilled employees 7Professional (Graduate School, M.D., Ph.D., LL.B., etc.) 1

Four-year college graduate (B.A., B.S., B.M.) 2One to three years of college (also business schools) 3

High school graduate 4Ten to 11 years of school (part high school) 5Seven to nine years of school 6Under seven years of school 7

SP score = (Occupation score x 7) + (Education score x 4)

!octal, not Influence Women',Choice To I104 In the node/

Cherry K. GreeneMiddle Georgia College

Wanda L Stitt-GohdesThe University of Georgia

Women's work patterns have beenchanging radically over the past severaldecades. Historically, women whoworked outside the home have beenemployed in traditional female workroles. These jobs are typically in thelow-paying, low-status, clerical, retail,and service sectors. In comparison,male-dominated occupations aretraditionally higher paying and higherstatus jobs than the female-intensiveoccupations. "It is still true in theUnited States that many jobs are clearlylabeled as 'women's jobs' or 'men's jobs'.Male jobs are more numerous and aretypically higher in both status andincome than are traditional women'sjobs' (Bee, 1992, p. 289).

Occupational segregation hascontributed in large part to limitationsbeing placed on the occupationalachievement of women, chiefly causinga pay gap between men's and women'swages. In 1991 women earned 70 centsfor every dollar earned by men, upfrom 59 cents in 1963. These statisticsindicate that 30 years after the passageof the Equal Pay Act of 1963, muchwork remains to be done to close theearnings gap between men and women.

To overcome employmentinequities and to further their careerdevelopment and career opportunities,many American women are nowlooking beyond the traditional feminineworking roles. According to Zunker(1990) an emerging trend in women'semployment is toward "equalization ofjob opportunities, particularly thosejobs that are predominantly held bymen" (p. 382).

As more women join theworkforce and choose male-intensive

40

occupations, the blue-collar trades, oncethe domain of men, are becoming one ofthe nontraditional job choice., offemales. A trade is "some line of skilledmanual or mechanical work; craft"(Webster's College Dictionary, 1991, p.1413). For this study, a trade is amanual occupation in which thelearning process can be acquiredthrough apprenticeship programs oron-the-job training.

The trades offer manyadvantages to workers who choosethese jobs. As cited earlier, a majorbenefit of working in the trades are thewages, typically two or three timeswhat a woman can expect to earn in atraditional female job. Trades requiringa license need only a high schooldiploma or GED. In trades requiringapprenticeship training, apprentices arewell-paid during the training period.Other advantages include opportunitiesfor advancement and job training whichis recognized throughout the UnitedStates (Green, 1992). Strengthening thisoccupational option for women arecurrent economic indicators which areshowing an increased need for skilledtrade workers over the next twodecades (Martin, 1988).

Along with these advantages,however there are hazards andharassment for the women who chooseto work in the trades. By going outsidethe feminine workroles, tradeswomenendure and overcome frustrations andobstacles unique to their job choices.Gutek and Larwood (1987) report that"a variety of attitudes and behaviorsstill set up harriers to women's optimalcareer development, and particularly totheir participation in nontraditionaloccupations . . . A woman trucker wasfired 'for her own good' after releasefrom a hospital following a beating andrape near her disabled vehicle . . .

company mechanics had refused torepair the vehicle" (p. 23).

Clearly, there are harriers towomen in nontraditional trades. Sparks(1984) cited the following deterrents towomen entering the trades: (1) theirown upbringing and sex-role

stereotyped attitudes, (2) family pres-sures, (3) male ridicule, (4) employerskepticism or opposition, (5) lack ofawareness of the requirements andrewards of these occupations, and (6)low self-confidence and an over-whelmed sensation.

Given that females are notsocialized into considering the trades asoccupations, that access to such jobs isdifficult at best, that once admitted,women experience sexual harassmentand other workplace hazards, onewonders what influences a woman tomake this job choice.

Statement of the Problem and Purpose

In spite of the many difficultiesfaced by women who work in thetrades, there are women who choosethese occupations. Thus, this questionis raised: Are there unique factorspresent in a woman's life that influenceher to choose to work in the male-dominated trades? We know thateconomic factors strongly influencemany women in choosing theirworkroles. However, studies indicate agrowing number of females arechoosing the trades because of personalambition and job satisfaction (Zunker,1990).

The purpose of this study, thenwas to identify factors influencing awoman's decision to work in the blue-collar trades. The following researchquestions guided the study:

1. What personal characteristicsdo these tradeswomen have incommon?

2. What family influences weredolqinant in the job choices oftradeswomen?

3. In what way, if any, did rolemodels contribute to women'schoices to work in the trades?

4. To what extent was careerguidance a factor in the job

choices of women working inthe trades?

5. Were other societal factorsinfluential in the job choices oftradeswomen?

Methodology

As the goal of a qualitativeresearcher is to better understandhuman behavior (Bogdan & Biklen,1992), a qualitative research design wasselected as the most appropriateapproach for this study.

The phenomenological ap-proach used here permits the researcherto try "to gain entry into the conceptualworld of her subjects" (Bogdan &Taylor, 1984, p. 31). This approach is aneffort to understand and interpret howresearch participants make meaning oftheir experiences. This study sought touncover the participants' view of thefactors influencing their job choices.

This study employed asemistructured type of interviewguided by a list of questions to beexplored. Exact wording nor the orderof the questions were determined aheadof time. In this way, the researcher isable to respond to the situation at handand to new ideas on the topic (Merriam,1988). The set of questions was open-ended but carefully worded with theintention of eliciting from eachparticipant information identifyingfactors influencing their decision towork in the trades. this provided theopportunity for the participants toanswer in their own terms. Theinterviews focused on the participants'personal characteristics and externalfactors affecting their job choice.

The interviews v -ere taperecorded, with the permission of theinterviewee, and transcribed by theresearcher. Each interview lastedapproximately 45 minutes to two hoursand was conducted at a site agreedupon by the participant and researcher.

Since in qualitative research,inquiry typically focuses in depth onrelatively small, information-rich

41

samples, participants we deliberatelychosen based on the information theycould potentially provide. 'The logicand power of purposeful sampling liesin selecting information-rich cases forstudy in depth" (Patton, 1990, p. 169).For this study, then, ten adult femalesemployed in trade occupations wereselected. Participants were locatedusing a chain sampling techniqueinvolving the researcher's personal andprofessional networks and those of theparticipants.. The following trades-women were interviewed: an autorepair mechanic, a truck driver, twocarpenters, two plumbers, an elec-trician, a heating and air conditioningtechnician, a sign maker, and acomputer technician. The followingcriteria were used in sample selection:

1. Participants were employed fulltime in a trade occupation.Union and nonunion memberswere sought.

2. Participants were employed ina trade occupation for at leastone year. Employment by theparticipant for at least one yearwas assumed to indicate jobcommitment.

This study utilized the constantcomparative method of data analysis(Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Eachinterview was transcribed immediatelyupon completion and the data analysisbegun. To identify data, each incidentpertaining to the purposes of the studywas coded. After the first interview,transcripts were examined for incidentsthat stood out and seemed important tothe participant. After seven of theinterview transcripts were analyzed, itwas apparent that the main ideas at thattime would become categories. Theremaining three interview transcriptsyielded no new information. Thecategories established were (1) relatedto the purpose of the study, (2)mutually exclusive, (3) conceptuallycongruent, and (4) exhaustive, with allpieces of relevant data placed in them.

42

Findings

Four major categories emergedfrom the data collected and analyzedfrom the interviews with the tentradeswomen: (1) perceived innateability, (2) strong sense of self, (3)desire for independence, and (4) rolemodels.

Perceived Innate Ability.Perceptions of natural ability to performthe trade chosen by each woman was asignificant factor in her choice of thatoccupation. "Perceived" as used byparticipants meant they feel they wereborn with this ability. Even thoughthey all had some kind of training forthe occupation, either on-the-job, aunion apprenticeship program, ortechnical school classes, they all toldhow easy it had been for them to learnthe trade. The innate ability to do thetrade worked as a motivator and servedas an incentive to choose that trade asan occupation.

Strong Sense of Self. A strongsense of self emerged as a personalcharacteristic common to these womenwhich influenced their job choices.Having this strong sense of self enabledthe women to face and overcomeproblems arising from sex-rolestereotypical attitudes prevalent insociety. Each woman had a high regardfor herself and a high degree of self-satisfaction with who she is and whatshe does. Participants stated outrightthat they did not care what other peoplethought of their occupations. Thesewomen were sure of themselves, neverquestioning their ability to carry outtheir occupational choices.

Desire for Independence. Work-ing in the trades gave these women theindependence which they sought andwhich in turn strong influenced theirjob choices. Feeling a sense ofautonomy and having freedom wasimportant to these women.

Role Models. Role modelswere clearly important in thesewomen's choices in providing them

with acceptable patterns of behavior notrestricted by gender and also byproviding support for their individ-ualistic choices. What also surfacedwas the presence of persons in the livesof these women who demonstrated thatindividuals were not restricted in theirbehavior because of gender. The rolemodels for the study participantsranged from mothers to fathers to auntsto teachers with the significantcommonality being support andencouragement for whatever their workchoices were.

Discussion

In addition to the fourcategories emerging from theinterviews in this study, four additionalfactors deserve some discussion. First,the influence of family members as rolemodels was notable in this study.Mention of family influence onoccupational selection can also be foundin the literature in Roe's (1956) theory ofoccupational choice. For the women inthis study, those family membersmentioned served not only as rolemodels but also provided influence thatwas inspirational for their workrolepursuits. Second, it is significant tonote that career education/counselingwas not a factor in participants'decisions to choose the trades. Third isbackground characteristics. Frequently,studies of professional and collegewomen (Lemkau, 1983; Chusmir, 1983)have indicated that most females whochoose nontraditional occupations arefirstborn, eldest, or only children.Significant in this study is that onlythree of the ten women interviewedwere firstborn. Fourth, economicfactors often contribute to the decisionsof individuals to find and secureproductive workroles. In this study,however, rather than emerging as aseparate category, economic factorswere linked to the desire forindependence for these women.

r-Jai

43

Implications

In a discussion of theimplications of this study it is importantto keep in mind that those women whoseek careers in the skilled trades are,indeed, a small group. It is alsoimportant to remember that this jobchoice is not an appropriate one for allwomen.

The theoretical significance ofthis study is its contribution to theunderstanding of women's choices towork in male-dominated occupations,specifically the trades. As choice is partof the process of career development,this study contributes to the knowledgebase of career development theory.Career development theories havehistorically been based on white,middle-class male models and are nottied to today's reality of both a morediverse workforce and ever-increasingopportunities for women to enter non-traditional occupations.

The practical significance of thisstudy is its contribution to careercounseling, particularly in reducing andeliminating occupational segregationand stereotyping. As participants inthis study worked in occupations otherthan their present one, the issue ofmultiple career patterns should beaddressed. Career counseling,beginning at the elementary schoollevel, could facilitate the transitioningprocess by bringing an awareness toindividuals of work roles and optionsregardless of gender.

Finally, this study can alsocontribute to the establishment ofprograms and curricula for womenentering nontraditional vocationaltraining programs. In particular, thisstudy has shown (1) the importance ofself-esteem development for womenthinking about choosing male-dominated occupations, and (2) themagnitude and relevance of role modelsfor nontraditional occupational choices.

References

Bee, H. (1992). The Tourney of Adulthood, (2nd ed.). New York: MacMillan PublishingCompany.

Bogdan, R. and Biklen, S. (1992). Qualitative Research for Education. (2nd ed.).Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Bogdan, R. and Taylor, S. (1984). Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods: TheSearch for Meanings. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.

Chusmir, L. (1983). Characteristics and Predictive Dimensions of Women Who MakeNontraditional Vocational Choices. Personnel and Guidance Journal, (62), pp.4348.

Glaser, B. and Strauss,A. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies forQualitative Research. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company.

Green, K. (1992). Should You Build a Future as a Construction Tradeswoman?Occupational Outlook Quarterly. Spring. pp. 3-11.

Gutdc, B. and Larwood, L. (1987). Women's Career Development. Beverly Hills, CA:Sage Pub-lications, Inc.

Lemkau, J. (1983). Women in Male-Dominated Professions: Distinguishing Personalityand Background Characteristics. Psy- chology of Women Quarterly. Vol. 8,Winter. pp. 144-165.

Martin, M. (1988). Hard-Hatted Women. Seattle, WA: Seal Press.

Merriam, S. (1988). Case Study Research in Education: A Qualitative Approach. SanFrancisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Patton, M. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. (2nd ed.). NewburyPark, CA: Sage Pub licatins, Inc.

Roe, A. (1956). The Psychology of Occupations. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,Inc.

Sparks, L. (1984). Career Advancement Training: A Project to Provide CareerInformation and Services to Women Interested in or Training for NontraditionalVocational/ Technical Occupations. Published by Daytona Beach CommunityCollege, FL. p. 3.

Zunker, V. (1990). Career Counseling: Applied Concepts of Life Planning. (3rd ed.).Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks /Cole Publishing Company.

44 Jr/

Ideology one VocationalConley loint Noble:DA Politic,and Potribi litie,

James A. GregsonOklahmna State University

Introduction and Statement of theProblem

In Ideology and Curriculum,Apple (1990) argued the dominanttechnocratic model of curriculum is ahistorical, tightly controls teaching andlearning lacks critical reflection, andconsiders knowledge to be an objectiverealm of facts. In addition, he found thecurrent trend of more dosely linkingcurricula to the needs of business andindustry problematic. Apple rejectedthe instrumental view that schoolsshould be committed to efforts forincreasing social and economicefficiency; however, he did notinvestigate curricular issues concernedwith vocational education.

Some contemporary scholarsconcerned with vocational educationhave embraced a critical perspectivesimilar to the one described by Apple(1990) and have renewed the debatesover the purpose and substance ofvocational curriculum that emerged inthe late 1800s (e. g., Bettis & Gregson,1993; Gregson, 1994; Lakes, 1991, 1994).Nevertheless, specific publicationsconcerned with the development ofvocational curriculum (e.g., Giachino &Gallington, 1977; Norton, 1985) seem torepresent the instrumental viewbecause they believe vocationalcurriculum should "provide studentswith specific job skills, behaviors,values and attitudes to create a'properly' skilled and socialized workforce" (Simon, Dippo, & Schenke, 1991,p. 5). Further, these publicationsdescribe only one approach to thedevelopment of vocational curriculum:the technocratic approach.

Those concerned with thetransformative capabilities of vocational

lJ

45

education have found the technocraticapproach to curriculum developmentproblematic for several reasons. First, ithas not historically recognized thepossibility for a vocational curriculumto assist in transforming workorganizations and society to reflectparticipative, democratic values.Second, the technocratic approach tothe development of vocationalcurriculum has traditionally made theinterests of students subservient to theinterests of employers and, con-sequently, has maintained the statusquo. Finally, because the technocraticapproach to developing vocationalcurriculum has generally failed todistinguish between education andtraining it has reinforced the dualism ofacademic and vocational education.

Purpose and Theoretical Framework

Using critical theory as itsframework, this paper (a) investigateshow the technocratic approach in thedevelopment of vocational curriculumcontributes to problems that hindermeaningful learning and teaching, (b)acknowledges the political natureinherent in curriculum development,and (c) explores alternative approachesto developing vocational curricula thatpromote democratic possibilities.

Educational Implications: Problems

Currently DACUM (Develop-ing A Curriculum) and task analysis areused extensively to determinecurriculum content in vocationaleducation programs (Finch &Crunkilton, 1989). DACUM is aprocess in which e:perts from the sameoccupation work in a focus group todevelop curriculum content andsystematic lly construct a skill profilethat later serves as a curriculum plan(Norton, 1985). Task analysis is similarto DACUM in that it collects data fromexperts in the field. However, thisprocess requires surveying a sample ofoccupational experts to produce a dutytask list (Finch & Crunkilton, 1989).

Task analysis and DACUM areeffective methods for identifyingimportant technical skills. However,some advocates of these technocraticmethods fail to recognize the value ofintegrating oczupational and liberalstudies so that students gain insightsinto the diverse connections among theworlds of school, work family, andcommunity (Posner, 1988). As a result,when the technocratic approach tocurriculum development is not used inconjunction with other approaches, itcontributes to several problems thathinder meaningful learning andteaching.

One problem with thetechnocratic approach to curriculumdevelopment is that it "fractionates"instruction because it encouragesvocational teachers to teach theirrespective content area in cells withlittle or no connection to academicsubjects. As a result, the technocraticapproach to curriculum developmenthas reinforced the dualism betweenacademic and vocational education(Rosenstock 1991). Though Dewey(1916) contended that vocationaleducation has the potential forbecoming the most powerful pedagogyfor learning he feared that theinstrumental approach to schoolingpromoted a dual system. A system inwhich academic and vocationaleducation were separated anddecontextualized. Based upon recentevaluations of education in general advocational education in particular, thereseems to be evidence that Dewey'sconcerns were well founded(Commission on the Skills of theAmerican Workforce, 1990; USDepartment of Education, 1994).

The technocratic approach tocurriculum development tends tofractionate knowledge by emphasizingspecific jobs rather than career clusters.Such methods as task analysis andDACUM have been criticized forpromoting narrow vocational programsthat decrease career options rather.thancreating career clusters that increasecareer options. In addition, there isevidence to suggest that future workers

46

will work in less defined environmentsand thus will need broader skills suchas creative thinking, decision makingand cooperative problem solving(Berryman & Bailey, 1992; Commissionon the Skills of the AmericanWorkforce, 1990; Samper & Lakes, 1994;Wirth, 1992).

A second problem with thetechnocratic approach to curriculumdevelopment is that it "decontext-ualizes" subject matter. Cornbleth(1990) stated that decontextualizationof curriculum occurs conceptually andoperationally. She stated thatconceptual decontextualization occurswhen curriculum is perceived asproduct (e.g., course of study) and isseparated from policy-making design,and practice. She stated that operationaldecontextualization occurs whencurriculum fails to recognize itsstructural and sociocultural contexts.Cornbleth contended that decontext-ualization of the curriculum emerged inthe late 1800s and became establishedby the 1920s. This was the same timeperiod that work was decontextualizedthrough scientific management.

Historically general and voca-tional educators have been enamoredwith "scientific methods." Similar to theproducts being constructed on theassembly line, many educators becameconvinced that separate elements of thecurriculum could be constructed one ata time and then be assembled to createthe desired whole (Cornbleth, 1990).However, just as there is nowconsiderable evidence that assembly-line workers become alienated fromtheir work because it lacks meaning,evidence has emerged that studentsalso become alienated from school"work" because it lacks meaning(Commission on the Skills of theAmerican Workforce, (1990);Raissiguier, 1994).

Many vocational educationstudents fail to find "industry-driven"curriculum meaningful to theireveryday lives because it fails torecognize differences within com-munities and cultures (Gregson, 1994;Simon & Dippo, 1987). The prevailing

conception of curriculum withinvocational education is as a product, aplan or course of study. While teacherseither develop or have access toelaborate tasksheets, transparencies,information sheets, and tests;biographical, structural, sociocultural,and historical contexts are ignored(Cornbleth, 1990). The technocraticapproach does facilitate thedevelopment of units, lessons, and testsbecause it fragments complex acts intodiscrete elements. However, similar tothe excellence or quality movement inindustry, the movement towardcontextualized teaching/learning andauthentic assessment in education hasprovided evidence of extensivelimitations to the "scientific" approach.Specifically, recent research bycognitive scientists has suggested thatstudents who participate in learningexperiences based upon the technocraticapproach have difficulty transferringacademic conce:;',.., for solving realworld problems (Berryman & Bailey,1992; Raizen, 1984).

Nevertheless, recent studieshave reported successful instances inwhich science, math andcommunication concepts have beeneffectively integrated into vocationalcurriculum (Bottoms, Presson, Johnson,1992). However, in part because the roleof social studies seldom seems to beconsidered in occupational studies,integrated curriculum is void of theconflict that exists in our society andplaces of work (Gregson, 1994).

A third problem then with thetechnocratic approach to curriculumdevelopment is that it fails to informstudents of the historical conflicts thathave contributed to the struggle forfreedom, social justice, and equality.Because vocational curriculum providesstudents with the opportunity to learnabout particular trades, it also providesstudents with the opportunity toexamine collective struggles of unions,crafts people, and artisans (Herschbach,1994). Not only should the struggles ofthese various groups be addressed buttheir successes should also be discussedto encourage students to become

actively involved in shaping theirworking lives. Apple (1992) suggestedthat the nature of conflict has usuallybeen presented to students in a negativeway and he believed that thisperspective was misleading particularlyin a pluralistic society. "The explicitfocusing on conflict as a legitimatecategory of conceptualization and as avalid and essential dimension ofcollective life could enable thedevelopment by students of a moreviable and potent political andintellectual perspective from which toperceive their relation to existingeconomic and political institutions" (p.99).

A fourth problem with thetechnocratic approach to curriculumdevelopment is that it promotestreating students as empty vessels to befilled with knowledge. Specifically, thelanguage and structure of technocraticcurriculum encourages vocationalteachers to use an assembly-lineapproach to teaching that requiresstudents to memorize information andregurgitate it on command. Freire(1985), and later Hooks (1994),described such practice as bankingeducation because it requires thedeposit and withdrawal of knowledge.While those concerned with justiceoppose banking education fordemocratic reasons, cognitive scientistsoppose banking education because theyfind it hinders learning (Berryman &Bailey 1992; Raizen, 1989). Admittedly,in particular vocational settings, thepractice of certain safety proceduresand acquisition of specific technicalskills, may promote a mentor-protégérelationship. However, even in thiscontext, learning can be dynamic aswell as reciprocal.

A fifth problem with thetechnocratic approach to curriculumdevelopment is that it deskills theteaching profession. Those who holdthe instrumental view of schooling failto recognize teachers as professionalsand fear that educators will"contaminate" the curriculum (Giroux1988). Consequently, one reasoninstrumentalists advocate curriculum

be industry-driven is so teachers will beremoved from its development. Notonly does the technocratic approach tocurriculum development removecontrol of instructional content from theteacher but, in some instances,industry-driven curricular materialshave been scripted to the extent thatteachers have little input concerning thedelivery of instruction (McCutcheon1988). As a result, when such "teacher-proof curriculum" is required by stateagencies or administration, teachers areforced to transmit authoritativeknowledge to students rather thanengage them in inquiry and discovery(Berryman & Bailey, 1992).

Educational Implications: Politics

Advocates of the technocraticapproach to curriculum developmenthave contended that curriculumplanning can be "scientific" and"objective." In contrast, critical theoristshave argued that curriculum isinherently political (Apple, 1990; Freire,1985; Ciroux 1988). For instance, bothtask analysis and DACUM utilizeoccupational experts to make decisionsfor and about those who lack theirindustrial knowledge. Critical theoristshave echoed Dewey's (1916) claim thatsuch a process uses vocationaleducation as an instrument forperpetuating the existing industrialregime instead of operating as a meansfor its transformation (Gregson, inpress; Simon, Dippo, & Schenke 1991).

For examr le, the technocraticapproach has not allowed for theexploration of alternative perspectivesof workplace conditions. Rather, it hasmaintained the status quo ""s is soeven though there is evidence tosuggest that the majority of workplacesin the United States still reflect thefactory model developed in the early1900s and need to be transformed(Adams & Hansen, 1994; Commissionon the Skills of the AmericanWorkforce, 1990; Wirth, 1992).

Shor (1988) not only arguedthat vocational curriculum econom-ically reproduces stratification, but he

48

also contended that it retardsalternative thought Similar to Oakes(1985) and Bowles and Gintis (1976),Shor asserted that working classstudents are channeled into vocationalprograms where the curricular focus ison narrow skills training for low skill,low wage work. Such a curricularapproach is political in one respectbecause it "emphasizes the production,organization and regulation of humancapacities to fit the existing social andtechnical relations and materialconditions of the workplace " (Simon,Dippo, & Schenke, 1991, p. 6).Consequently, critical theorists perceivecurriculum far from being neutral.

Burge and Culver (1994) notonly contended that schools reproducerestrictive and oppressive practices ingeneral, but they also providedevidence that schools generallypreserve and strengthen rather thanreduce or weaken gender stereotypes.Admittedly, since 1976 gender equityhas become a legal mandate forvocational educators. However,numerous research studies havesuggested that gender equity is actuallya low or nonexistent priority for themajority of those in vocationaleducation (Burge & Culver, 1994;Raissiguier, 1994; Valli, 1986). Burgeand Culver (1994) cited research in twoareas that support this assertion. Onearea they referred to was an AmericanAssociation of University Women(A AUW) publication, How SchoolsShortchange Women (1992), that statedseven of the eight vocational programareas remain predominantly thetraditional gender. Burge and Culveralso made reference to a study thatprovided evidence that women almostnever are enrolled in higher-payingtrades like electrical or automotivetechnology. Raissiguier (1994) and Valli(1986) described the skills taught invocational programs heavily enrolled inby women, such as business occu-pations, traditionally as low level,narrow, specific, and not easilytransferable.

Another respect in whichvocational curriculum is inherently

6 1.

political is that it generally requireslittle or no creativity, analysis, orindependent thought (Shor, 1987).Working class students then areexposed to curriculum that encouragespassivity and discourages independentthinking. Such curricular practice"prepares them to take orders, followrules, obey the decisions of superiors,and look to the knowledge of experts"(p. 25). Passive students become passiveworkers because they fail to develop acritical relation to curriculum, societyand work (Herschbach, 1994; Shor,1992; Wirth, 1983).

The technocratic approach tocurriculum then is also political innature because it is committed tolinking school with the needs ofindustry by producing a "scientificallyengineered" curriculum (Bennett &LeCompte, 1990). Technocratic cur-riculum is recognized as efficientbecause it excludes subject matter thatworking class students do not need tofill their probable social and vocationalroles. For example, several curriculumcenters fail to include liberal arts in thevocational curriculum they develop inpart because it is perceived as wasteful.

While the focus of this paperhas been on the formal development c fcurriculum, it would be a seriousomission if this text did not at leastacknowledge the existence of thehidden curriculum. Giroux (1983)defined the hidden curriculum as "thoseunstated norms, values, and beliefsembedded in and transmitted tostudents through the underlying rulesthat structure the routines and socialrelationships in school and classroomlife" (p. 47). Consequently, the hiddencurriculum is conveyed through thesocial interaction between educatorsand students. For example, there isevidence that vocational educationenrollment and practices serve toreinforce current gender, class andminority group inequalities (Bowles &Gintis, 1976; Oakes, 1985; Shor, 1987 }.

Those who have written on thehidden curriculum have also recog-nized that some content is hiddenanother way by being deliberately left

out (e.g. Bennett & LeCompte, 1990).For example, vocational curriculum hasfailed to acknowledge that places ofwork frequently have unequaldistributions of power and rigidstandards for conformity. As a result,practices which reflect racism, sexism,and dassism are never criticallyexamined.

Educational Implications: Possibilities

In the early 1900s John Dewey(1916) envisioned a curriculum that hecontended possessed "more of thefactors conducive to learning than anyother method" (p. 309) Rather thandeveloping a narrow curriculum that'sintended purpose was to train studentsfor specific trades, he advocated abroad curriculum that would allowstudents to acquire practical know-ledge, apply academic content, andexamine values attitudes, and respons-ibilities through the study of vocations.

The curriculum that is beingadvocated here expands upon Dewey'sconception of a broad curriculum. It isproblematized and incorporates socialand political dimensions as well astechnical dimensions. It also ismultidisciplinary, experiential, andpromotes critical reflection and actionin the Deweyan tradition.

Multidisciplinary

Vocational curriculum at thesecondary level should be multi-disciplinary because it blurs theboundaries between academic andvocational education as well as theabstract and applied. Recently cognitivescientists have provided empiricalevidence to support what Deweymaintained almost over a century ago,students learn more effectively whenthey see real world applications ofacademic concepts.

Recent reports (e.g., Commis-sion on the Skills of the AmericanWorkforce, 1990; National Assessmentof Vocational Education, 1994) andlegislation (e.g., Carl D. PerkinsVocational and Applied TechnologyEducation Act of 1990; School to Work

Opportunities Act of 1994) seem to haveincreased the support of integration ofacademic and vocational education.Several states (e. g., New York, Ohio,Oklahoma) and organizations (e.g.,Center for Occupational Research andDevelopment, National Center forResearch in Vocational Education,Southern Regional Education Board)have also made significant contri-butions to the development ofintegrated, and in some instances,multidisciplinary curriculum.

While the movement ofintegrating academic and vocationalcurriculum seems to be gainingmomentum, there is evidence thatmuch of the integrated curriculum isbeing developed the same way it hashistorically: as a completed documentor a blueprint. Critical pedagogues findsuch curriculum problematic for severalreasons. First, curriculum should beconceived of as a sketch rather than as afinalized blueprint so that it can guideteaching and learning and yet alsoallow freedom for significant revision.Second, some of the integratedcurriculum that is presently beingmarketed was developed withoutteacher input, without consideration forthe solo- cultural context of students,and without consideration of counter-hedgemonic possibilities. Rather thanhaving "professional" curriculumdevelopers construct a standardized,generic curriculum that controls theteaching of educators and the learningof students, critical theorists advocate acooperative approach that incorporatesinput from a heterogeneous communityof learners.

The prevalence of such"teacher-proof" curricula suggests thatthe technocratic model of curriculum isstill dominant. However, alternativeapproaches to curriculum developmenthave emerged. For example, Wirth(1992) described the Rindge School ofTechnical Arts curriculum as one wherestudents study mechanical arts, as theyrelate to academic and fine arts. At this"lighthouse" school, curriculum isproject based. In one instance, Rindgestudents studied the community of

50

Cambridge through their own lifeexperiences, artifacts (e.g., photographs,paintings), museums, and interviewswith community members. Whilefaculty collaboratively organizedactivities and planned projects, studentswere encouraged to direct their ownlearning experiences. As a result, thecurriculum emerged as a cooperativeapproach that incorporated input froma heterogeneous community of learners.

Other instances as well havebeen reported where students par-ticipated in learning experiences thatsuccessfully integrated vocational withliberal education. For example, Stern,Raby, and Dayton (1942) describedsome California career academies thatrestructured the schooling day to theextent that boundaries were blurredbetween English, mathematics, science,social studies and vocational classes.The curriculum they described was inlarge part project based. For example,one group of students studied theenvironment in northern California.Not only did the students engage in thework of biologists and botanists instudying the environment, but they alsoengaged in the work of historians andsociologists in interviewing personswhose lives were significantly impactedby the environment. In this instance thestudents also engaged in the work ofjournalists and political activistsbecause they reported what they hadlearned from loggers, environment-alists, and the natural environment totheir community and legislators.

Experiential

Vocational curriculum such as thatdescribed in the above examples helpsto eliminate the historical dualisms ofknowing and doing as well as abstractand applied. While Dewey (1938)advocated an experiential curriculum,he did not limit it to a "hands-on"approach to learning. In fact, headamantly opposed the practice ofhaving students repeatedly performmanipulative exercises that simulateindustrial practices. In his LaboratorySchool at the University of Chicago,

Dewey had students experiment withartisan as well as factory processes togain a greater understanding of work(Wirth, 1966). Thus while the studentsbecame knowledgeable about tools,materials, and technology, they alsoinvestigated taken-for-granted assump-tions about how work is done andexplored possible alternatives of work.

Experiential curriculum thenalso demands that the interactionamong persons (i.e., students, teachers),things tools, machinery), andprocesses be dynamic rather than static.Students still need to be taughttraditional practice for a frame ofreference, but they also need to beencouraged to explore alternativeprocesses so as to promote creativeapplications. Cornbleth (1990) andMiller (1985) asserted that, if studentsare to become makers of meaning, theyshould construct, reconstruct, andcritique knowledge. Therefore, cur-riculum should not be presented asuncontested knowledge.

Finally, Dewey (1938) envi-sioned an experiential curriculum thatwoul(' \llow students to bring their lifeexperiences, or history, into the learningprocess. Hooks (1994) stated thatseveral things must happen for this tooccur. First, teachers must genuinelyvalue everyone's history and presence.Second, teachers must recognize that allclassroom participants influence theclassroom dynamic and should beencouraged to participate. Third,curriculum only becomes meaningful tostudents when they become members ofa learning community supportive ofefforts to understand and applyknowledge to the real world.

Promotes Critical Reflection and Action

In the call), 1900s Deweyadvocated an emancipatory educationthat would transform schools, workorganizations, and the society at largeinto more participative, democraticcultures. He, and others (i. e., JaneAddams, and Ella Flagg Young,Chicago public schools superintendent),observed the extent of oppression in

society and exploitation in the work-place and recognized the radicalpotential of education taught throughthe study of occupations (Dewey, 1916,1977; Kantor, 1988). Contemporarycritical pedagogues (e. g., Gregson,1993, 1994; Lakes, 1991, 1994; Shor,1988; Simon dr Dippo, 1987) haveargued that vocational educatorsshould "educate in ways that go againstthe grain of hierarchical, oppressiveworkplaces and produce ants ofprogressive change" (Carnoy dr Levin,1985, p. 16). These critical theorists havemaintained that voc, 'oval curriculumpossesses the potential for uncoveringunjust contradictions.

The curriculum being advo-cated here then, similar to the oneenvisioned by Dewey (1916), istransformative or emancipatory innature because it promotes experiencesthat require students to criticallyexamine worker and employer values,attitudes, and responsibilities. Contem-porary critical pedagogues concernedwith vocational curriculum haveexpanded upon Dewey's concept ofdemocratic education by includingFreire's (1985) concept of empower-ment. Here vocational curriculumwould enable students to use their ownlife experiences to address posed-problems and then develop a plan foraction.

Gregson (1994) provided anexample of student.. .1sing their own lifeexperiences to address posed-problemsand then developing a plan for actionwhen he described a cosmetology classin the mid-west. When the cosmetologyinstructor led her students in anexamination of how U. S. societyperceives beauty, she had her studentscut out pictures of models andcelebrities they recognized as sexsymbols and paste them on posterboard. Though a significant percentageof the students were African American,the vast majority of the picturesselected by the students were of whitewomen, more specifically, blond whitewomen. Further, the few AfricanAmerican women that were depicted

on the posters, had straight hair andlight-skin.

The students that constructedthese posters were unaware of thisdisproportionate emphasis on whitewomen until the teacher brought it totheir attention. The instructor related tothe students that she perceived this tobe a problem because she, and some ofthem, could never be consideredbeautiful based upon this narrowperception of beauty. She also pointedout that the students might not havehad much variety to choose from toconstruct their posters since it was herperception that models depicted inadvertisements seemed quite similar intheir appearance. The students weresurprised and interested. To bring tothe surface the underlying issues thatcontributed to this problematic, thecosmetology instructor asked thestudents to monitor advertisements inrespect to how frequent women of colorare employed. The instructor also askedthe students to determine whether thewomen of color that were depicted,physically resembled whites.

When the students reached theconclusion that there was a dominantideology in regards to what constitutedbeauty, the cosmetology instructorasked the students to identify possiblefactors that contributed to thisphenomenon. The students identifiedthe following factors: (a) commercialsand advertisements for beauty productsselect beautiful models to send themessage that if you use their productyou will also look like the depictedmodel, (b) television and moviedirectors employ actors and actressesthey perceive as most attractive tomaximize public interest, and (c) mostof the major decision makers are whiteand are ethnocentric in their perceptionof beauty.

Once the students hadidentified these factors, the cosmetologyinstructor wanted to promote inco-herence and further problematize thebeauty issue. To accomplish this, sheconfessed that she colored and permedher hair. She also related howimportant it was for a cosmetologist to

52

look attractive to customers. Theinstructor then posed the problem: Hairstylists need to look attractive so thatcustomers will perceive them asprofessional. However, hair stylistsneed to recognize that beauty encom-passes people who look quite differentfrom one another and that they shouldnot promote one limited "look."

In this example the cosmetologyinstructor had listened to her studentsand found that many of them weredissatisfied with their appearance.When the teacher led the students intoan investigation of beauty, they allreflected on their perceptions and cameto the condusion that they, and thesociety at large, had a narrowconception of what constituted beauty.Participants in this cosmetologyprogram then developed strategies tochange their behavior, and others,based upon their reflections. Specifi-cally the students: (a) displayed avariety of posters depicting models ofdifferent ethnicity, (b) conducted anethnic hair show during AfricanAmerican week, (c) implemented morelearning experiences that focused onethnic hair, (d) requested more man-nequins with simulated ethnic hair, and(e) wrote the state board of cosmetologyand recommended to this agency thatits curriculum and licensing exam-ination reflect more of a multiculturalsociety.

When the students reflected ontheir actions, they came to theconclusion that they had gained a betterunderstanding of racism. Many stu-dents also stated that they learned a lotabout themselves -- some of which theydid not like. While the cosmetologystudents frequently commented that itfelt good to be an active participant inthe learning process, they expressedamazement that they could makepersonal and social change. In addition,they recognized how, through collectivestruggle, a group of people couldincrease their political potency andmake the environment more democraticand just.

The above narrative is repre-sentative of the approach to curriculum

development that is advocated withinthis paper because it: (a) encouragedstudent voice, (b) allowed students torelate meanings of work from a criticalrather than solely a technical stance, (c)emphasized active student participationthrough liberatory dialogue, (d) soughtto develop the same skills that arerequired to become an active citizen ina democratic society, and (e) combatedsocial reproduction through incor-porating learning experiences essentialin the preparation of students for higherstatus and greater income employment(Gregson, in press; Shor, 1988; Simon,Dippol & Schenkel 1992).

Summary

If we as vocational educatorsare interested in democratic curriculumreform, there is a need for us to engagein a personal, ethical, and politicaldiscourse on the purpose of vocationalcurriculum. The intent of this paper isto contribute to this discourse andprovide insights into the emancipatoryor transformative possibilities ofvocational curriculum. By providingreal world examples of criticalcurriculum and its development, it is

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Unable Knowledge codProblem-lob-lag Pieficieney inOcerpo lioaol Ttoka lag

Michael KrischerWestern Michigan University

Introduction

In many industrial settingswork-ers are expected to do more thanfollow directions; quality circles andself-managed teams require bothindividual and group problem-solvingand decision-making. Bailey, (1990) liststechnological change, shorter produc-tion runs, and increased emphasis onquality as factors leading to increasedresponsibilities for the front-linemanufacturing workforce. Cohen andZysman (1987) attribute the success ofJapanese manufacturing to the fact thatfront-line workers there are given broadareas of responsibility rather thanassigned specific tasks. In contrast,Berger and others (1989) criticize thelack of training in problem-solving forthe American manufacturing workforce. Berryman (1993) notes that thetraditional conception of a job as a"fixed bundle of tasks and skillrequirements" is being replaced by anexpectation of sufficient flexibility tomeet the demands of a constantlychanging work environment (p. 346).Because employers expect front-lineworkers to be able to analyze a novelsituation in order to determine anappropriate response, occupationalproficiency must include problem-solving skill in addition to job-specificskills.

The purpose of this paper is toexamine individual differences in theability of participants in an occupationaltraining program to select elements ofpreviously acquired occupationalknowledge for use under newconditions. Situations requiring selec-tion of relevant knowledge are likely tooccur after the acquisition of basic skills

57

has been completed since the initialstage of occupational training programsusually involves acquisition of indi-idual skills performed under pre-dictable sets of conditions. This paperwill seek to answer three relatedquestions: Is it possible to identify theconcepts that are applied in a problemsituation? Can problem-solving skills beidentified that are used to classifypreviously acquired knowledge? Isthere a relationship between conceptualknowledge derived from previouslyencountered situations and proficiencyin responding to a problem situation?

Theoretical Background

There is a high level of interestin identifying skills and attitudes thatpromote the application of occupationalskills to new situations. Pratzner ( 1985)calls for occupational educationprograms that emphasize "higher-ordertransferable skills, judgments, andinitiative, e.g. problem-solving, deci-sion-making, [and] planning" (p. 9).Fitzgerald (1986) views general skillssuch as "suspension of closure,""sustained analysis," and "rule appli-cation" (p. 274) as the results of practicein the application of occupational skillsto new situations, while Miguel ( 1977)views general skills such as "knowinghow to access information," "identifyinginformation needed for a particulartask," and "using information" (p. 14) asprerequisites for the application ofoccupational skills to new situations.

Should the above-mentionedskills can be viewed as characteristics ofan individual's general approach toproblem situations or as outcomes ofproblem-solving practice in a specificcontent domain? Owen and Sweller (1989) argue that the application ofknowledge to new situations requiresknowledge of principles associated witha particular type of problem structure.On the other hand, Lawson (1990)concludes that "there is encouragingevidence that training in the use ofdifferent types of general problem-solving strategies has positive impact"

(p. 406). Mayer (1992), however, arguesthat "skills learned in one domain canbe successfully used mainly in thatdomain" (p. 365). Glaser ( 1984) notesthat although training programs aimedat improving problem-solving abilityattempt to provide general knowledgeabout how to respond to problemsituations, problem-solving proficiencyresults from the ability to apply aspecific body of knowledge to newsituations. In other words, the organi-zation of knowledge in a particularcontent domain will reflect bothknowledge of a specific content domainand general diaracteristics of responseto problem situations.

Expert problem-solvers are ableto draw upon their knowledge andexperience in order to respond tovariations of previously encounteredsituations. Glaser (1985) defines exper-tise as knowledge which can bereorganized to meet the demands of aparticular situation. Similarly, Greeno(1989) views thinking as the reor-ganization of knowledge to cover newsituations through the use of conceptsderived from a specific knowledgedomain. Glaser (1990) defines thecreation of usable knowledge as the"proceduralization" of declarativeknowledge, i.e. the combination offactual knowledge into meaningfulunits. Chi, Glaser, and Rees (1982)noted that experts do not display agreater level of proficiency than novicesin general problem-solving ability, butthat experts classify problems accordingto characteristics related to solutionprocedures while novices classify prob-lems according to surface features.

In a study of the ability toutili7p examples, Chi, Bassok, Lewis,Reimann, and Glaser (1987) found thatsuccessful problem-solvers madegreater use than unsuccessful problem-solvers of techniques involving gene-ralizations. Chi and Bassok (1989)explain the use of generalizations as "anovert manifestation of active processingduring learning" (p. 270). On the otherhand, less successful problem-solversused examples for "searching for atemplate from which they could map

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the to-be-solved problem so that theycould generate a solution" (p. 276).Laurillard (1984) found a similarpattern in the use of self-explanationswhen solving problems. Successfulproblem-solvers attempted to under-stand what they were doing, while lesssuccessful problem-solvers preferred toignore the structure of a problem and tomanipulate elements in searching for asolution.

Definition of Variables

Problem-solving Proficiency

Performance in a problem situation isthe ability to respond to a situationwhich is different from those that havebeen previously encountered. Problemdifficulty depends on the degree ofdifference between problem situationand target situation, a potentiallyrelevant situation in a problem-solver'sprevious experience. Examples of thelowest level of difficulty, a routinemathematical computation or a familiarrepair operation, ir.-;olve a readilyidentifiable correspondence between aproblem .-ituation and a recentlyexperienced target situation. Examplesof the highest level of difficulty,reducing the dropout rate in an innercity high school or designing anenergy-efficient automobile, are charac-terized by the absence of a usable targetsituation and the necessity of creatingone out of fragments of previouslyexperienced situations.

The level of problem-solvingskill under investigation in this studyfalls between the two extremes ofdifficulty. The availability of a targetsituation and a generally acceptedsolution procedure are characteristics ofa problem situation below the highestlevel of difficulty. On the other hand,tl.e selection of a target situation fromamong several possible variations andthe subjects' lack of experience with theprocess of selection are indications of aproblem situation above the lowestlevel of difficulty.

Usable Knowledge in Problem Situations

Usable knowledge in problemsituations consists of the transformationof what has been learned in one set ofconditions into knowledge that can beused under other sets of conditions.Glaser (1984) defines "accessible andusable knowledge" (p. 97) as knowledgethat can be applied to a specificcategory of related situations. Similarly,Hatano and Inagaki (1984) contrastconceptual knowledge, the ability tomodify principles based on therequirements of a particular situation,and procedural knowledge, theproduction of defined behaviors underspecified conditions. Greeno and Berger(1987; 1990) differentiate betweeninstruction based on general principlesand instruction based on procedures,noting that principles can be used toinfer procedures, but not the reverse.Schneider (1985) distinguishes betweenperformance based on knowledge ofprinciples which is appropriate fortasks requiring a high level of attentionand performance based on knowledgeof procedures which is appropriate fortasks performed automatically.

Usable knowledge can bemeasured through observation of therecognition and representation stages ofthe response to a problem situation.Problem recognition consists of theinitial response to a difficult situation. Itinvolves the problem-solver's tentativeidentification of a type of situationwhich will be used as a target situation.Lauri llard (1984) contrasted an activeapproach to representation involving asearch for meaning with a passiveapproach involving an intention tomemorize or reproduce. Recognition isfollowed by representation, theclassification of the characteristics of theproblem situation according tocomparable characteristics of the targetsituation; the result is a series ofprocedures that will be followed toobtain a solution. By observing use ofworked-out sample problems, Chi andBassok (1989) and Chi, Bassok, Lewis,Reimann and Glaser (1987) different-iated between active approaches

characterized by abstraction of generalprinciples and passive approachescharacterized by blind imitation.

Methodology

In order to measure usableknowledge in problem situations thefollowing are necessary: subjectspossessing an equivalent body ofknowledge, a task requiring applicationof knowledge, and some means ofobserving the organization ofknowledge that subjects apply to aproblem situation. Through obser-vations of a machine tool technologytraining program, the researcheridentified a part that could be producedusing several different methods andwhose size could be expressed througha variety of combinations of dimen-sions. A problem scenario wasdeveloped requiring the use of amethod different from the onecommonly used during trainingprograms and providing informationthrough an unfamiliar combination ofdimensions. In order to examine theorganization of knowledge relevant tothe problem scenario, a follow-upinterview was developed whichcontained questions regardingclassification of the scenario (problemrecognition), requirements for the useof different methods (methodologicalrepresentation), and the existence ofequivalent combinations of dimensions(mathematical representation).

Problem Scenario

The skill selected for use in thescenario was cutting a taper (a conewith the point cut off) on a lathe.Determining an appropriate method forcutting a taper requires taking intoaccount the dimensions of a taper, thesize of the lathe, and the availability of ataper-cutting attachment. Trainees hadproduced tapers using or':, onemethod, and the method chosen for thescenario is seldom employed duringtraining programs. However, it isdiscussed in machining textbooks. Theproblem scenario consisted of a request

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to machine a taper under conditionsrequiring selection of this method.Subjects were asked to go through theplanning process they would normallygo through prior to the start of actualmachining operations. In most trainingactivities, drawings of the desired partsare provided, but the problem scenariopresented information in sentence formwithout using a drawing or diagram.

A cylinder with the length anddiameter described in the simulationwas mounted on a small lathe on whichthe taper attachment had beenremoved. Subjects were given theproblem scenario (Appendix A) andasked to decide how the taper shouldbe cut, determine what values would beneeded to set up the cut, and describehow they would set up the lathe. Theywere provided with a calculator and acopy of a chapter on taper cutting froma machining textbook. The chaptercontained discussions of the differentmethods of taper cutting, formulas forcalculating the required dimensions,and directions for setting up the lathe.Subjects were allowed to work for aslong as they wished. Performance onthe simulation was observed by theresearcher and recorded using the form"Analysis of Performance on the TaperProblem" (Appendix B). During apreliminary study, several subjectssuggested a variation of the desiredmethod not mentioned in the text. Thismethod involved calculations that weremore familiar to subjects than thosesuggested in the text. Consultation withthe instructors revealed that thisalternative method was justifiable(although possibly more timeconsuming) and the form used torecord performance was revised toallow for an alternative solution path.

During the initial phase of thescenario the researcher noted whichmethod had been selected and whethersubjects attempted to diagram the giveninformation. Once a method had beenselected, subjects attempted todetermine what values they needed andhow they could be obtained. For thedemonstration of the setup, subjectsexplained how they would use the

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values they had obtained to positionone or more measuring indicatorsduring adjustment of the lathe. For thestandard method, indicator placementwas described in the reference material;for the variant method, placement ofthe indicator had to be determinedindependently. Success was defined asselection of the correct method, calcu-lation of needed values (according toeither the standard or the variantapproach), and the appropriate use ofthose values in setting up the lathe.Partial success was defined as a singleidentifiable error preventing a success-ful response. All other responses wereclassified as unsuccessful. Calculationsbeyond those necessary were noted, butdid not enter into the scoring.

Follow-up Interview

The purpose of the follow-upinterview (Appendix C) was to measurethe presence of concepts required forthe recognition and representationphases of the scenario. The tapedinterviews were transcribed at theconclusion of the study. A positiveanswer to each of the three questionswas counted as one point for a totallearning score between zero and three.Responses were compared with theconcepts that were applied by theresearcher in the construction of thescenario.

The first question, a request tocompare the scenario to previouslyencountered situations, was intended toestablish problem recognition, that is, todetermine the existence of the categoryof situation used to classify the problemscenario. A positive score on thisquestion required a comparison of thescenario to previous taper-cuttingexperiences. Recognizing taper cuttingas a category of situations requiresawareness of both similar charac-teristics for all taper-cutting situationsand differences among particulartaper - cutting situations.

The second question, a requestto discuss the uses of the differentmethods of cutting tapers, wasdesigned to establish methodological

representation, the classification of aproblem situation in a category basedon common solution procedures. Apositive score for this question requiredrecognition of the variables required fordetermining an appropriate method forcutting a taper and an understanding ofhow different ranges of values for thosevariables were associated with aparticular method of cutting tapers.

The third question, a request toexplain different ways of providing theinformation needed to describe a taper,was designed to establish mathematicalrepresentation, the classification of aproblem situation based on a set ofmathematical relationships. The expec-tation for this question was that itinvolved recognition of the existence ofmultiple combinations of dimensionscapable of providing the minimuminformation necessary to define a taper.However, most subjects interpreted thisquestion as indicating a request toprovide information about the rate oftaper only. Therefore, a positive scorewas given for to responses indicatingawareness of multiple means ofdescribing the rate of taper.

Educational and Occupational Backgroundof Subjects

Subjects were eighteen adultstudents in a self-paced machine tooltechnology program in southernMichigan. The number of subjects wasnot sufficient to allow classification ofsubjects by differences in workexperience, educational background,race, or gender. The age of the subjectsranged from twenty-one to fifty; themedian age was thirty-two. All of thesubjects were high school graduates,an::. six of the subjects (33.3%) reportedhaving completed two years of college.Twelve subjects (66.7) reported takingcourses in algebra, eight (44.4%)reported having had courses ingeometry, eight (44.4%) reportedhaving had trigonometry, and twelve(66.7%) reported technical or shopmathematics. Three subjects (16.7%)reported not taking any of theabove-mentioned courses. Ten of the

subjects (55.5%) r sported at least oneyear in a skilled position in the machinetrades, and an additional five subjects(27.7%) reported at least one year in asemi-skilled position. The remainingsubjects reported no manufacturingwork experience or only unskilled laborin a manufacturing setting.

Results

Performance on the Problem Scenario

The level of performance ofthree subjects (16.7%) was successful,that is characterized by selection of anappropriate method, calculation ofnecessary values, and use of thosevalues in setting up a lathe. The level ofperformance of nine of the subjects(50%) was partia117 successful; theirperformance was distinguished fromsuccessful performance by only a singleidentifiable error, and the levelperformance of six subjects (33.3%) wasunsuccessful. The problem scenario canbe characterized as difficult for thesubjects since only three ou;: of eighteen(16.7%) did rot make some type oferror.

Selection of Method

Fifteen of the eighteen subjects(83.3%) decided to use the mostappropriate method to cut the part.Seven of the subjects (38.8%) eithermade their own diagrams or referred todiagrams in the reference material. Theform of the diagrams was quite varied:rectangles to show the workpiece beforecutting, triangles to illustrate taper perfoot, and several diagrams for whichthe purpose was not clear. Only onedrawing showed a symmetrical taper (acone with the point cut off).

Preparation for Setup

Seven subjects (38.8%) at-tempted to calculate the value neededfor setup using formulas obtained fromthe reference material. Two of them didso correctly, while four subjects wholocated the correct formla did not usethe correct dimensions in the formula.One subject used taper per foot in a

formula which called for taper per inch.Ten subjects (55.5%) attempted thecalculations needed for implementationof the variant approach. Three of theten obtained the correct value, while sixneglected to transform a value based onthe diameter into a value based on theradius. The tenth subject did not use thegiven information correctly. Twosubjects attempted both methods andmade errors in both methods. Tensubjects (55.5%) attempted to calculatedimensions that were not needed forthe setup. Three were successful, andan additional two calculated onedimension correctly while calculatinganother one incorrectly.

Demonstration of Setup

Of the twelve subjects (66.7%)classified as successful or partiallysuccessful, three demonstrated amethod of placing a measuringindicator based on information from thereference material, and seven demon-strated a method of placing ameasuring indicator appropriate for thevariant method. One subjectdemonstrated both of these methods. Asubject who became confused betweenthe two methods of placing themeasuring indicator was the only onewhose level of success was affected bythe demonstration of the setup. Of thesix subjects (33.3%) classified asunsuccessful three were unable todemonstrate any method because theyhad been unable to calculate any valueswhich could be used for the setup. Theother three demonstrated a method ofsetting up the lathe that was notappropriate.

Results of the Follow-up Interview

Problem Recognition (Question 1)

Subjects we re asked to comparethe situation faced in the scenario topreviously encountered situations. Thedesired response involved recognitionof the basic similarity of taper situationsas well as differences based on themethod of cutting tapers and providingtaper dimensions. Responses that

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stressed differences on non-essentialfactors were scored as incorrect. Therewere no ambiguous responses.

The following is a sample of correctresponses:

you didn't have to use theoffset method which is not usedmuch anymore"; "similar exceptthat we used the taperattachment instead of movingthe tailstock."

The following is a sample of incorrectresponses

"the one that we did when wefirst did the lathe, everythingwas in the proper place";"instead of a picture, you usewords."

Methodological Representation (Question 2)

Subjects were asked to describeguidelines for the use of the differentmethods for cutting tapers. The desiredresponse involved mentioning bothdifferent methods of cutting tapers andthe guidelines for their use. Responsesthat failed to mention a guideline ormentioned an inappropriate guidelinewere scored as incorrect. There was oneambiguous response.

The following is a sample of correctresponses:

"if you don't have a taperattachment, offset the tailstock";"taper attachment would dolarge tapers, tailstock would dolarge tapers, compound taperwould be [for] small, shorttaper";

The following is a sample of incorrectresponses:

"depend on the amount ofaccuracy required"; "I've neverreally had to cut tapers";

The following is an ambiguousresponse:

"what size of a taper you'recutting."

Mathematical Representation (Question 3)

Subjects were asked if therewas more than one way to give thedimensions of a taper and to describealternative means of giving thedimensions of a taper. The desiredresponse involved the recognition thatrelations between taper dimensionscreate the possibility of differentcombinations of dimensions forproviding the minimum amount ofinformation needed to define a taper. Itwas considered acceptable to interpretthe question as referring only toalternative ways of expressing theamount of taper. Most of the correctresponses simply emphasizedalternatives to giving the taper per foot.Incorrect responses contained incorrectmathematical relations between taperdimensions or insisted that there wereno alternatives to a particular taperdimension. There were two ambiguousresponses. The following is a sample ofcorrect responses:

") Ju could work it out withoutknowing what your tpi is; youcould work it out in trig";

"instead of putting in a taper atall, you could put fore and aftmeasurements so the personcould figure out the taperhimself";

The following is a sample of incorrectresponses:

"if you want to use tailstockoffset, you need tpf"; "give you

Table 1Learning Scores Correlation Matrix

Problem Recognition(Question 1)

the length and you figure outthe triangle."

The following are ambiguousresponses:

"small or large diameter, tpi ortpf'; "tpf and length of taper."

Learning Scores

Positive answers to the threefollow-up questions were scored at onepoint each, and ambiguous responseswere scored at one-half point. The meanlearning score was 1.75; there weresubstantial numbers of scores at bothextremes, four subjects (22.2%) receiveda learning score of zero and fivesubjects (27.8%) received the maximumlearning score of three. The meanindividual learning scores for the threequestions in the follow-up interviewwere .61, .58, and .56 respectively,indicating that the interview questionswere of comparable difficulty. T-testsfor dependent means between the pairsof learning scores did not showsignificant differences.

Table 1 shows the correlationmatrix for the total learning scores andthe three individual learning scores. Allof the correlations between totallearning scores and individual learningscores are significant at the .01 level. Ofthe correlations between individuallearning scores, only the correlationbetween problem recognition andmathematical representation issignificant at the .01 level. The lack ofcorrelation between methodologicalrepresentation and the other twolearning scores is an indication ofdifferences in the type of knowledgethat was applied.

MethodologicalRepresentation(Question 2)

MathematicalRepresentation(Question 3)

Total Learning .81 ." .68"" .81""(Question 1) .26 .58""(Question 2) .29

" = significant at the .01 level (two-tailed test)

Correlations between Learning Scoresand Performance on the ProblemScenario

Table 2 shows both Pearson rand Spearman 2 correlations betweenperformance on the problem scenarioand learning scores. The twocorrelations show the same pattern ofstatistical significance. Three of the fourcorrelations between learning scores(problem recognition, mathematicalrepresentation, and total learning score)and performance on the problem

scenario reach the .01 level ofsignificance. The correlation formethodological representation is notsignificant. These correlations can beexplained by the essentiallymathematical nature of the problemscenario. Subjects who are proficient inbasic algebraic and geometricaloperations are more likely to be able todefine categories based on geometricalprinciples and use algebraic operationsto respond to variations in thosecategories than those who are notproficient in these areas.

Table 2Correlations between Learning Scores and Performance on the Problem Scenario

Pearson r Spearmantotal learningproblem recognitionmethodological representationmathematical re resentation

.61

.64

.13

.63

.57"

.65

.16

.63 "significant at the .01 level (two-tailed test)

CONCLUSION

This study found sizabledifferences in the ability of occupationaltrainees to apply what they havelearned to new situations. The newsituation represented by a problemscenario presented an application taskof moderate difficulty requiringselection, but not creation, of a targetsituation. The statistically significantrelationship between possession ofconceptual knowledge and success onthe problem scenario indicates thatproblem-solving proficiency requiresthe organization of related knowledge.Furthermore, for situations that must becategorized on the basis ofmathematical characteristics, mathe-matical concepts are key elements of themost useful organization of knowledge.

Although it is not clear thatgeneral problem-solving skills can betaught, it is likely that problem-solvingskills relating to broad categories ofproblem situations can be taught. Inorder to improve problem-solving skill,

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practice with problem situations ofmoderate difficulty under conditionswhich encourage the use ofproblem-solving skills and proceduresis necessary. Demonstrating proficiencyin a skill under a single set of conditionsmay not lead to the ability to applywhat has been learned in different setsof conditions; instead, this type ofproficiency should be seen as aprerequisite for the acquisition ofproblem-solving skill in a specializedcontent domain .

The incorporation of problem-solving activities into occupationaltraining has implications forinstructional content, design, anddelivery methods. With respect tocontent, situations requiring applicationof knowledge must be identified. Withrespect to instructional design,exposure to problem situations must bearranged according to both contentprerequisites and level ofproblem-solving difficulty. With respectto instructional methods, techniquesthat encourage the use of

problem-solving skills in new situationsmust be utilized. In conclusion,occupational training that incorporatesactivities involving the broadest

REFERENCES

possible application of what is beinglearned will promote the organizationof knowledge necessary for problem-solving proficiency.

Bailey, T. (1990). Chanaes in the nature and structure of work: Implications for skillrequirements and skill formation. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Researchin Vocational Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 323295)

Berger, S., Dertouzos, M. L., Lester, R. K., So low, R. M., & Thurow, L. C. (1989, June).Toward a new industrial America. Scientific American 260(6), 39-47.

Berryman, S. E. (1993). Learning for the workplace. Review of Research in Education, 19,343-401.

Chi, M. T. H., & Bassok, M. (1989). Learning from examples via self-explanation. In L. B.Resnick, (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of RobertGlaser (pp. 251-282). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1987).Self-explanation: How students study and use examples in learning to solveproblems. Pittsburgh: Learning Research and Development Center. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED 296 291)

Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R., & Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in problem-solving. In R. J.Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence. Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.

Cohen, S. S., & Zysman, J. (1987). Manufacturing matters: The myth of thepost-industrial economy. New York: Basic Books.

Fitzgerald, L. F. (1986). On the essential relations between education and work. Journalof Vocational Behavior, 28(3), 254-284.

Glaser, R. (1984). Education and thinking: The role of knowledge.AmericanPsychologist, 39(2), 93-104.

Glaser, R. (1985). The nature of expertise (Occasional Paper No. 107). Columbus, OH:National Center for Research in Vocational Education. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 261 190)

Glaser, R. (1990). The re-emergence of learning theory within instructional research.American Psychologist, 45(1), 29-39.

Green, J. G. (1989). A perspective on thinking. American Psychologist, 44(2), 134-141.

Greeno, J. G., & Berger, D. (1987). A model of functional knowledge and insight. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED 285 735)

Greeno, J. G., & Berger, D. (1990). Functional knowledge in problem solving. Arlington,VA: Office of Naval Research. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED347 052)

Hatano, G., & Inagaki, K. (1984). Two courses of expertise. Annual Report of theResearch and Clinical Center for Child Development, 82-83, 27-36.

Lauri llard, D. (1984). Learning from problem solving. In F. Marton, D. Hounsell, & N.Entwistle (Eds.), The experience of learning (pp. 125-143). Edinburgh: ScottishAcademic Press.

Lawson, M. (1990). The case for instruction in the use of general problem-solvingstrategies in mathematics teaching: A comment on Owen and Sweller. Journalfor Research in Mathematics Education, 21(5), 403-410.

Mayer, R. E. (1992). Thinking, problem-solving, cognition (2nd ed.). New York: W. H.Freeman.

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Owen, E., & Sweller J. (1989). Should problem solving be used as a learning device inmathematics? Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 20(3), 322-328.

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Appendix A

Problem Scenario

You are a maintenance machinist for Amalgamated Widgets. The machine shopin your factory is very poorly equipped; your only lathe is a small blue Clausingthat is exactly like the one in the machine shop at the RMTC. You have justcome in to work and find the following note from the machinist on the last shift:

A little while ago the boss brought in this piece of stock and said there was anurgent need for an 8.65 inch long taper with a taper per foot of .62Z3 inches. Ifaced the piece off to 10.75 inches, pu. the center holes, and measured thediameter (1.023 inches), but I had to leave early because my kid is in th2 schoolplay. l'm sure you'llize able to finish the job.

Using the above information and this lathe, determine how you would cut thetaper and demonstrate how you would set up the lathe.

Please do not consult with anyone while working on this activity. You may referto the section on tapers from Turning Technology by Krar and Oswald. Youmay also use a calculator. Please put any calculations you make on this page oron the next page.

(This activity will conclude when you complete the setup; it is not necessary toturn the lathe on or to insert a cutting tool.)

Appendix B

Analysis of Performance on Taper Problem

I. Selection of method

Y N A. The offset method is selected.

Y N B. A diagram is drawn or reference is made to an existing diagram.

Y N C. A decision is made to calculate the offset directly and the correct offsetformulas are located in reference material.

Or

Y N D. A decision is made to calculate the taper per inch in order to offset thetailstock by trial and error to obtain the needed taper per inch.

Y N

II. Preparation for setup

A. The given information is correctly used to set up the equation(s) forobtaining the offset value and the correct offset value isobtained.

or

Y N B. The taper per inch is calculated by dividing taper per foot by 12 and thetaper per side was calculated by dividing taper per inch by 2 .

III. Demonstrating the setup

Y N A. With the lathe centers aligned, an indicator is positioned to move acrossthe tailstock spindle to measure the correct amount of offset.

or

Y N B. After some way to measure an inch of carriage travel is devised, anindicator is positioned to move along the workpiece to measurethe taper per inch. The offset is adjusted to yield the correctamount of taper when the carriage moves an inch.

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Appendix C

Follow-up httervi.w

HOW WOULD YOU COMPARE THIS SITUATION TO THE TAPERS THAT YOU CUTDURING THE LATHE UNIT?

I. Comp -ison of Simulation and Previously Encountered Situations:

The differences involve method of cutting tapers and dimensioning.

CAN YOU TELL ME WHEN YOU WOULD USE THE DIFFERENT METHODS FORCUTTINGS TAPERS?

II. Taper Cutting Methods:

Tapers can be cut by the following methods:

taper attachment -- (if available) used for slight tapers up to the length of thetaper bar

cross slide used for steep tapers up to the amount of travel of the cross slideoffsetting the tailstock -- used for slight tapers up to the amount of offset of thetailstock

CAN YOU TELL ME WHAT DIMENSIONS YOU WOULD NEED TO KNOWIN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO CUT A TAPER? CAN YOU TELL ME MORETHAN ONE WAY TO GIVE THE DIMENSIONS FOR A TAPER?

III. Dimensioning Tapers:

Tapers can be described by the following combinations of dimensions:

length of taper and both diameterslength of taper, one diameter, and rate of taper,length of the taper, one diameter, and amount of taper

* both diameters and angle of taper* length of the taper, one diameter, and angle of taper* trigonometric functions required to obtain missing dimensions

lbw of Thiakiag fld lo a/cleated Flo:* EDYI101 Meld

Robert C. Magee BacchusMorehead State University

B. June SchmidtVirginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University

Perspectives or Theoretical Framework

Thinking skills, including creativethinking, decision making, and problemsolving are based in cognitive andmetacognitive psychological theories. TheAmerica 2000 report (U.S. Department ofEducation, 1991) and reports of theSecretary's Commission on AchievingNecessary Skills [SCANS] (U.S.Department of Labor, 1991, 1992a, 1992b)have emphasized the need for thinking skilldevelopment in the nation. Lambrecht(1992) and Willis (1992) identified threeapproaches to teaching thinking skills.These are the general, infusion, andimmersion, with the infusion approachbeing the most widely used. This approachrequires that thinking skills be taught incontext. Therefore, specific, workplacerelated examples of thinking skill use areneeded. Additionally, Bailey (1990, May)concluded that tomorrow's workers willneed more extensive thinking skill abilitiesthan today's workers. One workplacesetting where Bailey identified thinkingskills as being needed was banking.Bennett (1992) emphasized that banks mustprovide superior customer service to growand remain profitable. Thus, this study wasdeveloped to examine the use of thinkingskills in a bank setting.

Objectives

This qualitative study was designed toidentify instances when bank employeesused thinking skills, including creativethinking, decision making, problem solving,and combinations of these skills in customerservice aspects of banking. Further, thestudy examined how bank employeesperceive they acquire thinking skills.

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Methods and Data Source

A qualitative design was selected togather data. Specifically, the behavioralevent interview approach was used as thisapproach has been successfully used in bothindustrial and educational research(Boyatzis, 1982; Schmidt, Finch, &

Faulkner, 1992). The behavioral eventapproach was selected as the major purposefor using it is to identify the necessarycompetencies of various jobs (McClelland,1978). Further, it is designed to gather asmany descriptive details as possible in theinterviewees' own words. It allows forinterviewing a few people in-depth to gainan understanding of thoughts, feelings, andbehaviors.

A purposive sample of 27 bankemployees were interviewed at ninebranches representing three large assetsized banks. At each of the nine branches,a branch manager, new accountrepresentative, and teller were interviewed.This sample provided a data base thatadequately represented the bankingenvironment since a consistency ofresponses from the interviewees emerged.

Each interview was tape recorded andthen transcribed. The Ethnograph com-puter program was used to facilitatehandling of the large quantities of textgenerated through the interviews. Theprinted version of the interviews wasreviewed and segments of the text wereclassified or coded to denote an instance ofeach thinking skill occurrence. Theseinstances were a segment of an inter-viewee's response that represented athinking skill use according to thedefinitions used for the study. TheEthnograph facilitated grouping theinstances into thinking skill categories.Seven possible categories existed. Thesewere creative thinking, decision making,problem solving, creative thinkingcombined with decision making, creativethinking combined with problem solving,decision making combined with problemsolving, and creative thinking and decisionmaking combined with problem solving.The instances comprising each thinkingskill were reviewed and recurring themesnoted.

Results and Conclusions

The interviewees described 55 eventsor situations related to their customerservice duties where they perceived theyused thinking skills. Within these events,62 instances of thinking skill use wereidentified. The work environmentexamined for this study tended to bestructured due to the large asset size of thebanks selected. Therefore, the intervieweesmay have been limited in the level ofcreative thinking, decision making, andproblem solving that they could use. Theinstances of thinking skills relayed by theinterviewees ranged from the simple to thecomplex level. The majority of the thinkingskill instances required thinking skill levelssomewhere between simple and complex.For example, one manager described asituation where decision making was used.In this instance, a teller had asked themanager for assistance with a customer whowas upset because the teller had refused tocash a check. The teller believed thecustomer was using false identification.Based on observation of the customer andidentification information the customerprovided, the manager evaluated thesituation and decided this was a case offraud and did not cash the check.

One of the simpler thinking skillinstances was classified as creativethinking. The instance was relayed by ateller who recalled performing a task thatwas not part of the tellers job description.The teller telephoned elderly customers thathad not been in the bank recently to

determine if they had developed anyproblems that prohibited their getting to thebank. An example of a complex levelthinking skill instance was told by a branchmanager. The instance was classified ascombining creative thinking, decisionmaking, and problem solving. Themanager. described how a long-timecustomer became upset when he was denieda car loan. The manager was able tocreatively shift the customers debt level byoffering a home equity loan. The managerdetermined that the customer qualified forthis type of *loan, with this action solvingthe problem of an angry customer.

71

Two interrelated themes emerged fromreview of the 62 instances of thinking skilluse. The first theme involved thegeneration of new ideas, determining thebest alternative, implementing analternative, or using a combination of theseto generate business or sales for the bank.The second theme involved the generationof new ideas, determining the bestalternative, implementing an alternative, orusing a combination of these to solve aknown problem.

None of the interviewees reportedhaving taken coursework that emphasizedthinking skill development. Eighteen of theinterviewees attributed thinking skilldevelopment to experience. Two referred toeducational experiences that impacted theirthinking skill development. Oneinterviewee described a puzzle that requiredthought to solve. Five of the intervieweeswere uncertain how they acquired thinkingskills.

Educational Importance of the Study

Bailey (1990, May) referred to a needfor tomorrow's workers to possess a greaterlevel of thinking skill development.Specifically, Bailey noted bankingemployees are no longer limited i3 openingaccounts by gathering information, such asname and address, from customers. Baileyconcluded that banking employees mustthink and sell other products and services tocustomers. Evidence in support of Bailey'sresearch was found in this study.Interviewees offered instances when theyactually carried out the type of activity thatBailey identified as requiring greater levelsof thinking skills. For example, a newaccount representative relayed a story abouta customer who came into the bank to opena checking account. While opening theaccount, the employee uncoveredinformation that led the new accountrepresentative to suggest other bank servicesand products. The suggestions led to amortgage being written by the bank'smortgage company.

Previous research has suggested thatthinking skills are used in work settings.This study provided real-life examples thatillustrate thinking skill use in the customer

,.4.

service aspects of banking. Instances ofcreative thinking, decision making, problemsolving, and combinations of these wereidentified in the events relayed by theinterviewees. Further, the Carl D. PerkinsVocational and Applied TechnologyEducation Act (1990) references the needfor workers to possess thinking abilities.This study provides substance for this ideaby identifying actual workplace instances ofthinking skill use.

Based upon the findings of this study,educational focus is needed on thinkingskill development. Banking employeesbelieve thinking skills are important to theirjob. However, thinking skills were notgiven adequate representation in theemployees' education prior to employment.Further, despite the relatively large size ofthe banks, the employees did not reportreceiving any company sponsored trainingdesigned to develop thinking skills. Theinterviewees in this study were experiencedin their jobs and reported a need to usethinking skills to perform their jobs well.Today's banking environment is customerservice oriented, with customer service

References

viewed as critical to a bank's survival. Lessroom exists for costly mistakes that occurthrough trial and error development ofthinking skills.

Instances of the thinking skill usedetailed in this study should be used to buildeducational materials for the teaching ofthinking skills. These instances provideactual workplace examples of thinking skilluse that can serve in the infusion methodfor teaching thinking skills. Lambrecht(1992) and Willis (1992) refer to thepopularity and advantages of teachingthinking skills within context. This studyprovides a base from which to developthinking skill context for instructionalpurposes with an emphasis on the twointerrelated themes: (a) generating salesand (b) solving known problems. Theactual workplace examples of thinking skilluse identified in this study add to thepsychological base of thinking skill

development. They provide real-lifesituations that can be used as a basis forfurther study of thinking skill development

Bailey, T. (1990, May). Changes in the nature and structure of work: Implications for skillrequirements and skill formation (MDS-007). Berkeley: University of California,National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Bennett, R. (1992, January). Marketing and competitive advantage: How to satisfy the customer,

profitably. Bank Marketing, 24(1), 36-38.

Boyatzis, R. E. (1982). The competent manager: A model for effective performance. New York:

John Wiley & Sons.

Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990, 20 U.S.C. § 2301.

Lambrecht, J. J. (1992). Approaches for teaching problem solving. Symposium conducted at theDelta Pi Epsilon 199:` National Research Conference.

McClelland, D. C. (1978). Guide to behavioral event interviewing. Boston: McBcr and Company.

Schmidt, B. J., Finch, C. R., & Faulkner, S. L. (1992). Teachers' roles in the integration ofvocational and academic education (MDS-275). Berkeley: University of California,National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

U.S. Department of Education. (1992). America 2000: An education strategy (Publication No.

1992-307-673). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

72 Sc)

U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America2000 (Publication No. 1991-306-024). Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1992a). Learning a living: A blueprint for high performance(Publication No. 1992-322-303). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1992b). Skills and tasks for jobs: A SCANS report for America 2000(Publication No. 1992-312-414). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Willis, S. (1992, June). Curriculum update Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development.

73

Evolving a Model 101 Evaluating

Tech Prep Implementation

Sheila K. Ruh land

Rodney L Custer

Bob R. Stewart

University ofMissouri-Columbia

Introduction

Today's educational structures arefacing profound and exciting newchallenges. Concern about the UnitedStates' ability to compete in worldmarkets has focused attention to thelink between education andemployment. Increasingly complextechnologies are rapidly extending intovirtually every aspect of modern life.Students will need to acquire both anunderstanding of the subjects studiedand the capacity to apply what theyhave learned in the increasinglycomplex real-world settings they willface as they enter the workforce.Educational systems are searching forways to promote the integration,application and transfer of learningthrough mechanisms that aremeaningful and motivational tostudents and that are capable ofpreparing them for living in anincreasingly complex world.Government and educational agenciesare responding to this call for reform.Federal and state initiatives have beendeveloped to restructure educationinduding Goals 2000, School-to-WorkOpportunities Act, and Tech Prep.thatwere developed to address these needsand concerns were provided for in theCarl D. Perkins Vocational and AppliedTechnology and Vocational EducationAct of 1990. Tech Prep programs havebeen designed and structuredspecifically to forge strong andcomprehensive links between

secondary and postsecondaryeducational institutions. Programswithin these institutions lead to thecompletion of an associate degree ortwo-year certificate; provide technicalpreparation in a specified field; buildstudent competence in mathematics,s ience and communications; and leadto placement in employment. Specificprogram goals set forEi in the Actinclude the development of articulationagreements, a core of required courses,curriculum, in-service teacher andcounselor training, equal access forspecial populations, and preparatoryservices.

Tech Prep programs includeprovisions for 2+2, 2+2+2, 4+2, and4+2+2 configurations. Within theseconfigurations, articulation agreementsare developed and implementedbetween the educational agenciesinvolved. Articulation links two ormore educational agencies and enablesstudents to move from one level to thenext without delay or duplication ofcourses. Tech Prep programs alsoprovide secondary students theopportunity to enter directly into theworkplace. This is done by developingapplied academic and technical coursework for students at the secondarylevel.

Thus it is clear that Tech Prep iscomprehensive and ambitious in termsof both goals and scope. There istremendous potential for spanning theboundaries between vocational andacademic education, and makingeducation more efficient andmeaningful for students.

But critical questions must beasked, "How are we to know if TechPrep is fulfilling its promise? What arethe essential criteria that should be usedto assess Tech Prep outcomes? Whatevidence is there to suggest that TechPrep is making a difference?"

,

0 i74

The Tech Prep initiative isemerging from its infancy. Its missionand vision are taking root in concreteform through programs, initiatives,articulation agreements, appliedacademic courses, and much more. It isbecoming increasingly apparent that thetime is right to initiate the process ofassessing program effects. This iscritically important at this juncture to:(a) determine specific programevaluation components of Tech Prep,and (b) to assess the extent to whichlocal Tech Prep implementation effortsare consistent with the mandates of theVocational Education Act.

Review of the Literature

Program evaluation isnecessary to determine if Tech Prep isfulfilling the initial program goals.Program evaluation has been defined as"the application of systematic researchmethods to the assessment of programdesign, implementation, andeffectiveness" (Chelimsky, 1985, p. 7).Of course the ultimate structure andvalue of program evaluation must bejudged in terms of its ability to assessthe pertinent characteristics ordimensions and to result in eventualprogram improvement.

Tech Prep Program Evaluation

Tech Prep programs should beevaluated to determine if the goals ofthe program have beenattainedattained. Numerous studieshave been conducted over the past fouryears to assess Tech Prep programs(Bragg, Layton, & Hammons, 1994a;Brawer & Hammons, 1993; DelawareStatewide, 1990; Roegge, Went ling,Leach, dr Brown, 1993; Rubin, 1993). ilethese studies vary in their overallpurpose, each was aimed at describingthe planning and implementation oflocal Tech Prep programs.

The basic purposes of TechPrep program evaluation have been

identified as collecting data, providingvaluable information to stakeholders,and fulfilling the legislativerequirements of the state'saccountability system (Dornsife, 1992).The Department of Education andOffice of Vocational and AdultEducation have provided guidelines forevaluating Tech Prep programs. Theseguidelines include identifying programcharacteristics and expected outcomes,anticipating possible outcomes anddecisi.ms that may result from theevaluation, identifying informationsources, and summarizing andpresenting the information (Brustein,1993`

Increased emphasis was placedon evaluation, planning, andaccountability as part of the amended1976 Vocational Education Act. At thesame time, vocational educationprogram evaluation has been aneglected area of research with noteddeficiencies in the process (Strickland &Asche, 1987; Wadsdyke, 1978). Thesedeficiencies have included: (a)identifying indicators of theeffectiveness of the program, (b) lack offollow-up as to the impact of vocationaleducation programs, and (c) failure touse evaluation as part of programplanning, policy setting, and review.

HoacIllander (1991) stated thatthe new Perkins Act would require thedevelopment and implementation ofaccountability systems that woulddocument the progress c-1 vocationaleducation students and programs. Helisted outcome indicators appropriatefor accountability to include studentachievement test scores, programcompletion rates, competency gains,and job placement rates.

Following a study by Bragg,Layton, and Hammons (1994h) it wasrecommended that evaluation of TechPrep programs be conducted to ensurethe continued federal support of theTech Prep initiatives. In addition,seventeen student outcomes were

7588

identified incorporating academic skillattainment, employability skillattainment, and matriculation fromhigh school to college.

Outcome Indicators

Limited research has beenconducted to identify specific outcome

indicators for Tech Prep programs. Anoutcome indicator is used to determinethe program quality, effectiveness, andgoal attainment. A summary of fourstudies conducted to identify outcomeindicators for Tech Prep programs isprovided in Table 1.

Table 1: Outcome Indicators for Tech Prep Programs

Author(s)Domsife

Purpose of StudyTo establish baseline records, establish outcomes, andmodify Tech Prep Programs. Identify focuscomponent areas and group the performanceindicators to determine the level of performance.

Outcome IndicatorsPercent of course enrollmentProgram competitionJob placementNumber of articulated classesNumber of articulation agreementsMarketing activities

tff developmentAdvisement of studentsStudent tracking

Hammon Identify focus component areas and group theperformance indicators to determine the level ofperformance.

Student retentionGrade point averageDemonstration of job competencyFaculty professional developmentGuidance programsAccess to special populationsAcademic and vocational skill attainmentLevel of satisfaction with the programJob PlacementEmployment levelsEarning levelsQuality and quantity of resources

Bragg &Layton

Determine the status of Tech Prep planning andimplementation in the fifty states and District ofColumbia.

Academic skillsSecondary program completion rateJob placement rateTechnical skillsPostsecondary program completion rateCareer awarenessEmployer satisfactionProblem-solving and critical thinking skillsAttitudes toward or perceptions of technicalcareersStudent self-esteem

Roegge,Wending,Leach, &Brown

To develop a conceptual framework for Tech Prepbased on the perceptions of personnel involved inplanning and implementation of local Tech Prepprograms.

BenefitsPopulations servedOutcomesProgram componentsEnrollment incentivesExternal involvementPanning and supportStaff developmentArticulation and integration

Dornsife (1992) identified theoutcome indicators that postsecondary

institutions would collect for programaccountability. Those indicatorsinclude percentage of course

enrollment, program completion, jobplacement, number of articulatedclasses and agreements, marketingactivities, staff development, advising,and student tracking.

Hammon (1992) identified sixfocus areas or components into whichoutcome indicators could be grouped.The "student" focus componentindicators indude student retention,grade point average, and demonstrationof job competency. The "facilitator"focus component includes facultyprofessional development, guidanceprograms, and access to specialpopulations. The "professionaldevelopment" focus component relatesto obtaining information related toacademic and vocational skillsattainment and advanced courses taken.The "attitudes/perceptions" focuscomponent includes recognition andlevel of satisfaction with the program.The "careers" focus componentevaluates job placement, employmentlevels, and earning levels. The finalfocus component, "resources," identifiesthe quality and quantity of resourcesutilized.

A study conducted by Braggand Layton (1992) collected data relatedto Tech Prep philosophies and policies,staffing, administrative structure,evaluation, marketing, and staffdevelopment. A list of outcomes waspresented to the respondents toasLertain if the outcomes had beenincluded in their state's list of outcomes.'These outcomes included improved: (a)academic skills, (b) secondary programcompletion rate, (c) job placement rate,(d) technical skills, (e) postsecondaryprogram completion rate, (f) careerawareness, (g) employer satisfaction, (h)problem-solving and critical thinkingskills, (i) attitudes toward orperceptions of technical careers, and (j)student self-esteem. It was reported byBragg and Laytcn that "since fewer thanforty percent of the states haveestablished outcomes at the state level,a major concern for all leaders at all

.1SMe.

levels should be the identification ofexpected outcomes and evaluationprocedures" (p. 4-17).

A recent study by Roegge,Wending, Leach, and Brown (1993)found that using the concept mappingprocess assisted with displaying themajor components for Tech Prepprograms. They identified therelationships between the componentsand priorities placed on eachcomponent and duster of relatedcomponents. The concept mappingprocess provided a pictorialrepresentation of Tech Prepstakeholder's perceptions. Clustersidentified included benefits,populations served, outcomes, programcomponents, enrollment incentives,external involvement, planning andsupport, staff development, andarticulation/ integration.

Evaluation Models

Several evaluation theoristshave proposed varying types ofevaluation models that can beconsidered for use or modification toassess Tech Prep. Regardless of thetype of evaluation used, each producesknowledge that was not previouslyavailable. House (1983) hasdistinguished between the variousmodels based on the variousassumptions brought to the process.

Scrivens' (1983) Goal-Freemodel is primarily concerned withreducing the effects of bias inevaluations. The purpose is to establishand justify the merit or worth of aprogram. The Transaction modelproposed by Stake (1983) concentrateson the educational process. This modelutilizes various methods of inquiry todetermine what the program looks liketo different people. Stufflebeam's (1983)CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product)model evaluates whether the programis effective, and if so, what programcomponents are effective. Its overall

771.3

purpose is to provide relevantinformation to decision - :rakers.

Stufflebeam's model viewsevaluation as a tool to help makeprograms work better for the peoplethey are intended to serve. "The CIPPmodel is based on the view that themost important purpose of evaluation isnot to prove but to improve"(Stufflebeam, 1983, p. 118).Identification of outcome indicators willassist in determining a program'soverall quality, effectiveness and if thegoals were attained. However, inherentin Stufflebeam's model is the notionthat these "more ultimate" outcomecharacteristics are a function of acomplex configuration of context,inputs, and process.

Stufflebeam's model involvesfour important and interactivedimensions - Context, Input, Process,and Product. Context evaluation, as theterm implies, focuses on factorscomprising the larger "environment" ofa program (induding community andinstitutional values, key constituencies,other reforms and change agents, etc.).Context assessment is designed toidentify and explore these aspects withparticular concern for how thosecontextual factors influence and interactwith the more "program specific"aspects of an imp- -lentation initiative.The decisions to be addressed bycontext evaluation include "decidingupon the setting to be served, thegeneral goals to be sought, and thespecific objectives to be achieved"(Worthen & Sanders, 1973, p. 136). Theresults of context evaluation shouldprovide a sound basis for adjusting aninitiative's existing goals and prioritiesand targeting needed changes.

Input evaluation focusesspecifically on the resources which areinjected into and directed toward aneff^rt. It is designed to assess thedegree to which those resources areappropriate and adequate as well as

78

how they drive and fuel the process,and ultimately deliver the desiredoutcomes. According to Worthen andSanders (1973) "methods for inputevaluation are lacking in education" (p.137). Input evaluation providesinformation for achieving programgoals, what strategy to employ, andwhat design or procedural plan shouldbe employed for implementing theselected strategy. Input evaluationseeks to address the Tech Prep programgoals involving: (a) articulationagreements, (b) core of requiredcourses, (c) curriculum development,(d) inservice teacher training, (e)in-service counselor training, (f). accessspecial populations, and (g) preparatoryservices.

The process component is at theheart of any program's delivery system.It includes the mechanisms andstructures that are specifically designedto translate the input resources intodesired outcomes. The main use ofprocess evaluation is to obtain feedbackto assist decision- makers in carryingout the program plans or to modify theprocesses as needed. A series of datacollection activities is critical withprocess evaluation. Process evaluationprovides the decision-makers withinformation needed for anticipating andovercoming difficulties, makingdecisions, and interpreting programoutcomes.

Product evaluation is designedto focus the question of the degree towhich a program's structure, given acertain "context" and "inputs" hassuccessfully delivered on the programgoals. The data collected ideally comefrom a variety of sources andindividuals and should be evaluated tojudge the success or failure of theprogram component in meeting theprogram goals. Reporting of productevaluation may occur at various stagesof the Tech Prep program. Productevaluation is an essential component ofthe accountability report and provides

significant data when seekingadditional funding

A Proposed Model

The literature contains severalstudies conducted to identify outcomesfor conducting a program evaluation.No model was found that specificallyidentified Tech Prep programcomponents and outcomes. Due to thecomprehensive score and systemicnature of the Tech Prep concept,Stufflebeam's CIPP model (Content,Input, Process, and Prc duct) wasselected and adapted for evaluatingTech Prep programs (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Modified CIPP Model forAssessing Tech Prep Implementation

While the Stufflebeam programevaluation model is inherentlycomprehensive and well suited fordynamic and systemic programs,additional information specific to eachof the four major dimensions must beidentified. This information 13

presented in Table 2.

The assessment model designedfor evaluating Tech Prep programsincludes Context, Input, Process andOutcomes. The context is framed bythe federal and state initiatives toimprove education that includes Goals2000, School-to-Work OpportunitiesAct, and Carl D. Perkinsreauthorization. As part of the Carl D.Perkins Vocational and AppliedTechnology Act of 1990, Tech Prep isviewed as a concept versus a program.Several states have passed legislation

related to other school reform issues.Also included as a part of context is thestage of Tech Prep implementation.Dornsife (1992) has specified these asbeginning, intermediate or advancedstages.

Inputs to the Tech Prepassessment model may include state orlocal consortium specific information toinclude but not limited to objectives forTech Prep implementation, admin-strative structure, and funding. Inaddition, asking the question "who isthe Tech Prep student" becomes part ofthe program planning and decisionmaking process. These elementsinclude: (a) articulation, (b) faculty andprofessional development, (c) curricu-urn development, (d) marketing efforts,and (e) guidance and counselingservices.

The process involves gatheringinformation from advisory committees,teachers, committee and professionalmeetings, cooperating schools withinthe Tech Prep consortium, integratedteams, recruitment materials, andcareer clusters. The outcomes are thespecific indicators obtained todetermine the Tech Prep's overallquality and if goals were attained.

Purpose of the Study

Three years into thedevelopment of Tech Prep programs,there is a need to describe the currentevaluation efforts of Tech Prep and theoverall progress of the initiatives. Theprimary prpose of this study was todevelop a program assessment modelfor evaluating Tech Prep programs. Toaccomplish this, the followingobjectives were formulated:

1. To identify existing programevaluation models that supportTech Prep evaluation.

2. To determine the evaluation criteriato include when evaluating TechPrep programs.

3. To determine the programcomponents to include whenevaluating Tech Prep programs.

4. To determine the outcomeindicators to include whenevaluating Tech Prep programs.

5. To identify the processes used tocollect evaluation information.

Methodology

Two primary approaches wereused to explore the usefulness of themodel that was evolved from thereview of the literature. The firstapproach was to conduct a nationalsurvey of those responsible forstatewide Tech Prep leadership andreporting. The purpose of the surveywas to gather data along the fourdimensions of the proposed assessmentmotel (Context, Input, Process andOutcomes). More specifically,information was necessary to (a) assessthe availability of data and (b) tofurther explore the feasibility, features,and robustness of the model. Thisinformation was also deemed essentialbecause it impacts the potential utilityof an assessment model. The data thatwere collected during this phase arepresented in the "National SurveyFinding" section.

The second approach that wasused in the study was to pilot test astructured interview instrument thatwas developed to explore the processaspects of Tech Prep implementation.During this phase, the focus shifted tothe process component of the model(specifically examining areas such as

80

articulation procedures, staffdevelopment, marketing efforts, etc.)The pilot test was conducted with aconsensus sample consisting of all TechPrep coordinators (12) in one state,Missouri. These coordinators wereinterviewed, the results were recordedand then synthesized by assessmentcategory. The results of this synthesisare presented in the "Pilot TestInterview Findings" section.

Program Outcomes Assessment -

National Survey Findings

To obtain information about thenature of criteria used for theassessment of Tech Prepimplementation efforts across thenation, State Tech Prep Coordinators(including Washington, DC and PuertoRico) were contacted by mail and askedto complete a survey. The coordinatorswere also asked for informationconcentrating on the criteria andprocedures used to conduct theirstatewide Tech Prep assessmentprocedures as well as for informationon how Tech Prep students areidentified. The initial mailing yielded15 returns (28.8%). A follow-up surveyincluding a second copy of theinstrument was mailed tonon-respondents approximately onemonth after the initial return deadline.This yielded an additional 20 returnsfor a total of 35 (see Table 3).

The survey began by requestinginformation regarding the generalstructure of each of the state's TechPrep program assessment procedures.Specifically, the respondents wereasked whether their state "currently hasan evaluation plan in place to evaluate[their] Tech Prep efforts?" Overthree-fourths of those respondingindicated that such a plan is in place(see Table 4).

Table 2: Tech Prep Components for each Program Assessment Dimension

Context Components

Tech Prep as a "concept" instead of a "program"Federal and state initiatives to improve education (Goals 2000, School-to-Work. Perkins andPerkins reauthorization)Oregon, Kentucky, Wisconsin, Missouri and other states have passed legislation related to schoolreform.Continued thrust for accountability and restructuring educationCoalitions for restructuring (SREB, Coalition of Essential Schools, National Alliance forRestructuring)Stage of Implementation (beginning, intermediate, or advanced)

Input Components

Uait (state or local)Objectives for Tech Prep implementationAdministrative structureFundingCommunity attitudes and resourcesSchool system attitudes, resources, and expertise

Student Identification (who is a Tech Prep student?)Program Element Inputs

Articulation experienceFaculty professional development structuresExisting curriculumMarketing mechanismsGuidance procedures and staffing

Process Components

Advisory council interaction and inputTeacher team interactions (integration and planning)Meetings related to Tech Prep implementation (teachers, counselors, administration, employers.parents, students, etc.)Cooperating school agreements and interactionBudget processesCurriculum developmentIntegration process teamsCareer path selection and development

9 481

Table 2::(Continued) Tech Prep Components for each Program Assessment Dimension

Outcome Components

Percent of course enrollmentProgram completion - secondaryProgram completion - postsecondarySecondary enrollment postsecondary (career path) programSecondary completed postsecondary (career path) programJob placement rateEarning levelsEmployer satisfactionNumber of articulated classesNumber of articulation agreementsMarketing activitiesAdvisement of studentsCareer development activitiesCareer clusters/pathwaysAccess to special populationsStudent retentionGrade point averageDemonstration of job competencyDegree of satisfaction with the programAcademic skill attainmentVocational skill attainmentProblem-solving and critical thinking skillsAttitudes toward or perceptions of technical careersStudent self-esteem

Table 3: Survey Response RateNumber of Return Percentage

Returns

Initial Return 15 28.8%

Returns from Second Mailing 20 38.5%

Total Returns 35 67.3%

Table 4: State Plan to Evaluate Tech PrepFrequency Percentage

Have an evaluation program in place 27 77.1%

Do not have a program in place 7 20.0%

The program is in draft form 0 0.0%

No response 1 2.9%

N =35

82

To probe the nature of the stateevaluation plans, respondents were alsoasked to indicate which components ofthe Tech Prep program are included intheir state's assessment procedures. Sixcomponents were listed on the survey(see Table 5). The responses indicate apattern of assessment across multiplecomponents rather than focused on anysingle dimension. Respondents werealso encouraged to list any additionalcomponents that may be included intheir state's evaluation plan. Thelimited responses were restricted to twocomponents, i.e., business and industryinvolvement/apprenticeshipopportunities and administration andorganization.

The focus then shifted to one ofthe key input elements in the

Table 5: Components of Tech Prep Evaluation

assessment model that is beingproposed in this study; the ability todetermine the degree to which TechPrep programs affect students alongseveral dimensions including achieve-ment, drop out, placement, etc. Toassess this aspect of Tech Prepimplementation, it would be extremelyuseful to be able to identify anddistinguish between students who arein Tech Prep from those students whoare not. Thus, the initial question onthe survey asked whether the state'sconsortia "can identify who is and whois not a Tech Prep student."Approximately two-thirds of the statecoordinators who responded to thesurvey indicated that their state wasable to identify a Tech Prep student (seeTable 6).

Frequency PercentageArticulation 22 63%Student Program Planning 15 43%Staff Development 21 60%Curriculum 18 51%Marketing 16 46%Evaluation 15 43%Other 5 14.3%

N=35

Table 6: Ability to Identify Tech Prep Students

Can identify Tech Prep studentsCannot identify Tech Prep studentsNo Response

N = 35

Frequency24

10

1

Percentage68.6%28.6%2.8%

In order to explore theseresponses in more depth, those whoindicated an ability to identify TechPrep students were then asked toindicate specifically "how" thosestudents were identified in their state.The most frequent and most formalizedresponses indicated that Tech Prep

83

students were those who are enrolled incourses:

(a) generally oriented toward anoccupational path or careerdirection, or

(h) sequenced and articulatedtoward post-secondary

0Cl

technical training and/orcertifi-cation. (These types ofresponses typically identifiedthe articulation of math,science, communications, and

technologically orientedcourses.)

These types of ratherformalized and consistent responseswere provided by less one-half(10-11) of those who had indicated thatthey are able to identify Tech Prepstudents. Additionally, these types ofresponses were typically accompaniedby specific, statewide documentationthat usually contained a definition ofTech Prep students.

Input from the remaining 50%of the sample who had respondedfavorably to the Tech Prep studentidentification question were morediverse and much less specific. In somecases, supporting documentationdefined Tech Prep "programs" ratherthan Tech Prep "students." Othersindicated that identification was eitheron a student self selected basis or that

individual schools were free todesignate based on their own criteria.

In the aggregate, the surveyindicates considerable disparity acrossthe nation in terms of the degree offormal identification of studentsparticipating in Tech Prep programs.Less than one half of those responding(or approximately one state in five)appear to have formalized and dearlydocumented a mechanism foridentifying Tech Prep students. Theresults also indicate that many stateseither (a) do not have a mechanism foridentifying these students or (b) are notusing specific definitions or criteria toidentify Tech Prep students.

As a follow-up to those whohad indicated that they were not able toidentify specific Tech Prep students,respondents were asked whether they"intend to include student progress aspart of evaluation" and if so, how theyplan to accomplish the assessment. Onehalf of the respondents indicated thatthey plan to do so (see Table 7).

Table 7: Tech Prep Student Non-identifiers Intending to Use Student Progress in ProgramEvalition

Intend to use student progress as part of the programevaluationDo net Intend to use student progress as part of the

_program evaluationNo Response

N= 10

The responses of thoseindicating that they plan to use studentprogress information in spite of a lackof identification of Tech Prep studentswere examined for substance andpatterns. The responses were quitenon-specific in nature, referringgenerally to such strategies as "visitingwith students," "performance baseinstruction," "performance reports," and

84

Frequency Percentage5 50.0%

2 20.0%

3 30.0%

"placement exams." None of therespondents indicated the mechanismby which students would be selected toparticipate.

Next, the focus shifted fromgeneral assessment planning to thecriteria used to assess Tech Prepstudent progress. From a programassessment point of view, this poses adilemma. Criterion based assessment

dr

'of student progress presumes an abilityto identify and track changes instudents along the identified criteria.As has been indicated above, it isapparent that many states lack amechanism for identifying Tech Prepstudents. Thus, the application ofcriterion referenced assessmentprocedures to individual students is notpossible in these states. In the absenceof procedures for identifying programparticipants, the same criteria may beapplied generally across a selectedsample of students (an entire school, aschool system, certain grade levels,etc.). In this instance, however, theability of assessment procedures toattribute changes in students (along theselected criteria) to the intervention ofthe program (in this case Tech Prep) isextremely limited.

In light of this important caveat,the results of those who indicated a lackof procedures for identifying specificTech Prep students were examined(N=10). Six of the "non-identification"respondents indicated that they areusing some of the criteria for evaluatingstudent progress. The criteria that are

being applied in these states weredistributed across the range ofassessment criteria (see Table 8). Asimilar pattern was observed for statesindicating an ability to identify TechPrep students. However, in addition tothe use of multiple assessment criteria,respondents from these "identifier"states also indicate that they areemploying specific criteria to assessstudent progress at a higher percentage.In addition to the criteria that wereprovided on the survey, someadditional criteria were suggestedincluding graduation from college andadherence to a career plan.

It is important to note that apattern of using multiple criteria toassess students was dearly presentacross the entire sample (see Table 9).Nearly 70% indicated that they areusing more than one criterion andalmost one half are using as many asfive criteria. This use of multiplecriteria provides a means oftriangulating results that is animportant feature of the proposedprogram assessment model.

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Table 8: Evaluation Criteria Used to Assess Tech Prep Student Progress

tilledSpecific Tech Prep Students Not Iden Specific TechIdentified

Prep Students

Frequency of"non identifiers"

Percentage of"non identifiers"

Frequency of"identifiers"

Percentage of"identifiers"

Drop out rate 3 30% 16 64%

Graduation rate 3 30% 18 72%

Test scores 1 10% 15 60%

Pursue post-secondaryeducation

4 40% 19 76%

Job placement 2 20% 19 76%

Grades 0 0% 12 48%

Other 1 10% 5 25%

N for states indicating a lack of procedures for identifying specific Tech Prep students = 10N for states indicating procedures for identifying specific Tech Prep students = 25TotaIN = 35

Table 9: Multiple Criteria Used to Assess Tech Prep Student Progress

Number of Criteria Used Frequency Percentage

7 7 20.0%6 6 17.1%

5 4 11.5%4 2 5.7%3 3 8.6%2 2 5.7%1 6 17.1%0 5 14.3%

N=35

One of the important aspects ofany assessment model or procedure hasto do with the methods andinstruments that are employed togather data. This study found that on

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site interviews are the method of choicefor Tech Prep program assessment datacollection. Substantial use was alsomade of surveys, telephone interviews,and third party evaluators (see -fable10).

Lit

Table 10: Data Gathering Mechanisms

Frequency PercentageOn site Interviews 22 63%Surveys 13 37%Telephone Interviews 10 29%Third Party Evaluation 12 34%Other 20 57%

N=35

As was the case with studentassessment criteria, there is a clearpreference for using multipleprocedures for gathering programassessment data. Over one half of thoseresponding indicated that they are

using multiple data collectionprocedures and one-third are usingthree or more. Again, this indicates adear preference for triangulation ratherthan depending on a single mechanism(see Table 11).

Table 11: Use of Multiple Methods for Data Collection

Number ofMethods Used Frequency Percentage5 2 5.7%4 7 20.0%3 3 8.6%2 8 22.8%1 14 40.0%0 1 2.9%

N=35

Program Process Assessment - PilotTest Interview Fi dings

The previous section describeda data collection procedure that wasdesigned to focus the feasibility, nature,and usefulness of the proposedassessment model. The focus nowshifts to a set of structured interviews

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that were conducted to explore thecontextual input and processcomponents of the model. To explorethese aspects of the model, a structuredinterview pilot testing process wasdeveloped and used to explore theprocesses that are being used toimplement Tech Prep. The processoriented categories that were exploredwere adapted from those developed byDutton (1993). These categories

included: (a) articulation andcollaboration, (b) student programplanning and implementation, (c) staffdevelopment, (d) curriculumdevelopment, and (e) marketing efforts.

The pilot test was conducted ona consensus sample consisting of allTech Prep coordinators (12) in one state,Missouri. This section is designed toprovide a brief synthesis of the findingsobtained from this phase of the studywell as some additional, generalobservations and patterns that emergedthrough the interviewing process.

Articulation and Collaboration.

This component examinedarticulation structures (e.g., 2 + 2, 2 + 2+ 2, etc.) as well as mechanisms used tofacilitate collaboration with businessand industry, counselors, vocational,and academic faculty. The findingsindicated that these structures are in theinitial stages of development. Variousconfigurations of vocational andacademic educators, counselors,administrators, and parents have beenattending workshops designed toprovide information and to establishworking articulation agreements. Thegeneral level of interest in and supportof the Tech Prep concept has been quitehigh, The most frequently reportedchallenges to the development of thesealliances and agreements had to dowith (a) changing attitudes (of academicteachers, administrators, counselors,etc.), and (b) the mechanics ofarticulating between programs withnon-parallel curriculums, for example a

secondary level residential wiringprogram with a post-secondaryelectronics program.

Student Program Planning andImplementation.

This section focused on theprogram planning and structuringprocesses. While planning is in theinitial stages, dearly the mostfrequently used approach is the use ofthe career dusters. The most frequentlyidentified dusters were agriculture,business and office, marketing,engineering technology, health andhuman services, and mechanical andindustrial trades. The majority of theconsortia indicate that their base line 2+ 2 programs will be grounded incareer cluster curriculum structuresthat are beginning as early as grade 8.

Staff Development.

The staff developmentcomponent focuses on whether therewas a plan that outlined and providedstaff development activities for all TechPrep facilitators, includingadministrators, counselors, andacademic and vocational faculty.Specific types of staff developmentactivities that were provided during thepast calendar year as well as possibleactivities planned for the upcomingyear were identified. The mostfrequently used mechanisms consistedof workshops, informational meetings,

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Tech Prep conference attendance, andon site visits. The sense that wasconveyed through the conversationswas that many of these interactions areat the preliminary informationdissemination stage, designed toprovide general orientation rather thanin-depth training.

Curriculum Development.

This focus component wasdesigned to assess the degree to whichvocational and academic teachers areworking together to coordinate andintegrate academic and occupationaleducation. In what ways have facultyintegrated the mathematics, science,communications, and technologycompetencies into their curriculum tosupport the workplace readiness skills?Tech Prep consortium directors wereasked if any career clusters have beendeveloped thus far to assist students incompleting a four-year educationalplan.

Three general observations canbe made based on the interviews. Firstsome concern was expressed overlimited budgets to purchase curriculummaterials. This was particularlysignificant since most of the consortiaalso indicated that they are usingcommercially developed curriculum(CORD, AIT, and PACE). A secondthread was that applied academicstended to be a stand-alone course formathematics, whereas language arts,physics, and biology units tended to beintegrated or infused into otheracademic courses. Finally, mostcoordinators indicated that they arepromoting and using team teaching as amechanism for delivering integratedacademic content and activities.

Marketing Efforts.

A marketing focus categorywas included to identify the methodsthat are being used to promote the 2 + 2Tech Prep concept, articulation, and thesequence of 7.--uyses chosen within avocational interest including the workin math, science, communications, andtechnology. The interview also focusedon the overall perception of businesses,parents, students and educationfacilitators regarding the promotionand marketing efforts utilized thus far?Respondents were also asked toidentify the methods that are beingused by counselors to enroll students inTech Prep. An important corollarypurpose had to do with the degree towhich counselors have anunderstanding of Tech Prep.

The findings indicated that avariety of tools and techniques arebeing employed for the generalpurposes of informing the public atlarge as well as to recruit students andeducate public school personnel. Thesetools include the dissemination ofinformation packets, posters, folders,videos, mugs, notepads, plaques, etc.Feedback indicated that while there hasbeen considerable activity in this area,that it is too early to assess adequatelythe effectiveness of the promotionalefforts, specially related to specifictarget audiences.

Summary Observations.

The discussion will now turn toa general summary of impressionsobtained throughout the interviewingprocess. There was a clear sense acrossall the interviews that the Tech Prepinitiative is promoting systemic change.This was communicated through twodifferent types of perspectives. First,there was a strong sense of associationwith the broader range of educationalreform that is occurring in Missouri

(where major legislative action hasspawned reform) and across the nation(Goals 2000, SCANS, etc.). Simply put,most see Tech Prep as a component inthe larger context of educationalreform. The second perspective relatedto systemic change was more local;namely that Tech Prep is leading tosome fundamental rethinking of andrestructuring of their local educationalsystems. Specific comments in thisregard focused on changingconfigurations in how academic andvocational teachers interact, developingstructures for increased integration andapplications of academic content,elimination of the general track,changing the attitudes of parents,counselors, administrators, etc., towardthe purpose of schooling and howcontent is delivered. Bottom line, therewas a strong sense that their Tech Prepinvolvement is part of a larger, systemiceducational reform movement.

A second general observationhad to do with curriculumdevelopment. The sense that emergedfrom the interviews was that this is anarea that needs serious attention.Across the consortia, the tear tendencyhas been to latch on to existingmaterials rather than to develop andcustomize materials at the local level.While many of these materials are ofexcellent quality, they, in manyinstances, fail to address the uniquedirections and configurations that areevolving out of the state's newcurriculum standards and curriculumframeworks. Also, some of thematerials have been better received byvocational teachers than by traditionalacademic teachers. The strong sensewas that additional work needs to beinvested in assisting teachers in theprocess of learning how to collaboratesuccessfully with one another in thecurriculum development andintegration processes.

A final observation concernsthe identification of Tech Prep students.This thread ran throughout the

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categories that were identified foranalysis. For example, it was felt thatmarketing efforts would be greatlyenhanced if the "target" was moredearly identified. If, on the other hand,Tech Prep is perceived as a kind ofgeneral program philosophy thatsomehow affects the entire schoolsystem (as opposed to specific studentsin specific ways within the system),then marketing is much more difficult.In short, it is one thing to market ageneral philosophy or structuralchange. It is quite another thing torecruit specific, individual students intoclasses that have been designated aspart of Tech Prep. The same concernwas raised when the conversationturned to program and studentassessment as well as, to some degree,curriculum development. Coordinatorswere somewhat perplexed as to howprocedures would be developed toalign curriculum and then assessoutcomes in the absence of specificallyidentified Tech Prep students. Theoverall sense was that Tech Prepstudent identification may be a criticalkey to forcing more general systemicchange.

Discussion

Given the complex andmulti-dimensional nature of the TechPrep initiative, it is critical that aprogram assessment model bedeveloped which is alsomulti-dimensional and capable ofassessing systemic change. Withinvocational education, there is a longhistory of focusing primarily onoutcomes. Certainly this emphasismust be retained within any viableassessment model. Some of theoutcomes are specific to the legislationsuch as including reduction of drop outrates, successful articulation of studentsinto post-secondary level technicalprograms, etc. Still others are morespecific to individual state and localsettings. These program outcomes

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must be specified in advance if programeffect is to be effectively assessed.

It should also be dear thatsuccessful Tech Prep assessment mustinvolve more than the assessment ofoutcomes. Tech Prep outcomes are alsoa function of certain contextual, input,and process components. The mostconcrete example of this point from thisstudy is that an absence of specific TechPrep student identification (an inputvariable) leads to ambiguity in theassessment of many processes andoutcome variables.

This study also illustrates andemphasizes the value and importanceof assessing the processes involved inTech Prep implementation. Anexclusive focus on outcomes fails tocapture the essence of the interventionsthat resulted in those outcomes. It isobvious that a major impetus drivingthe conceptualization of Tech Prep hadto do with deficiencies in outcomeindicators (school drop out rates, lackof knowledge transfer and application,poor program articulation, etc.). Itshould also be clear that a major thrustof Tech Prep has to do with developingand implementing processes forrestructuring schools and institutingfundamental changes in the way thateducation is delivered in America.Thus, any valid program assessmentmodel must necessarily include amechanism for examining "process." Asa result of this pilot study, it isrecommended that the assessment ofthe process component include suchfactors as the quality of integrationteam interaction; curriculumdevelopment and alignment; careerpath development; advisory councilselection, input and interaction;cooperating school agreements; andbudgeting. It should also be clear thatcertain aspects of these processcomponents could also be included inthe input compom It of the model.

It is also important to commenton the nature of Tech Prep structure.

Tech Prep is designed to provide broadguidelines within which state and localagencies can work to developmechanisms that work for them. TechPrep provides the general structure andthe broad guidelines. Local agenciesare then free to configure and developtheir programs in light of their uniquecircumstances, needs, goals, andresources. Thus, Tech Prep programimplementation inherently tends to beflexible, creative, and localized. Thisposes unique challenges for programevaluation. Certainly, it is much easierto assess the effects of programs thatare homogeneous and for which theboundaries are dearly structured,administered, and maintained. Such isnot the case for Tech Prep, nor should itbe. Thus, Tech Prep programassessment must consist of a processthat uses multiple data collectionmechanisms, that indudes a diversity ofcriteria, and that is sensitive to bothoutcomes and processes as theyfunction within the larger cultural andeducational contexts given certainsystem inputs. The model that isproposed and pilot tested in this studyis ideally suited for these purposes.

Given the systemic nature ofthe Tech Prep initiative, particularlywhen considered within the largercontext of educational reform, it isimportant that all four of theassessment dimensions be includedthroughout the planning,implementation, and assessmentphases. In order for programs to beassessed systematically andmeaningfully, advanced considerationof how context, input, and processcomponents interact and, mostimportant, how (and indeed if) theywill be assessed is absolutely critical.An illustration that emerged from thisstudy is that outcomes assessment is, inmany cases, impaired by the inability toidentify specific input variables (i.e.,who is a Tech Prep student).

Thus, while Tech Prep is indeeda concept which is being implemented

91 0 _4

in many diverse and unique ways, itnevertheless does take on specificprogrammatic forms at the local level.Tech Prep as "concept" must betranslated into Tech Prep as "program."As this occurs, it is critical tosubsequent program planning andassessment that the Context, Inputs,Processes and Outcomes which arespecific to the local programs be clearlyidentified and defined. Specificassessment components within each ofthe four assessment dimensions of themodel must be selected forimplementation based on the uniquecharacteristics of local consortia. It isperhaps even more importantthroughout these developmental stagesthat the question be raised and

92

addressed, "Can and how will thisaspect of the program be assessed?"This approach to Tech Prep assessmentwill assure that the assessment programis comprehensive and robust enough todetect systemic change and yet that it isspecific enough to demonstrateaccountability, Such an effort must bedirected at establishing baseline dataagainst which subsequent movementcan be measured. Given the complexityand variety of Tech Prep programs, it iscritical that multiple means be used toconduct program assessment. This isnecessary in order to triangulate andinterpret data as well as to capture theuniqueness of various localconfigurations.

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References

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Bragg, D. D., & Layton, 3. D., & Hammons, F. T. ('.994a). Tech Prep implementation inthe United States, 5(2). Champaign: University of Illinois, Office of CommunityCollege Research and Leadership.

Bragg, D. D., Layton, 3. D., & Hammons, F. T. (199413). Tech Prep implementation in theUnited States: Promising trends and lingering challenges. Berkeley, CA:National Center for Research in Vocational

Education, University of Californiaat Berkeley.

Brawer, M., & Hammons F. T. (1993, September). Florida's Tech-Prep evaluation:Implementing the model. Paper presented at the 1993 National Tech PrepNetwork Fall Conference, Atlanta, GA.

Brustein, M. (1993). AVA guide to federal funding for Tech Prep. Alexandria, VA:American Vocational Association.

Chelimsky, E. (1985). Old patterns and new directions in program evaluation. In E.Chelimsky (Ed.), Program Evaluation: Patterns and Directions (pp. 1-35).Washington, DC: American Society for Public Administration.

Delaware StatewideVocational-Technical High Schools (1990). Tech Prep compendium

of models. Dover, DE. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED332-016)

Dornsife, C. 3. (1992). Beyond articulation: The development of Tech Prep programs.Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, Universityof California at Berkeley.

Dutton, M. G. (1993). Evaluating Tech Prep programs. Workshop presented at the 1993National Tech Prep Network Fall Conference, Atlanta, GA.

Hammons, F. T. (1992). The firstro rain evaluation: The

identification of program performance indicators. Unpublished doctoraldissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,VA.

HoacMand, E. G. (1991). Designing a plan to measure vocational education results.Vocational Education lournal, 66(2), 20-21 & 65.

House E. R. (1983). Assumptions underlying evaluation models. In G. F. Madaus, M. S.Scriven, & D. L. Stufflebeam (Eds.), Evaluation models: Viewpoints oneducational and human services evaluation, (pp. 45-64). Massachusetts:Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing.

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concept mappinginesWcorInare stakeholderTech Prep. Paper presented at the meeting of the AmericanEducation Research

Association Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA.

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Rubin, M. (1993, September). Evaluation of California's Tech -Pre education.Paper presented at the 1993 National Tech Prep Network Fall Conference,Atlanta, GA.

Striven, M. (1983). Goal-free model for program assessment. In G. F. Madaus, M. S.Scriven, & D. L.

Stufflebeameducational and human services evaluation, (pp. 45-64). Massachusetts:Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing.

(Eds.), Evaluation models: Vie °lilts on

Stake, R. E. (1983). Transaction model for program assessment. In G. F. Madaus, M. S.Scriven, & D. L. Stufflebeam (Eds.),

Evaluation models: View oints oneducational and human services evaluation, (pp. 45-64).Strickland, D. C., & Asche, F. M. (1987).

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Massachusetts:modified utilization focused model for vocational education evaluation. TheIournal of Vocational Education Research, 12(4), 13-34.

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Stufflebeam, D. L. (1983).The CIPP model for program evaluation. In G. F. Madaus, M.

S. Scriven, & D. L.Stufflebeam (Eds.),educational and human services evaluation, (pp 117-141). Massachusetts:

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C. C. Rentz & R. R. Rentz (Eds.), Evaluatingfederally sponsored ip_s_aars (PP

69-78). SanFrancisco: jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers.Worthen, B. R. & Sanders, J. R. (1973). Educational evaluation: TheorOhio: Charles A. Jones PublishingCompany. and ractice.

Os Becoming ReflectiveVocational Educotom Pa!eductive Cote flatly

John W. Schell

Rhonda S. Black

The University of Georgia

This research grew from aconcern that college teaching often doesnot empower graduate learners to usetheir acquired knowledge to solveprofessional problems. In recent yearswe have used a theoretical frameworkthat we believe encouragescollaborative learning and teaching. Thetraditional power relationship that toooften exists between professors andstudents has been seriously questionedin this research. We have found that theview of "professor as a dispenser ofknowledge" is much too confining andpotentially exclusionary. Therefore, inrecent classes, course members havebeen invited to become a full member ofa community of scholars enjoying theexcitement and freedom that can resultfrom the collaborative construction ofnew and me Iningful knowledge(Brooks & Brooks, 1993). Because of thisdeveloping perspective, students arenow addressed and treated ascolleagues, learners, and collaborativeresearchers. This research resulted fromthe collaboration of 14 graduatelearners who participated in a coursewhose goal was to empower learners touse organizational theory to change andimprove performance of personnel. Weexplored this information throughextensive use of articulation andreflection learning and teachingtechniques. These are importantelements of cognitive apprenticeshipsand are based on the research of Brown,

Collins, and Duguid (1989), Lave (1988),and Schell and Rojewski (1993).

Organizational change was aunifying theme for the course. Learnerswere encouraged to think critically andcreatively about their role(s) in theirorganizations and to use newknowledge to understand and solveproblems in the workplace. A groupproject/simulation, based on situatedcognition theory, was included. Thesimulation was entitled ChangingEducational Organizations (CEO). Tocomplete the CEO simulation, learnerscollaborated to design a modeleducational organization with apurpose of educating future workerswl.o are critical thinkers and problemsolvers. Learners needed to apply theirtheoretical knowledge about organi-zations working very closely as acollaborating member of a group of 4 to5 individuals. Collectively, members ofeach simulation group independentlydecide how to tackle and organize thisvery challenging project .

The final product of thesimulation was the development of aproposal submitted to a hypotheticalstate education agency forconsideration as a demonstration site.This activity often creates a perceivedfeeling of competition among the workgroups while placing a premium oncreativity and synthesis of acquiredknowledge of organizational behavior.CEO is composed of what King andKitchener (1994) would describe as aseries of highly ill-structured problems.There are very few right or wronganswers. Because of the ambiguity antithe size of the activil \', learners oftenasked questions such as "Is this right?"or "Is this what you want?" Becauselearners should explore these complexproblems within the framework of theirown expectations for the learningexperience, the facilitator's answerswere something like "How are you

going to back that up?" or "How dothose theories connect with each other?"When really pushed for assurance, thefacilitator might say "It looks like yourgroup is heading in a profitabledirection." 1..ttring the early stages ofthe simulation, learners were oftenupset by the ambiguity resulting fromthe lack of direct answers to thesespecific questions.

Theoretical Framework: SituatedLearning

Situated Cognition: the LearningFoundation for CEO

Lave and Wenger (1991 ) statethat "learning is an integral part ofgenerative social practice in the lived-inworld" (p. 35). They describe theirconcept of legitimate peripheralparticipation as a "descriptor ofengagement in social practice thatentails learning as an integralconstituent" (p. 35). Participationbecomes a way of engaging the learner.Participative learning involves "...bothabsorbing and being absorbed in - theculture of practice" (p. 95). The CEOsimulation likewise requires each groupto formulate and learn within their ownculture of practice.

Lave defines situation hashaving two basic properties. First, anindividual encounters a learningsituation within the context of their ownsetting (Lave, 1988). A setting iscomprised of the immediate conditionsthat are encountered by a learningindividual including many interactingelements such as people, equipment,atmosphere, and tasks to be completed.Using Lave's views of situation, eachCEO group member would formulatehis or her own role to be played in thelearning community.

Learning transfer.

Lave and Wenger (1991)characterize the potential to use

knowledge in more than one setting as"generalizable knowledge." They positthat knowing a:

"general rule by itself in no wayassures that any generality itmay carry is enabled in thespecific circumstances in whichit is relevant. In this sense, anypower of abstraction isthoroughly situated, in the livesof persons and in the culturethat makes it possible." (p. 34)

In other words, generalizability ofacquired knowledge to other situationsis rare and unpredictable. 'Thegenerality of any form of knowledgealways lies in the power to renegotiatethe meaning of the past and future inconstructing the meaning of presentcircumstances" (p. 34). Detterman(1993), argues that there is no generalcognitive skill that promotes learningtransfer, and emphasizes theimportance of contextualized learning.Like Detterman, we believe thatteaching should facilitate learning in asituation as close as possible to the onewhere the learning will be applied. Inthat way, knowledge has a betterchance of being activated when it isneeded (Sternberg dr Frensch, 1994).

Teaching for Active Knowledge

Principles of cognitive appren-ticeship have been adopted to organizethe instructional environment foracquisition of active knowledge.Increasingly, this approach has beenadvanced as an appropriate means ofteaching through the use of "situated"activities (Brown et al., 1989). Cognitiveapprenticeship uses the traditionalconcept of craft or trade apprenticeshipas a prevailing metaphor for teachingauthentic activity through guidedexpo- ience by focusing on the teachingof symbolic mental skills.

The CEO simulation is foundedon four interacting elements - content,

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.1.09

methods, sequence, and sociology(Berryman, 1991; Collins, Hawkins, &Carver, 1991). The "building blocks ofcognitive apprenticeship" are not newto education, but taken together they dodefine an effective learning situation(Berryman). These elements constitutethe framework of a very differentclassroom, including different roles forteachers and learners.

Content. Content refers to thetypes and levels of knowledge requiredby experts to solve complex problemsin the real world.

Methods. The instructor's roleis to mediate or facilitate learning, asopposed to being a provider ortransmitter of knowledge. Likewise,learners emerge as active participantswho guide the learning process ratherthan assume traditionally passive roles.As a facilitator, teachers in a cognitiveapprenticeship model employ a numberof instructional methods that capitalizeon the immersion of learners in theculture of expert practice. Articulationmethods are used in an effort toencourage learners to verbalize theirknowledge, reasoning, or approaches toproblem-solving (Brown, et al., 1989).Reflection strategies further enhancelearner competence by enabling them tocompare their own mentalproblem-solving against those of anexpert (Schon, 1983).

Sequence. Instructionalsequence can be thought of as threebasic strategies including increasingknowledge capacity, increasingcontextual diversity, and presentingglobal skills before local (Brown et al.,1989).

Sociology. The finalcharacteristic of the cognitiveapprenticeship model emphasizes theimportance of beliefs, values, and socialsettings in which real-world learningtakes place. Four aspects of sociologyare important including situated

97

learning, community of practice,intrinsic motivation, and maximizingcooperation.

These aspects of cognitiveapprenticeship are employed toencourage and foster collaboration andcooperation among learners to enhanceour collective problem-solvingcapabilities. These approaches enhancethe learner's ability to gain control oftheir metacognitive strategies whileaffording additional opportunities forlearners to observe and emulate expertmodels of problem-solving.

Purpose

The purpose of this researchwas to . explore how learners usedacquired knowledge with regards totheir perceptions of: pertinence of thecourse content, authenticity of the CEOsimulation, and impact of articulationand reflective teaching strategies.Consistent with analytic inductionresearch methods, we have identifiedfour preliminary hypotheses thatemerged from a review of the literatureand our preliminary analysis of allsources of data. Those workinghypotheses were:

1. Learners who perceived coursematerials as pertinent to theirwork/professional situation aremore likely to use their knowledgeto solve organizational problems intheir workplace.

2. Learners who perceived the CEOsimulation as more "real" weremore likely to use the material tosolve organizational problemsoutside of class.

3. Articulation instructional practicesenhance the learner's active use ofthe acquired knowledge.

4. Reflective instructional practicesenhance the learner's active use ofacquired knowledge.

Methods

Participants

Class members ranged in agefrom 25 to 52, with only two membersunder 30 years of age and the majorityin their forties. Teaching experience ofthe class members ranged from one totwenty-one years. Only three of themembers actually lived near theuniversity, and two of these workedfull-time and attended weekend ornight classes. The rest of the learnerscommuted to the university onweekends after working full-time allweek at their jobs in secondary andpost-secondary settings asadministrators and teachers around ourstate. The exception was one learnerwho commuted, but did not workfull-time. They are nontraditionallearners who are affectionately calledthe "weekend warriors" by facultywithin our department. They havefamilies, friends, jobs, and lives that arequite apart from campus life. Theselearners comprise a very disparategroup of learners with diverse needsand expectations about the classes theytake.

Research Strategy

We have conducted thisresearch using analytic inductionstrategies (Robinson, 1951; Znaniecki,1934) . Husband and Foster (1987)define this strategy as a "systematicattempt to code data while alsogenerating theories about the data beingcoded" (p. 56). Our primary researchemphasis was on the identification ofnegative cases that refute thepreliminary hypotheses. We also placedemphasis on the identification andanalysis of cases that wereconfirmatory. The hypotheses werecontinually refined until all exampleswere accounted for and explained(Goetz & LeCompte, 1981). No analytic

98

induction research is ever consideredfinal. From this perspective, reality isviewed as incessant and constantlychanging (Znaniecki, 1934) .

According to Patton (1990) aninductive approach begins withexperiences of each individual wherethe focus in on "full understanding ofindividual cases before those uniquecases are combined or aggregated" (p.45). Therefore, themes that emerged asa whole were examined after ananalysis of individual cases.

Data Collection Methods

Two principal researchmethods were employed in support ofour inductive strategy. First,unobtrusive measures used to collectdata from documents that weregenerated as a natural part of the class(Dentin, 1978). These measuresincluded observations of learnerperformance in small groups,mid-course evaluations, instructionalactivities, and proposals that resultedfrom the CEO simulation. Detailed fieldnotes were compiled by bothresearchers throughout the course ofthe study.

Second, semi-structuredinterviews were used for the purpose ofcapturing the expression of opinions orbeliefs of the respondents (Merriam,1988). This method allows therespondent to take the interview in thedirec'ion he or she wishes within theframework of the research (Husband &Foster, 1987). Six learners were selectedfor interviews. The second researcher'srole as a class member and participantobserver allowed the interviews to beconducted affording more freedom forrespondents ) be frank andforthcoming in their remarks. Theinterviewees were selected on the basisthat they were "typical" of the learnersin the class and represented each workgroup. A semi-structured interviewapproach was used to ask similar

questions of each interviewee. Therichness of this approach lies itsflexibility to explore the importantaspects of each participant's experience.

Data Analysis

1. We analyzed k:ach datasource for congruence andnoncongruence (looking for exceptions)with the hypothesis. These data sourcesincluded field notes, midcourse andfinal course evaluations, class members'written reflections, and interviewtranscriptions. These documents wereanalyzed paragraph by paragraph forthemes.

2. According to congruence andnoncongruence, selected data wereplaced on a 2 by 2 matrix (use bypertinence, use by reality, use byarticulation, use by reflection).

3. The third level of analysiscombined cases with levels ofknowledge use (high-, medium, andlow) by perceived pertinence andreality. Articulation and reflection wereanalyzed in terms of ill-structurednessand well-structuredness of theperceived problem.

4. These findings were furtheranalyzed by each researcherindividually resulting in sepavatewritten summaries of themes andlinkages between themes according toexpected and unexpected findings.These findings were then placed in thecontext of a written report. Selectedrespondents were asked to examine thereport checking the quotes andinterpretation for accuracy. 5. A finalversion of this research was edited fromthat draft. The written summaries ofeach researcher's perspective werejointly analyzed and combined. Due tothe high level of agreement betweenresearchers, it was determined to writethe final draft as a blended perspective.

Findings from Our CombinedPerspectives

In this section, each hypothesisis presented along with summary datathat is confirmatory or nonconfirmatoryfor that position. Near the end of thissection the unexpected findings thathave resulted from the analysis arediscussed.

Hypothesis #1: Learners Who PerceivedCourse Materials as Pertinent to TheirWorlc/Prof:ssional Situation are MoreLikely to Use Their Knowledge to SolveOrganizational Problems in TheirWorkplace

Nonconfirmatory finding: Dif-ferent knowledge uses for differentpersons. During data analysis, itbecame obvious that class members haddifferent reasons for being there. Eachhad different expectations for what theywanted to learn from the class, anddissimilar ideas about how to apply thematerial to their outside lives. In thisregard, Schon (1987) has stated:

"when a practitioner sets aproblem, he [or she] choosesand names the things he [orshe] will notice...and selectsthings for attention andorganizes them guided by anappreciation of the situation....Those who hold conflictingframes pay attention todifferent facts and makedifferent sense of the facts theynotice." (p.4-5)

Because different motivational factorsoperate for each individual, it is notsurprising that class members used theinformation in different ways. Patton(1990) stated that "a common activityfor all learners can result in drasticallydifferent outcomes for differentindividuals depending on how theyapproached the experience, what theirunique needs were, and which part ofthe activity they found most

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stimulating" (p. 98). We believe that thiswas very evident in this group oflearners. Each came to the class with adifferent agenda depending on whatthey expected. This influenced whataspects caught their attention, and whatthey eventually took with them fromthe class. For Learner #1, it wasself-esteem, communication, thecourage to make changes in his/herown classroom and empoweringhim/herself through documentation ofevents at the school. For Learner #2, itwas seeing the perspectives of othersand trying some new instructionalapproaches in his/her own classroom.For Learner #3, it was looking at howhis/her organizational hierarchy worksand making fundamental changes in thedassroom especially dealing withchanges in the assumptions about howknowledge is acquired. For Learner #4,it was the courage to make a significantchange in his/her organization bytestifying in a discrimination lawsuitand also by extending this to becomemore involved in community affairs.For Learner #5, it was seeing how tomake changes in postsecondaryinstitutions across the state in a researchcapacity. And yet, for Learner #6, theclass was a disappointment because itwas too "theory oriented" and notpractical enough. Learner #6 stated:

"We talked about kinda fluffy,iffy kinds of stuff that -- youknow sounded real idealisticand it is good to think aboutthose things, but I really didn'tsee a lot of fantastic stuff thatcould be applied back toindividual work situations. "

In the early stages of ouranalysis, we observed that somelearners attempted to make changes inorganizations. These findings wereinitially viewed as more active use ofthe information. Others appeared to usethe organizational information tofacilitate changes in the culture of theclassrooms where they taught. Uponreflection, re-reading transcripts, and

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member-checks with participants, wedecided that participants would notagree that their use of acquiredknowledge would be accuratelydescribed as passive or active. This ledus to seek an alternate explanation. Aswe reanalyzed the data in light of thedifferent ways people used theinformation, it became dearer whysome learners chose to make changes inthe culture of their classrooms ratherthan directly attempting to make moreovert attempts at larger organizationalchanges.

Tracy: " You come to realize..inyour own little domain in yourclassroom, sometimes, you don'tget that concerned about the bigpicture of how things are operatedbecause...once that door is closed,you kind of feel empowered to dowhat you want to do, and then runyour class the way that you wantto run it. "

We have evidence that learners did usecourse information in ways that bestsuited their personal and professionalneeds and they were empowered totake charge of their own learning. AsJohn Dewey stated:

He has to see on his own behalfand in his own way therelations between means andmethods employed and resultsachieved. Nobody else can seefor him, and he can't see just bybeing "told," although the rightkind of telling may guide hisseeing and thus help him seewhat he needs to see. (1974, p.151)

Confirmatory fir ding: Learnerstake action. The degree to whichclass members empowered themselvesto use their acquired knowledge variedwidely. In some cases the learningexperience was extended intoindividual's working lives. Some of ourco-learners did take direct action as a

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result of their experiences in this class.Jean reported having a profoundexperience as a result of his/herparticipation.

Jean: " The president in my schoolhas certain ways of doing things,another instructor brought a caseagainst him, and I was called in totestify. "

Rhonda: "Tell me more about that.

Jean: "And we testified...before alawyer from the attorney general'soffice. And we presented theinformation to a judge. The caseinvolved the school [which is]thirty years old and has neverhired a minority administrator.Yet, it hired some whiteadministrators that only have ahigh school education and we havea minority person who has adoctorate... This president, we feelthat he has made a deliberateattempt not to hire minorities sowe brought this case before theattorney general. A decision shouldbe rendered within the next sixmonths. I think being i.i that classmade me become a part of thatbecause I have been on board for atleast 21 years, but this class reallyinspired me. Like [the instructor]was saying in the class, when youchallenge an organization ... youhave to be willing to go thedistance, and you have to knowthat what you're doing is correct,and is best for the institution and Ifeel that he inspired me to do thatfrom that class."

Jean was empowered to makean important contribution to his/herorganization because he/she expectedthat efforts made in this context wouldresult in desirable outcome(s). Thislearner participated in the legal actionbecause there is a perceived connection

between his/her efforts and a desirableoutcome. These ,expectations also haveinstrumentality because there is thepotential for favorable outcomes forother minority learners. Jean believesthat this will lead to other desirableconditions.

Rhonda: So you think that some ofthe things we had to think about,organizational change, [were]instrumental in you taking a rolein this case? Jean: Yes, it was veryinstrumental in me taking a role inthat I think it is going to be goodfor the community, it's going to begood for the people we serve, andit's going to be good for theminority studs is on campus ... itsgoing to be good for the overallorganization. It will bring us inline where we should have been inthe past. "

There were other examples oflearners who used the courseinformation to make changes in theculture of the classrooms where theyinteract with students every day. Aftermuch reflection, we have come toaccept these changes as limitedevidence of learning transfer.Mackenzie reported:

I thought [the instructor'steaching] technique was very verygood. I have started using it in myown classroom. It makes you thinkand try to start putting thingstogether... It's just a good way ofteaching long term for long rangeeffects.

When pressed about using thecourse information to help solve largerorganizational problems beyond thedoor of his/her classroom, Mackenzieequivocated.

"Basically, I've just taken it -- likeI've used it more in class. I do havea little more insight about how the

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organization that I work for... [alocal school], is set up and thingsthat have happened. Basically, I'vetried to incorporate more in myteaching and it seems to be goingvery well. n "Here we have a casewhere we've [been] asked to do alot of information research andwhat we think we need to do toimprove our program, but notmuch is going to come from that.

Rhonda: "How come why don'tyou think the administration willsupport it?"

Mackenzie: "I don't want to say[they want to] make us feel good,but maybe that's something to doto try to pi our input. I think theypretty much know what they aregoing to do anyway."

It is apparent that Mackenziedoes not have strong expectations withregard to his/her ability to influence theemerging direction of theirorganization. He/she apparently doesnot perceive a sufficient connectionbetween effort and reward to justifysuch expectations. Mackenzie'sexpectation of non-inclusion was notisolated. Several other learners reportedmaking a contribution to theirorganization by adopting some of theinstructional methods from this classwas the only way that they could safelymake a difference in their organization.We have come to believe that thedegree to which knowledge is activatedis somehow a function of the learner'sexpected use of that knowledge.

Hypothesis #2: Learners Who Perceivedthe CEO Simulation as More "Real" WereMore Likely to Use the Material to SolveOrganizational Problems Outside of Class

With regard to this hypothesis,the data were neither confirmatory nornonconfirmatory. We observed severalinstances where learners were engaged

at different levels of situatedness withthe CEO simulation. Even allowing forindividual differences, from a moregeneralized perspective, the simulationwas simultaneously perceived by classmembers as real and not real.

CEO only partially situated.Some learners perceived the biggestdifferences between the simulation andthe real world to be the level of riskinvolved and the freedom to try newthings without administrative or publicbacklash. Comments from two learnersillustrate these points.

Tracy: " The idea of a groupmaking a proposal was venjrealistic in the sense that inschools, and in vocationaleducation, we are in the process ofwriting proposals for grants to getmonies for programs. And for me itwas probably more applicable thanactually changing theorganization. In a simulation, youdon't have the public outcry, the,backlash from the public, theadministration, or whoever it isthat you are trying to change.With a simulation, you arebasically just putting it on paper,so everything looks nice, andeverything seems possible."

An entry in the instructor's fieldnotes indicated that in the simulationlearners could take more risks and werenot bound by administrativeconstraints.

I asked why the groups were soextraordinarily motivated. Onestudent suggested that it wasbecause groups were free to becreative and innovative. In fact, itwas expected. If these projects tookplace in real life, however, therewould be a great deal lessinnovation due to the politics andan organizational structure that is

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self-perpetuating and not orientedto educating flexible workers.

Learners were encouraged tothink about the ideal school situationand conditions for optimal learr ing, butCEO does not require learners to dealwith the sometimes harsh realities ofresistance to change in educationalorganization.

Although most studentsdescribed then...selves as engaged withand highly motivated by the CEOsimulation there is further evidence thatthe simulation was perceived mainly asan academic exercise.

Pat: "[In other classes] we actuallytalked about real life applicationsfor things and not so much theoryabout what might be what couldbe you know what theories areout there we talked about realstuff what has really worked wewere challenged to go out and trythings and see what would workand then come back and talk aboutwhat worked and didn't work....Ididn't get that from this particularchus. "

While it is true that much of the contentwas about research in organizationalbehavior, the class did have a strongethic of interpreting that literature inthe context of everyday situations. Patadds that this particular applicationwas not sufficiently authentic toengender strong expectations orconnections between theoreticalknowledge and the real life "tricks ofthe trade" that he/she expected toacquire from this class. In this way, theCEO simulation was perceived by ourco-learners as simultaneously real andnot real.

Hypothesis #3: Articulation InstructionalPractices Enhance the Learner's Use of theirAcquired Knowledge

Our third and fourthhypotheses were initially based on theinstructional importance of articulationand reflection (Brown et al., 1989). Wefound a chain of evidence to support aninstructional connection betweenarticulation and reflection practices.Although one might intuitively knowthat trust is important to grouplearning, we had not fully appreciatedthe extensive role that trust plays inenabling individuals and groups toconstruct new knowledge andextrapolate meaning from it. We foundthat articulation is most effective whencombined with other instructionalpractices (i.e. reflection). However, thechain of evidence was morecomplicated than we anticipated.Articulation instruction involves thedevelopment of some level of trust as afoundation for full disclosure.

Confirmatory finding: Articu-lation in an environment of trust.Within the context of our research,some level of trust was engenderedbecause learners' points of view werecarefully considered by all members ofthe learning community. Learners wereasked to articulate relationshipsbetween theory and real worldpractices through the use of probingquestions. An entry from Rhonda's fieldnotes pointed to the importance ofarticulation as an aspect of higher orderthinking.

"I recognized some things that Iinherently knew but did notformally or officially know untiltoday. I think this is because of thearticulation and reflection. A lot oftimes you don't know that youknow something until you have toput it into words and explain it tosomeone else."

Tracy talks about articulationinstructional methods as a way toactivate knowledge and promotealternative ways of viewing an issue.

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"(the instructor's style ofquestioning) "really stimulated alot of class discussion, and got a lotof the students involved, and a lotof good verbal exchanges tookplace. And one student would takeone side of an issue of motivationand someone who read the samearticle, would have a differentperspective..and sotg: gooddialogue took place."

But, this unique kind of articulationdepended on the development of aculture of trust and safety among classmembers.

Mackenzie: "We were encouragedto discuss a lot of our ideas andthoughts and to ask questions Inever once felt that I couldn't askquestions or tell an opinion aboutsomething that about somethingthat somebody else said. I felt likewe all respected each other andthere was an atmosphere wherethere was open discussion and wecould say whatever we felt. "

Asking the right question at the righttime further maximizes opportunitiesfor learners to express their points ofview. In discussing their knowledge,learners reveal their conceptions, reflecton them and to grow intellectuallythrough a the literal construction ofknowledge that is new and meaningfulto them (Brooks & Brooks, 1993)."Teachers' ability to uncover students'conceptions is, to a large degree, afunction of the questions and problemsposed to students" (p. 65).

Taylor: The classroom atmospherewas relaxed, jovial, and yet at thesame time, it was also challengingbecause Ian the instructor'smethod of pulling in the theoryinto the discussion, really causedeveryone to think. You had toreally be able to match the textbookinformation and the lecture

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information with the kinds ofthings that we were doing in thegroups and in the discussions. "

Lynn also cited the class ethic of trustthat engendered involvement andparticipation encouraging learners toverbalize their acquired knowledge.

Lynn: "People in that classcouldn't wait to step in. Somewould say something and you'd seesomeone immediately almost jumpout of their seat to say something.And they never felt like they couldnot say anything. In fact, we hadseveral that would contradict even[the instructor]. And he would say,'I'm listening' and he would meanit, he would be listening. And I feltvery comfortable. I didn't alwaysagree with everything that he said,but if I could justify it, he acceptedit and I appreciated that. And itdid help the class discussions getgoing, and it made them evendeeper. "

There is, howe ver, evidence onthe other side of the coin to suggest thatwhen levels of trust are reduced,articulation is also more limited.

Hypothesis #4: Reflective InstructionalPractices Enhance the Learner's Active Useof Acquired Knowledge

Again, based on our evidence,this hypothesis should be retained insome form. However, we have come tobelieve that when articulation andreflection are considered separately, theinstructional power of each technique isdiminished. Our belief is that theseconcepts are most effective when usedtogether as instructional tools. Thisinsight has led us to reconsider ouroriginal belief that articulation andreflection were independent of eachother, and could he expressed asseparate hypotheses.

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When a foundation isestablished for articulation, newknowledge is often socially constructed.By hearing the perspectives andexperiences of others, one often reflectson the meaning of learned informationand its implications for their ownpractice.

Taylor: Because of what you aredoing, through the use of thosehigher learning skills, synthesisand evaluation, you just can't goto a textbook and pull somethingback out and then regurgitate it.You're having to take a veryamorphous kind of a situation andcoalesce all these different ideas,thoughts and philosophies, andbeliefs, and pull [them] togetherinto something that is sensible andis potentially useable. "

Confirmatory findings: Trustand articulation leads to reflectedmeaning. A purpose of this dass was toencourage learners to question existingmanagement practices. Reflectiveinstructional methods helped learnerssee others' opinions and viewpoints andencouraged them to consider alternateviews. A few individuals reportedlooking at their organizationsdifferently resulting in an increasedunderstanding of organizationalpractices. By having to create anorganization, class members putthemselves in the shoes of theadministration and considered theirreasons for doing things and theimplications of those actions .

In talking about the classroomenvironment, Mackenzie stated: "Theenvironment enhanced [motivation] byhaving the discussions and thecreativity to challenge other people'sviewpoints and challenge our ownviewpoints. " Others shared thisperspective:

Jean: "It (the class discussions]made you think about the old way

that you perceived things and gaveyou some other possibilities oflooking at situations."

Taylor spoke of how articulation led tohis/her reflection on the meaning andapplication of course materials.

Taylor: The experience that we hadin the class was that when onestudent brings up a particular setof circumstances.... that will sparka thought in another student, andyou have a chain reaction thatoccurs. That gives you a reallywide spectrum of differentpossibilities....any time you cantake a real life situation and applyit to an academic point then youwill have a good transition, andthat was the case here. That theinformation that we were receivingbecame meaningful when youcould relate it to your everydayworking situations.

In summary, it has been ourexperience that articulation instruc-tional strategies provide manyopportunities for learners to view theiracquired knowledge from alternateviewpoints. In this context, articulationof ideas further enhances reflection onthe meaning and application ofinformation.

Other Findings That Emerged Fromthe Analysis

As is common in qualitativeresearch, several unanticipated themesemerged. In this case, these findingsprovide a rich context for deeperanalysis and understanding of situatedand collaborative learning.

Unnecessary competition mayinhibit trust affecting articulation andreflection. Dividing the class intogroups produced an clement ofperceived competition which served tosimultaneously enhance and inhibit

learning. The competition enhancedlearning by providing motivation toform groups that were cohesive,working together to produce a goodquality project. One learner describedcompetition as enhancing the quality oftheir project:

Jean: "My group was competingwith the other groups. Because ourmind set said that we are going todeliver the better project. Wecompeted as if it were going to becash money, and we also wantedquality in the project."

Jean felt that competition against theother work groups added to the realismof the project. But, the negative side ofcompetition reared its ugly headtowards the end of the quarter resultingin limited sharing of ideas andprotected "turf." Another learnerdescribed the perceived competitionthis way:

Taylor: "Well, there's always thatelement of competition [bothlaugh] and you know, its one ofthose things where ... you go up towhere another group is workingand you see -that they have fivemore pieces of paper than you haveand you say Oh, my God! Whatare they doing?"

Perceived competition inhibitedthe benefit of gaining differentperspectives from others' viewpointsand the sharing of information. Anotherway that competition inhibited thelearning process was that work groupswere not open to new information nearthe end of the quarter. Tracy explainedthat:

"1 wanted to work on thesimulation. We got involved...inthe project and applying some ofthe things that we learned in class,about how to changeorganizations, and that was more

important than just getting newinformation and new material...and to be honest, I could have caredless about discussing new material

The element of competition alsoshows support for motivation comingfrom within the groups rather thanfrom the instructor, thus providing apotential support for self-empowerment. In this case theinstructor had less power overindividuals than did group members.The motivation for producing a goodproject came from the other groupmembers rather than from the gradethey would receive from the instructor.These conditions contributed to theperceived competition while increasinginitial tension among learners .

Initial tension resulting fromthe ambiguity of the CEO simulation.From the mid-course evaluation, 50% ofthe comments regarding suggestions forimprovement identified wanting morestructure or guidelines for the project.At the end of the course, however,learners better understood the role ofambiguity. Taylor described some ofthe tension he/she felt about theproject, but also describes why it wasnecessary.

"I think the ambiguity of theproject, has its] pluses and cons.The cons first, I would say thqtbecause it is so ambiguous that youhave an anxiety level that goeswith this. It takes you out of themainstream of your educationalformat that you are use tofollowing which is basicallylistening to an instructor provideinformation and then youregurgitate that. This is a quantumleap from that. So there is adisconfort factor when you moveaway from that. The pro, of course,is that, in real life, you have thekinds of situations that we've

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in real life a lot of work that you dois ambiguous. And I find that inmy work every day. We'll receivedirection from a funding body orfrom some of our clientele and it isincomplete information and wehave to make decisions on how weuse that information. So in termsof gaining valuable insight in realworld situations, I think that classstructure was very helpful andvery positive.

Schon (1987) agrees that "problems ofreal-world practice do not presentthemselves to practitioners aswell-formed structures. Indeed, theytend not to present themselves asproblems at all but as messy,indeterminate situations" (p. 4).However, the ambiguity of the project,did provide an environment wherereflective thinking could occur."Reflective thinking is called for whenthere is awareness of a real problem orwhen there is uncertainty about asolution. Reflective judgments arebased on the evaluation and integrationof existing data and theory into asolution about the problem at hand"(King & Kitchener, 1994, p. 8). Theambiguity or ill-structured nature of thesimulation promoted reflection as didthe articulation instructional methods.But, learners initially experienced sometension with the instructional methodsas well.

Non-Confirmatory theme: Cog-nitive apprenticeship methods are new .

There is some evidence that at first,articulation was difficult as were thealternate forms of instructionalsequence (i.e., global before local).

Taylor: "1 would say that the onlyway the style [articulationinstructional methods] inhibits isthat you can have instances ofmentally blocking when you gofrom the general to the specific. It'seasy to discuss the general because

experiences to make a comparisonto the material in the text and thepresentation to your own life'sexperience, and when you go fromthe general to the specific, thensometimes, you have a tendency,unless you run back to the text toforget exactly what the specificstend to be."

Taylor's comment illustrates whyarticulation may be difficult andexplains some of the uncomfortablesilences that occurred the first fewweeks of class. The comfort levelincreased and learners became morerelaxed as time progressed.

Pat: " There were times whenduring the discussion things wouldget kind of tense because weweren't sure exactly what answers[the instructor] was looking for.But after awhile, we just learnedthat we just needed to be preparedand it got more relaxed as theweeks went along."

As the learners became more relaxedwith the new instructional methods,articulation became a way of activatingknowledge.

Lynn: "I found [the instructionalmethods were very different fromwhat I was used [to and] I wasexpecting...I said, 'I like thisbecause I'm listening and I'mhearing what is going on andthat's what I came for. I wantedsomething that I could expand. So,I found that the instructionalmethod was great--it suited me."

Rhonda: Tell me what you meanby expand.

Lynn: "[The instructor would ask[a question and] he would nevertell me a direct answer and

wish he would tell me the answer. 'But, he would make me think...letme reason what the answer wouldbe... that's what I meant byexpand. He made me think andthat was very good."

The tradition of articulating ouracquired knowledge became morecomfortable with the passage of time.But, we later realized that the realfoundation for the articulation andreflection instructional methods wasmutual trust. Before learners wouldopenly articulate opinions (whichpromotes seeing others' perspectives), acertain level of trust had to be present.

Implications For The Practice ofSituated Learning/Teaching

In this section we will synthesize andreport the lessons we learned inconducting this research. Consistentwith an analytic induction strategy, wereformulated our original hypotheses tobetter explain the results obtained.These statements also construct aplatform for our future research.Following each statement ofreconstituted hypotheses, each of themajor themes that have influenced theirdevelopment are discussed.

Reformulated Hypothesis #1: Whenunnecessary competition between groups isPerceived it may serve to inhibitcommunication, and Possibly restrict thelearning connection between articulation,reflected meaning and con: 'ruttedknowledge.

Perceived competition. Com-petition did play a negative role byinhibiting communication between CEOwork groups. However, there isevidence to suggest that itaccomplished a positive function withinthe groups. Competition helped somegroups become more cohesive andenhanced motivation for producinghigh quality projects. However,

demonstrate this as a universalphenomenon within all groups. Thisconflicting finding, that competitionenhanced some processes whileinhibiting others, made our analysismore perplexing because it seemed sointerconnected with motivation andtrust. It was difficult to understand therole competition played in our researchuntil we realized how our differentperspectives and roles as instructor andstudent influenced our interpretations.Until that point, we both recognizedcompetition was there, but placeddifferent emphasis on it. Competition,from a student perspective, was a verystrong theme that has been present inschooling from early experiences untilthe present. In an instructor role, it wasa background theme, due to theexpectation and desire that learnerswould cooperate rather than compete.The instructional implications are thatcompetition may be used to enhance thereality or situatedness of an activity,and to form cohesive work groups. It isnaive to believe that competition in aschool setting will be eliminated justbecause the instructor desires it.Learners' past socialization experiencesare too strong to reverse in 10 weeks.Thus, competition should be expectedand used in a positive manner. Ouronly hope is that repeated exposure tocooperative learning environmentsmay, over time, enable learners toengage in collaborative learning in aless competitive surroundings.

Reformulated Hypothesis #2: Whenlearners experience contextualized learningsituated expectancies" are present withineach individual. Under the right conditions,these expectancies can lead toself-empowered learners potentiallyresulting in more active use of constructedand/or transferred knowledge.

Relationship of Situation andLearner Expectations. One of ouroriginal hypotheses was based on theassumption that realism and pertinencewould lead to active use of course

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learner's work place. After conductingthis research, we realize that it wasquite naive to assume that directlearning transfer would occur as adirect result of a class setting that wasonly semi-situated. Although severallearners provided evidence of using theinformation, its use was most oftendetermined. by each individual'sexpectations for that knowledge. Whatemerged for us was the importance ofunderstanding how the expectations oflearners dictate how they choose tointeract with and learn within theirenvironment.

In future research we believethat it will be productive to consider theexpectancies of each learner withrespect to their perception of therealism of the learning environment.Vroom's (1965) work on expectancytheory of motivation is a potentialfoundation for an individual'sinterpretation of a learning situation.This approach has several theoreticalappeals. First, expectancy theory isbased on how an individual interprets aparticular setting and evaluates itspotential for obtaining a successfulresult. In this context, the determinationof success is made by each learnerbased on the degree to which theirexpectations are achieved. This conceptis consistent with Lave's concept ofsituated learning where an individualacquires knowledge according to theirown way(s) of knowing and theirinteraction with the culture of thelearning place. Expectancy theory isfurther directed by the valance, orstrength of a particular expectation. Thestronger the valance, the more likely anindividual is to be motivated aboutlearning.

Situated expectations arepotentially transitory and anxietyproducing. Teachers interested infacilitating this type of learning, areencouraged to think of learnere ,ectations as potentially transitory.The expectations of our co-learners wasdifferent as the quarter progressed.

Mackenzie described the how his/herexpectations changed.

"At first, it was more like a projectfor a class. Then as we got into it,we started making it more personaland it became a project more like itwould be a real project. We weremeeting deadlines, we were goingback and doing a lot of revisions,and I believe it changed from aview of just a project for a paperfor a grade, [to] a real project. "

Others suggested that as time grewshort at the end of the quarter, theybegan to view the simulation as aproject to be completed. At that time,learners' readiness for new ideas andconcepts was severely restricted.Learners exhibited signs of stress at thebeginning and end of dass. Studentswho had never participated in this typeof class were unsure of how to learn inthis type of environmentwhat do Ihave to do to get an A? At this point,their trust was not yet sufficientlydeveloped. As time went on, however,they began to develop trust in theirco-learners. As trust emerged, learnersempowered themselves based on theirnew expectations. During the laterstages of the quarter, time factors beganto once again reshape learnerexpectations. Several reported that thesimulation became a project to bemanage I. At these stages, learning wasalso inhibited and anxiety againresurfaced. For us, this projectillustrated the importance of structuringeducational experiences to allow trustto emerge as a culture of the class.

Teaching/learning strategies foractivating knowledge. While Detterman(1993) argues that learning transfer istruly a rare occurrence, these resultssuggest that learning can be activatedand made, at least to some degree,useful in the lives of learners. If weaccept Detterman's definition oftransfer, (the degree to which abehavior will be repeated in a new

situation) the results of this researchwould suggest that some level oflearning transfer has been obtained.

We believe that these resultswere obtained partially because weemployed teaching strategies thatencourage active use of knowledge.Elements of cognitive apprenticeshipare similar to mechanisms of learningtransfer as described by Sternberg, andFrench's (1994). We believe that theseperspectives formulate a solidtheoretical foundation for cognitiveapprenticeship teaching/learning.When these techniques are employed inan environment of trust, articulation,and reflection, learned information ismuch more likely to be active andapplied when s'...nilar situations areencountered.

Reformulated Hypothesis #3: Whencooperating learners cultivate anatmosphere of trust and safety, individualsoften empower themselves. Suchempowerment can enable articulation ofnewly constructed knowledge thereforepromoting "reflected meaning."

Connections: Trust-Articula-tion- Reflection. It appears to us thatlearners learn best when they areencouraged to talk about their newlyacquired knowledge and then reflect onits meaning to their personal situations.Articulation and reflection strategiesare maximized in a culture where somelevel of trust among co-learners can beestablished.

Articulation practices engenderreflected meaning of information. Whenco-learners are encouraged to verballymake connections between theory andapplication, the first steps may be takenthat will lead to making acquiredknowledge more active. These practicesare supported in theory by Lave andWenger (1989) assertion that knowledgeis socially constructed. In this waylearners are more directly connected tothe information. Bransford and Vye

(1989) assert that these connections aremotivating. Our research lends strongevidence with regard to learnermotivation and reflected meaningfounded on alternative perspectives.

Future research: Connection betweenreflected meaning and activeknowledge.

Creating a climate of trustwhere articulation and reflection isallowed to resonate is often a difficulttask for college professors. Likewise itcan be very difficult for some learnersto achieve sufficient trust in anacademic environment to maximize thisteaching and learning paradigm. Whenlearners and teachers empowerthemselves to view their common rolesas scholars, the teaching/learning taskcan be moved beyond the traditional"power to the teacher" position. Oneinstructional technique for encouragingthis transition of power is fosteredwhen instructors learn to listen to theirco-learners in a atmosphere of mutualrespect and thoughtful consideration ofthe learner's point of view.

In summary, this researchclearly describes a group of highlymotivated learners. The motivationoccurred when individuals empoweredthemselves. They gave themselvespermission to become assertivelearners. This motivation would seemto come from several sources includingrelatively secure work groups, and theclasses' strong ethic for openness andexchange of ideas. These aspects of ourclass culture were not gifts receivedfrom the professor. These rightsnaturally belong to every individual ina democratic society. Yet, that freedom,when blended with the expectation ofacademic excellence can encouragelearners to assume responsibility fortheir own learning.

The theme of trust is a melodythat played continuously throughoutthis research. When these learners

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exercised their natural right to pursueknowledge, they also came to respectthese rights in others. In this way,learners empowered themselves to theextent that they took more social risks.As a result, when expectancies werewell matched with the learningsituation, and a sufficient level of trust

was achieved, a solid foundation foractive knowledge was realized.

References

Berryman, S. (1991). Solutions. V4ashington, DC: National Council on VocationalEducation.

Bransford, J., & Vye, N. (1989). Cognitive research and its implications for instruction. InL. Resnick and L. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Currentcognitive research (pp. 171-205). Alexandria: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development.

Brooks, G. J., & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case forconstructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development.

Brown, J., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture oflearning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.

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112117NEIMTICS. RERDII16.

lelEACE. MID"INTIM EIIPWIZED

1011001 Y001171011111 MAD

SCIIDENIC 01111(1

B. June Schmidt

Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University

Objectives:

Since 1987, the SouthernRegional Education Board-VocationalEducation Consortium has undertakenan extensive effort to improveinstruction that students enrolled inhigh school vocational programsreceive. The overall goal of theConsortium is to advance, apply, andevaluate instructional approaches usedby both vocational and academicteachers that will improve studentcompetencies, particularly work-relatedacademic competencies. By 1993, theconsortium included 19 states withmore than 55 pilot sites involved in thedelivery of vocational education at thesecondary level. A variety of methodsfor evaluating the outcomes of theinstructional intervention strategiestried at the pilot sites were used. Theyincluded administering the NationalAssessment of Educational Progresstests, assembling transcript data,conducting follow-up studies,surveying and interviewing teachersand administrators, and compilingclassroom observation data. For fiveyears, 1989 through 1993, classroomobservations at the 3 Virginia sites werecomplewd in classes of vocational andacademic teachers.

The purpose of the observationswas to provide insight into the

114

instructional experiences of thestudents. For the observations,frequency of occurrence of events wererecorded with basic academic skillscategorized as being taught at the"simple" or "complex level" and beingtaught for the purpose of "learningconcepts" or for "application andtransfer." The objectives for completingthe observations included:

1. To determine the nature ofinstruction students receive in thebasic academic skills ofmathematics, reading, science,speaking, and writing;

2. To compare emphasis given tothese basic academic skills invocational and academic dasses.

Perspectives:

As Weber, Puleo, Kurth, Fisch,and Schaffner (1988) stated, "Thecurrent press for strengtheningcomponents in vocational programs canbe traced to major changes, both in thenation's competitive posture and in theworts place itself, which occurred in theearly 1980s (p. 130). They note thatthese changes have led to increasedinterest in the appropriateness of oureducational system which led to anumber of reports on the "rights" and"wrongs" of it and how to achieveexcellence in it. As part of theexcellence movement, the suggestionsoffered generally were "more academicrigor" for all students. Yet the authorsof The Unfinished Agenda (1984)questioned the assumption "...that moreacademics, which may be the bestpreparation for college, is also the bestpreparation for life" (p. 1). TheSecretary's Commission on AchievingNecessary Skills report, commonlyreferred to as the SCANS report (WhatWork Requires..., 1991), clearlyreinforces the incorrectness of theassumption. The report states thatwork place know-how skills, oneseffective workers need, are much

broader than those learned throughinstruction focusing solely onacademics.

Daggett (1984) argued that anydramatic improvements in thepreparation of students, especiallythose who are not college bound, mayrequire major changes in what is taught,when it is taught, and how it is taught,not simply increases in academic courserequirements and higher test scores.From a study that includedobservations of instruction in 649vocational and 244 academicclassrooms completed by Weber, et al.(1988) the investigators concluded thatvocational classrooms appear toprovide frequent and variedopportunities for strengtheningstudents' basic and higher-order skills,but teachers and students do not appearto capitalize on these opportunities.Thus, a need exists to document morefully just what and how students invocational and academic classrooms aretaught in high school settings.

Research Methods and Data Sources:

At the 3 Virginia sites,observations of instruction werecompleted in the classes of bothvocational and academic teachers in theSpring of 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, and1993 by teams of trained observers. Atotal of 727 classes with more than11,500 students in attendance wereobserved. For each class observed, 4snapshots, each consisting of 1 to 4episodes, were recorded. A snapshotrepresents a point-in-time while theepisodes explain instructional "process"activities which occur over time anddetail the content, depth, andcomplexity of the instruction takingplace within each snapshot. Inrecording episodes within snapshots,the episodes involving the largestnumber of students were recorded firstthen the second largest number, and soon. In 1989, interrater reliability wasestablished for the observationprocedures. When observers recorded

information for the same episode,extent of agr...anent ranged form 65.6%to 100%, with agreement of observationdata recorded lower than 75% for only3 of the 23 variables.

Procedures for recording thedata were adapted from those used byWeber, et al. (1988). Major changesfrom the procedures they used werethat more information about theinstruction in basic academiccompetencies was recorded and someitems of information about classroomdetail were eliminated. Further, theprocedures for recording the data wereadapted for use of op-scan sheets tofacilitate data entry and analysis. Aswith the Weber, et al. study, episodesserved as bases for the analyses.

One-way analyses of varianceprocedures were used to determinedifferences in the variables recordedbetween vocational and academicclasses. In addition, one-way ANOV Aswere used to examine differences invariables for classes in eightinstructional areas as follows: English,mathematics, social studies, science,agriculture and trade and industrial,business and marketing, homeeconomics, and technology education.Chi square outcomes indicated thatactivities in the small number ofagriculture classes were similar to thosein the trade and industrial classes forthe variables recorded. Thus, outcomesfor the two vocational areas werecombined. The average number ofinstructional episodes for the vocationalclasses was greater than the academicclasses, 7.8 versus 6.0. This greaternumber of episodes does notnecessarily mean, however, that moreinstruction was taking place in thevocational classes. Rather it indicatesthat students were involved in a greatervariety of activities. Thus, the ANOVAcalculations were based on percentageof episodes per class documented for agiven activity. Student-Newman-Keulsprocedures were used to determine

1 '

means that were significantly differentfrom one another.

Results:

academic skills of mathematics,reading, science, speaking, and writingin the various vocational and academicclasses for selected variables follow.

ANOVA outcomes comparinginstructional emphases in the basic

Variable P > FMathematics skills used at complex level .0001Purpose of mathematics was for application and transfer .0001No mathematics skills being used .0001

Reading skills user at the complex level .0237Purpose of reading was for application and transfer .0001No reading skills being used .0001

Science skills used at the complex level .0001Purpose of science use was for application and transfer .0001+No science skills being used .0001

Speaking skills used extensively to present information .0001Purpose of speaking was for application and transfer .0642No speaking skills being used .0192

Writing skills used at the complex level .0001Purpose of writing was for application and transfer .0452No writing skills being used .0001

Instruction in these selectedvariables, as with all of the variablesrelated to the basic academic skills, isgenerally different across variousclasses. As shown in Table 1, forexample, complex math was most likelyto be observed in mathematics classes(44% of the instructional episodes),followed by technology educationclasses (27% of the episodes). For allother classes, the percentage of complexmath episodes ranged form 1% in homeeconomics classes to 9% in business andscience classes. As for purpose,application and transfer was most likelyto be the purpose for math instructionin technology education (55% of themath episodes with purpose identified)and agriculture/trade and industrialeducation (54% of the math episodeswith purpose identified). These were

followed by business classes (41% of themath episodes with purpose identified)devoted to application and transferand, then, mathematics classes (34% ofthe episodes with purpose identified)devoted to application and transfer.

Table 2 includes ANOVAoutcomes for reading, which was themost frequently observed of the basicskills. Students in agriculture and tradeand industrial classes and in thetechnology education classes were leastlikely to be reading at the simple level.For reading at this level, the percentageof episodes for these classes was 28%and 29%, respectively. Means forreading at the complex level were notsignificantly different for any of theeight different types of classes. Thepercentages ranged from 11% in the

social studies to 29% in the technologyeducation

Perhaps most interesting, areinstances when the basic academic skillswere not being used. For example,math was not being used in vocationaldass instructional episodes as follows:home economics, 85%;agriculture/trade and industrialeducation, 64%; business, 64%; andtechnology education 51%. Outcomesfor science episodes are even morestriking. Science, as shown in Table 3,was not used in vocational classinstructional episodes as follows:business, 97%; home economics, 85%;technology education, 75%; andagriculture/trade and industrial, 57%.

Tables 4 and 5 provideoutcomes for speaking and writingskills. Although speaking occurred inroughly half of the episodes, speakingextensively or for purposes ofpresenting information, the complexlevel, occurred a low of 1% in theagriculture and trade and industrialclasses and a high of only 9% in thesocial studies dasses. Writing occurredleast often in the agriculture and tradeand industrial education classes, 19% ofepisodes at the simple level and 3% atthe complex level. It occurred mostoften in the mathematics, science, andEnglish classes, 51%, 51%, and 50%.However, in the mathematics andscience classes only 6% of the writingepisodes were at the complex level;while in the English classes, 16% wereat the complex level.

Conclusions and Implications:

This study builds on previousresearch and provides insight as to theextent that the high school studentsexperience instruction in the basicacademic skills of mathematics,reading, science, speaking, and writingin their classes. Further, it detailswhether in -dass use of these skills isprovided at the "simple" or "complex"level and whether the purpose of usewas for "application and transfer." Theoutcomes document that bothvocational and academic teachers tendto teach these skills at the "simple"rather than the "complex" level.Further, student use of science in allclasses, except those specifically titledscience, is minimal. Thus, the outcomescan serve to direct professionaldevelopment of practicing teachers.They indicate that teachers need tolearn ways to integrate the use of thesebasic skills more effectively into theirinstruction and to emphasize the use ofthe skills at more complex levels.

This limited discussion relatedto interpreting outcomes can only touchthe surface as far as implications of thestudy are concerned. The data collectedprovide a wealth of information aboutthe type and quality of instructionstudents at the three pilot-site schoolsreceived in the vocational and academicclasses. The procedures developed forcompleting the observations haveproven to be manageable and the datacollected usable. Careful training of theobservers was critical to the study.Outcomes of it reveal the current natureof classroom instruction related to basicacademic skills and provide a basisfrom which to implement change

i 1 i

References

Daggett, W. R. (1984) Strategic vision and planning: Keys to vocational educationimprovement. Columbus: The National Center for F2search in VocationalEducation, The Ohio State University.

The unfinished agenda, the role of vocational education in the high school. (1984).Columbus: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education, TheOhio State University.

Weber, J. M., Puleo, N. F., Kurth, P., Fisch, M. & Schaffner, D. (1988). The dynamics ofsecondary vocational education. Columbus: The National Center for Researchin Vocational Education, The Ohio State University.

105 1 1 S

Table 1

Analyses of Variance Outcomes for Mathematics Skills

Nature of Episodes/ Type of Class na Mean df F value P>FMathematics Used at Simple Level 7,657 27.9 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .23 BbBusiness/Marketing 92 .26 BEnglish 149 .01 CHome Economics 37 .14 BCMathematics 122 .49 AScience 79 .09 CSocial Studies 39 .00 CTechnology 42 .22 B

Mathematics Used at Complex Level 7,657 28.2 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .13 CBusiness/Marketing 92 .09 CEnglish 149 .01 CHome Economics 37 .01 CMathematics 122 .44 AScience 79 .09 CSocial Studies 39 .02 CTechnology 42 .27 B

No Mathematics Used 7,657 104.7 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .64 CBusiness/Marketing 92 .64 CEnglish 149 .98 AHome Economics 37 .85 BMathematics 122 .07 EScience 79 .81 BSocial Studies 39 .98 ATechnology 42 .51 D

Purpose was Application and Transfer 7,381 13.1 .0001Agriculture/Trade 51 .54 ABusiness/Marketing 66 .41 ABEnglish 88 .04 CHome Economics 20 .19 BCMathematics 75 ` .34 ABScience 42 .18 BCSocial Studies 20 .05 CTechnology 27 .55 A

aNumber of classesbMeans with same letters are not significantly different

106

Table 2

Analyses of Variance Outcomes for Reading Skills

Nature of Episodes/Type of Class na Mean df F value 13>F

Reading Used at Simple Level 7, 656 8.0 .0001Agriculture/Trade 104 .28 BbBusiness/Marketing 92 .57 AEnglish 149 .44 ABHome Economics 37 .53 AMathematics 122 .59 AScience 79 .44 ABSocial Studies 39 .56 ATechnology 42 .29 B

Reading Used at Complex Level 7, 656 .2.3 .0237Agriculture/Trade 104 .15 ABusiness/Marketing 92 .25 AEnglish 149 .25 AHome Economics 37 .12 AMathematics 122 .26 AScience 79 .22 ASocial Studies 39 .11 ATechnology 42 .29 A

No Reading Used 7, 656 15.1 .0001Agriculture/Trade 104 .56 ABusiness/Marketing 92 .18 CEnglish 149 .31 BHome Economics 37 .35 BMathematics 122 .15 CScience 79 .34 BSocial Studies 39 .32 BTechnology 42 .42 B

Purpose was Application and 7, 384 4.6 .0001TransferAgriculture/Trade 51 .84 ABusiness/Marketing 67 .80 ABEnglish 89 .64 ABHome Economics 20 .86 AMathematics 75 .54 BScience 42 .56 BSocial Studies 20 .60 ABTechnology 28 .79 AB

aNumber of classesbMeans with same letters are not significantly different

1O7-

Table 3Analyses of Variance Outcomes for Science Skills

Nature of Episodes/Type of Class na Mean df F value P>FScience Used at Simple Level 7, 654 48.2 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .29 BbBusiness/Marketing 91 .03 CEnglish 149 .02 CHome Economics 37 .14 CMathematics 121 .03 CScience 79 .59 ASocial Studies 39 .03 CTechnology 42 .14 C

Science Used at Complex Level 77, 654 23.6 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .14 BBusiness/Marketing 91 .00 CEnglish 149 .01 CHome Economics 37 .01 CMathematics 121 .02 CScience 79 .34 ASocial Studies 39 .00 CTechnology 41 .11 BC

No Science Used 7, 654 119.4 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .57 CBusiness/Marketing 91 .97 AEnglish 149 .97 AHome Economics 37 .85 AMathematics 121 .96 AScience 79 .08 DSocial Studies 39 .97 ATechnology 41 .75 B

Purpose was Application and Transfer 7, 169 19.8 .0001Agriculture/Trade 56 .92 ABusiness/Marketing 5 .60 ABEnglish 10 .63 ABHome Economics 9 .89 AMathematics 9 .42 ABScience 75 .22 BSocial Studies 1 1.00 ATechnology 12 .73 AB

aNumber of classes

bMeans with same letters are not significantly different

108

Table 4Analyses of Variance Outcomes for Speaking Skills

Nature of Episodes/ Type of Class na Mean df F value P>FSpeaking Used at Simple Level 7, 657 2.1 .0414Agriculture/Trade 105 .56 AbBusiness/Marketing 92 .43 AEnglish 149 .48 AHome Economics 37 .47 AMathematics 122 .55 AScience 79 .58 ASocial Studies 39 .53 ATechnology 42 .47 A

Speaking Used at Complex Level 7, 657 .6.7 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .01 BBusiness/Marketing 92 .03 BEnglish 149 .13 AHome Economics 37 .01 BMathematics 122 .03 BScience 79 .04 BSocial Studies 39 .09 ABTechnology 42 .06 B

No Speaking Used 7, 657 2.4 .0192Agriculture/Trade 105 .42 ABusiness/Marketing 92 .54 AEnglish 149 .39 AHome Economics 37 .52 AMathematics 122 .42 AScience 79 .38 ASocial Studies 39 .38 ATechnology 42 .47 A

Purpose was Application and Transfer 7, 238 1.9 .0642Agriculture/Trade 44 1.00 ABusiness/Marketing 28 .90 AEnglish 65 .84 AHome Economics 11 .91 AMathematics 40 .91 AScience 25 .97 ASocial Studies 16 1.00 ATechnology 17 .93 A

aNumber of classes

bMeans with same letters are not significantly different

Table 5Analyses of Variance Outcomes for Writing Skills

Nature of Episodes/Type of Class na Mean df F value 7>FWriting Used at Simple Level 7, 656 6.8 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .19 BbBusiness/Marketing 92 .43 AEnglish 149 .34 ABHome Economics 37 .37 AMathematics 121 .45 AScience 79 .45 ASocial Studies 39 .39 ATechnology 42 .21 B

Writing Used at Complex Level 7, 656 5.4 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .03 BBusiness/Marketing 92 .05 BEnglish 149 .16 AHome Economics 37 .02 BMathematics 121 .06 BScience 79 .06 BSocial Studies 39 .06 BTechnology 41 .09 AB

No Writing Used 7, 656 8.0 .0001Agriculture/Trade 105 .78 ABusiness/Marketing 91 .52 CEnglish 149 .50 CHome Economics 37 .62 BCMathematics 111 .49 CScience 79 .49 CSocial Studies 39 .55 BCTechnology 41 .70 AB

Purpose was Application and 7, 219 2.1 .0452TransferAgriculture/Trade 28 .86 ABusiness/Marketing 40 .91 AEnglish 66 .74 AHome Economics 11 1.00 AMathematics 38 .89 AScience 24 .79 ASocial Studies 8 1.00 ATechnology 12 .98 A

aNumber of classesbMeans with same letters are not significantly different

"1

Educational Environment ofTenth diode Itudeaff:Oompotiron by Gendet.Ethnicity and GPS

Mora Newsom-Stewart

H. D. Sutphin

Cornell University

The study focuses on acontemporary educational issue, theintegration of vocational and academiceducation through technologypreparation programs as defined by therecent Carl Perkins legislation. Gender,ethnicity and student grade pointaverage are areas of particular interestin this research. The data wereidentified during the evaluationcomponent of a New York State Perkinsfunded project in Agricultural Scienceand Technology. This evaluationresearch was designed to provideformative assessment that couldenhance curriculum development,guidance and career counseling andeducational reform during thedevelopmental phases of the stateinitiative. Related literature provided atheoretical and conceptual base for thestudy.

According to the literature,home environment is related tostudents' achievement in school. Thehome is as a place where students studyand receive parental encouragement .

Research on the home environment hashistorically focused on socio economicstatus as represented by parentaleducation, income level, or occupation(Kellaghan, Sloane, Alvarez and Bloom,1993, Bloom 1988). These studies haveemphasized the affect of socioeconomicstatus on school learning as representedby student grade point average, teacher

124

ratings or performance on standardizedtests.

Parental attitudes and interestsalso affects school learning.Marjoribarilcs (1976) and Bloom (1988)found that the perceived role ofeducation has greater affect onstudent learning than socio economicclass. In other studies, the role oflanguage ability and the use of complexforms of thought and language isassociated with academic ability inchildren (Gordon, 1973; Bernstein,1975). Factors such as these frequentlydiffers across class and ethnicboundaries.

Similarly, the presence ofeducational materials such as books,dictionaries, and encyclopediasconsistently relates to school interestand achievement (Applebee, Langerand Mullis, 1989, Bloom, 1988; Morrow,1983). New technologies such astelevision and computers are alsoentering households at a rapid pace andhave been shown to have varyingaffects on learning (Ridley-Johnson,Cooper, Chance, 1982; Kellaghan et al,1993). Patton, Stinard and Routh (1983)examined the study habits of fifththrough ninth grade students anddetermined that television and radioswere often used as 'background noise'during study of mathematics in thehome environment. Quiet space wasnecessary for reading comprehension.The availability of "quiet space" is acrucial component of a supportivehome environment (Bloom, 1988;Kellaghan et al, 1993). The availabilityof educational materials andappropriate study environments maydiffer as a function of ethnicbackground (Soto, 1989).

Characteristics of the homeenvironmeia have been categorized byBloom (1981) as 'academic guidancesupport" that is crucial to studentlearning. However, models thatdescribe the relationship of academicsupport to grade point average, gender

and ethnic background of students needto be developed. Investigations of thistype can be strengthened by a strongconceptual framework.

Social and cognitive learningtheories (Novak, 1977; Ausubel, 1968;Vygotsky, 1962; Bandura, 1986) as wellas developmental theories from anecological perspective such as that ofBronfenbrenner (1979) provide aframework to investigate the role of thehome environment in school learning.These theorists share a constructivistperspective with respect to curriculumdevelopment which supports andexpands traditional theories ofexperiential education as described byDewey and contemporary researchers.Knowledge construction is viewed asbeing a direct result of experience.Learning is therefore related toprevious experiences andunderstandings. Additionally, sincelearning is related to a variety ofacademic, social and personalexperiences, these theories may helpexplain the role of the homeenvironment in school learning. Inparticular, Vygotsky's theories oflanguage development as the primaryvehicle for social and cognitive learningsupports the role of language abilityand home language in school learning.Framing the study in cognitivepsychology adds to the richness of theinvestigation and provides a base forimplementing findings and conclusionin a contemporary teaching andlearning model

Objectives

The purpose of this study wasto develop an understanding of tenthgrade student's home educationalenvironment in relationship to gender,ethnicity and grade point average.Findings will be useful to develop aneffective educational program thatprovides equitable learningopportunities for all high schoolstudents. The research objectives wereto:

1. Determine the home educationalenvironment of tenth gradestudents as represented by theavailability of educational materialsincluding books, computers,dictionaries and encyclopedias aswell as the availability of quiet orprivate study space.

2. Determine the differences bygender, ethnicity and grade pointaverage which exist with respect tothe home educational environment.

3. Develop recommendations forcurricular assessment and guidancecounseling strategies to improveteaching and learning opportunitiesfor a diverse student body.

Methods

Twelve geographically dis-tributed pilot high schools and technicalcenters were selected as a stratifiedrandom sample from thirty eight (38)New York State schools willing toparticipate in the study. The schoolselection process was designed toidentify schools that wererepresentative of schools within theState in terms of high schools in urbanand rural areas, schools with andwithout agricultural education in thecurriculum, and central high schoolsand technical centers (Boards ofCooperative Educational Servicestypically referred to as BOCES). Theselection panel to identify schoolsincluded representation from Deans ofAgriculture in two year colleges, theNew York State Rural Schools Program,public school administrators, and theState Department of Education. Allschools in the sample had a tenth gradecohort with the exception of one BOCESCenter. Since one of the feeder schoolsto this BOCES was in the project, thistechnical center was represented in thedata set.

The schools were contacted tosolicit cooperation, identify school

contact persons and to determine thenumber of students in the tenth grade.Tenth grade adents were selected asthe sample because they would be thefirst class to enroll as juniors in aTechnology Preparation Program. Apacket of instruments was mailed toeach contact person along withstandardized instructions on how toadminister the instrument to students.Surveys were collected aftercompletion, resulting in a completereturn rate without the need for afollow-up.

Instrumentation

The researchers developed aCareer and Educational Interestinstrument to address the researchobjectives. The instrument consisted oftwo separate forms: Form 1, Home andSchool and Form 2, Agriculture andTechnology Preparations. Theinstrument and data collectionprocedures were field tested in fivepilot schools to determine reliability forrelated subscales following therecommendations of Dillman (1978) andFowler (1988). A total of one hundredand seventy two students participatedin the initial field test. Cronbach'salpha was used to assess subscalereliability. Field test alpha coefficientsranged from .58 to .98. For subscalesbelow .70, questions were modified toachieve a higher reliability coefficient.Additionally, a panel of expertsconsisting of two and four year collegefaculty assessed content validity of theinstruments. Based on pretest resultsthe questionnaires were revised asnecessary.

The revised instruments weresubmitted to a commercial vendor toconvert to opscan format. Thisprovided an easy to follow, selfcontained booklet that had aprofessional appearance. It alsotransformed the instrument to machinereadable form that could be quicklyscanned to a data file. The finalquestionnaire consisted of Likert type

126

scales using a strongly disagree tostrongly agree scale and nominal leveldata.

Data Source

Tenth grade students from eachschool completed the instrument basedon the size of the tenth grade class. Inschools with less than 300 students, alltenth grade students completed theinstrument. In one larger school, apower of the test calculation was usedto identify a representative, randomsample. The school contact assignedeach student a number to identify theresearch instruments and to assurerespondent anonymity. Similarly, theschools were coded by number. In themajority of schools, the same studentscompleted both forms of the survey.However, two schools experienceddifficulty with survey administrationprocedures. In these schools, a studentcompleted either Form 1 or Form 2 butnot both. In each case, questionnaireforms were distributed randomly to thestudent population and should not biasthe results. A total of 927 respondentscompleted Form 1 and 925 respondentscompleted Form 2. Samplingprocedures with this slight modificationprovided valid and reliable data for thestudy.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed usingSPSS/PC. Frequencies were obtainedon all data. Statistical comparisonsbetween groups were made by gender,ethnicity and GPA on categorical datausing cross tabulations and Pearson'schi-square.

Results

Descriptive statistics were usedto analyze the findings. Cross tabs andPearson's chisquare were used to testfor independence at .05 Alpha.

;u

Study Environment of Tenth GradeStudents

As shown in Table 1,respondents rated themselves as havinga wide variety of educational materialsin the home including calculators(98.2%), dictionaries (97.8%), more than50 books (82.7%), encyclopedia's(79.9%) and an atlas (73.5%). Over

forty three percent of households(43.6%) owned a computer.

The majority of students ratedthemselves as having "a room of theirown" (82.3%) and a "quiet room tostudy" (71.7%). Approximately a thirdof the students had "a specific place tostudy" (36.1%).

Table 1: Study Environment of Tenth Grade Students Frequencies and Percentages

fCalculator 913 98.;

Dictionary 908 97A

VCR 896 96.2

More than 50 books 767 82.;

Room of their own 765 82.2

Regularly received magazine 698 75.;

Encyclopedia 743 79.4

Atlas 681 73..f

Quiet room to study 664 71.;

Daily newspaper 624 67.1

Computer 404 43.(

Specific place to study 335 36.1

Gender

The test for independence ofgender with educational opportunities,as shown in Table 2, found that femaleswere more likely to have a calculator,dictionary and more than fifty booksavailable in the home than males. Moremales rated their household as having acomputer than females (p=.01043).

Ethnic Background

Independence of ethnicbackground with educational materialsand opportunities were examined at the.05 alpha level. The availability of a"room of their own", a "regularly

received magazine" an "encyclopedia"background. Asians and Hispanicswere less likely to have a room of theirown, magazines or encyclopedias thanwhites, blacks or American Indian andAlaskan Natives. Asians andAmerican Indians however, were morelikely to have a specific place in whichto study than blacks, whites orHispanics.

Grade Point Average

Cross tabulations and Pears,,n'schi-square were also used to examinethe independence of grade pointaverage to available home educationalmaterials and opportunities. As shownin Table 2, with the exception of a VCR

-a. ti

and a daily newspaper, the availability availability of educaticnal tools andof each item was highly dependent opportunities.upon grade point average. In themajority of cases, a lower grade pointaverage was as ;ociated with less

Table 2: Study Environment of Tenth Grade Students by Ethnicity and Grade Point Average

Item Gender Ethnicity % in Home TracksGPA

Calculator

Dictionary

More than 50 Books

.00332 .01009 .00305F=99.4 A=98.9 R=99.3M=96.8 B=99.2 L=96.7

C=95.6 U=95.0D=100F=100

.01159 .00052 .00000F=99.0 A=93.8 R=99.8M=96.6 B=99.7 L=96.3

C=76.6 U=91.0D=98.0F=100.0

.01009 .00001 .00153F=85.7 A=93.8 R=85.9M=79.3 B=82.2 L=78.0

C=76.6 U=74.0D=69.4F=92.3

Room of their own .00000 .02864AI=90.0 A=86.4W=86.9 B=84.0B=80.0 C=75.6H=59.7 D=81.6AS=47.1 F=84.6

Regularly received magazines .00000 .00023 .00001W=78.7 A=85.2 R=80.5B=72.5 B=76.4 L=67.5AI=70.0 C=70.0 U=64.011=57.4 D=59.2

AS=41.2 F:=61.5

Encyclopedia .00047 .01076 .01398AI=90.0 A=84.1 R=81.8W=81.7 B=82.5 L=78.98=75.0 C=73.8 U=69.0H=69.4 D=71.4

AS=52.9 F=92.3

128

I '1

Atlas

Quiet room to study

Computer

Specific place to study

.01043M=22.6F=20.9

.0045AS=61.8AI=60.0H=41.7B=40.0W=33.3

.00025 .03441A=80.7 R=76.3B=77.1 L=69.3C=64.1 U=66.7D=67.3F=69.2.00000 .00001A=86.9 R=75.2B=73.0 L=70.4C=60.3 U=51.0D=61.2F=69.2.00524 .00004A=52.3 R=49.1B=44.8 L=33.7C=37.5 U=34.0D=28.6F=53.8.0136 .0015

A=44.9 R=69.4B=36.4 L=21.5C=28.7 U=9.1D=36.7F=30.8

Key: Gender: F=female, M=male, Ethnicity: B=Black, W=White, H=Hispanic, AI=AmericanIndian or Alaskan Native, AS=Asian or Pacific Islander, Track: R=Regents, L=Local Diploma,U=Undecided.; Note: Table includes only items for which dependencywas identified.

Track

Similar to the results of thedependency of GPA on gender, withthe exception of a VCR and a dailynewspaper, the availability of each itemwas dependent upon track. In all cases,students following a regents track weremore likely to have the educationalmaterial in the household than werestudents following a local track.Students who were still undecided wereleast likely to have access to theeducational material.

Conclusions and EducationalImplications

1. The availability of educationalmaterials and opportunities in thehome environment of tenth gradestudents was generally highranging from 98.2% of students

122.

having a calculator to 36.1% ofstudents having a specific place inthe household in which to study.Over two fifths (43.6%) of studentsowned a computer. Most students,therefore, appear to have sufficientsupplies available in the home tofacilitate learning.

2. The availability of educationalmaterials and opportunities to learndiffered by gender and ethnicbackground. Hispanic and Asianstudents in particular appear tohave less access to educationalsupplies. Access to supplies mayreflect educational attitudes ofparents as well as the socioeconomic class of the household.Both factors have been shown toaffect school learning. Guidancecounselors, teachers andadministrators should takedifferential home environments intoconsideration when preparing and

teaching coursesaccount accessopportunities.

to take intoto learning

3. The availability of educationalmaterials and opportunities to learnwere dependent on grade pointaverage - high school track.Students with higher grades and inthe regents track were more likelyto have access to educationalopportunities. This dependencymay suggest the importance of thehome environment and the need foralternatives to access appropriateeducational materials in academicsuccess as measured by GPA.

4. Results suggest an inequity in thehome environment dependent uponGPA, ethnic and gender as well ashigh school track. This situationcould have implications fordiversity in the classroom andworkplace. This situation raisesquestions about sociologicalbarriers discussed by Nichols andNelson (1993) and ecological

C

barriers that relate to views ofBronfenbrenner (1979).

5. The conceptual base for the studylinks previous learning to currentlearning. Thus, experiences withdifferential home environmentscould have implications on schoollearning, recruitment into higherlevels of education and futureemployment.

6. Parental attitude was not exploredin this study. Future researchshould examine the relationship ofparental attitude to the homeenvironment and explore potentialcausal relationships includingbarriers to participation, guidancepractices, positive and negativeconsequences of the homeenvironment, student choice,related developmental theory andimplications for using aconstructivist view of curriculumdevelopment.

Referemces

Applebee, A.N., Langer, J.A. and Mullis, I.V.S. (1989). Crossroads in Americaneducation: The nation's report card: A summary of findings. Princeton, N.J.Educational Testing Service.

Ausubel, D.P. (1968). Educational psychology: a cognitive view. Holt, Rinehart andWinston. New York.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitivetheory. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.

Bernstein, B. (1975). Class, codes and control. Vol 3. Towards a theory of educationaltransmissions. London. Rout ledge and Kegan Paul.

Bloom, B.S. (1981). All our children learning. A primer for parents, teachers and othereducators. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Bloom, B.S. (1988). Helping all children learn in elementary school and beyond.Principal. 12-17.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development; Experiments by natureand design. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

Dillman, D.A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. NewYork: John Wiley and Sons.

Fowler, F.J. (1988). Survey research methods. California; Sage Publications.

Gordon, I.J. (1973). An early intervention project: A longitudinal look. Gainesville,Florida. Institute for Development of Human Resources.

Kellaghan, T. Sloane, K., Alvarez, B. and Bloom, B.S. 1993. The home environmentand school learning; Promoting parental involvement in the education ofchildren. JosseyBass.

Marjoribanks, K. (1976). "Sibsize, family environment, cognitive performance andaffective characteristics." Journal of Psychology 94. 195-20.1.

Morrow, L.M. (1983). "Home and school correlates of early interest in literature."Journal of Educational Research 76. (4). 221--230.

Nichols, T. and Nelson, C. (1993). "Hispanics in agriculture: Barriers to educationalrecruitment". Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual National AgriculturalEducation Research Meeting". December 3, Nashville.

Novak, J.D. (1977). A theory of education. New York. Cornell University Press.

I ,;

118

Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. (2nd edition).California, Sage.

Patton, J.E. Stinard, T.A. and Routh, D.K. (1983). "Where do children study?" journalof Educational Research. May/June. 76. (5) 280-286.

Ridley-Johnson, R., Cooper, H. and Chance, J. (1982). The relation of children'stelevision viewing to school achievement and I.Q. journal of EducationalResearch. May/June 1982. 76. (5). 294-297.

Soto, L.D. (1989). "Relationship between home environment and intrinsic vs. extrinsicorientation of higher achieving and lower achieving Puerto Rican children.Educational Research Quarterly. 13 (1). 22-26.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. M.I.T. Press. Massachusetts.

lkIllt Requited of Employee,With Only a High SchoolDiploma

Kenneth S. Volk

Henry A. Peel

East Carolina University

There has been a great deal ofdiscussion in recent years about theneed to prepare young people for thechallenges they will face in atechnology-based global economy. Tomeet this challenge, schools must helpstudents master the necessary reading,writing and math skills required foremployment. Students must beconfident in their ability tocommunicate, critically think, and workin group situations. Given these highly-technical times, students must also havean understanding of technologicalinnovations, and issues affecting theirlives. In essence, schools must preparestudents to live knowledgeably andcontribute productively in this complexenvironment.

Despite calls for an educatedworkforce, in North Carolina thereremains a sizable number of individualsthat do not receive post-high schooleducation or training. According to theStatistical Profile of North CarolinaPublic Schools (North Carolina StateBoard of Education, 1985), nearly 20percent of the high school graduates donot pursue further education throughcommunity colleges, universities, or themilitary.

Considering the need foremployees' basic skills and the lack ofpost-high school education beingobtained by many in North Carolina,

several critical issues were examined.:First, how many people are hired withonly a high school education by themajor manufacturing firms in NorthCarolina? Second, what are theprojected trends of employment? Thatis, will employers likely continue to hirehigh school graduates at the currentrate, or will openings for high schoolgraduates increase or decrease? Third,and the primary focus of this study,what types of skills do employersrequire of high school graduates?

Through an examination ofthese issues, necessary high schoolcompetencies can be prioritized,community colleges can betterdetermine recruitment strategies, andemployers can identify areas whereadditional training is needed. Providedin this paper are the results of a studyconducted by Volk and Peel (1994) toaddress questions related to jobopportunities available for high school-degreed employees. Also identified andrated in this study were the necessaryskills these employees must have inorder to be successful. (A graphicrepresentation of the data, as well as acopy of the instrument are availablefrom the authors in the ExecutiveSummary of this study).

The Study

A survey of manufacturers inNorth Carolina was used to determinebasic academic and vocational skillsrequired of employees with only a highschool diploma. In designing theinstrument, necessary skills required foran educated and employable citizenrywere reviewed through the policy andposition papers issued by a number ofgovernment, manufacturing, andeducational organizations. Included inthese organizations were the AmericanSociety for Training and Development,the National Center for Education andthe Economy, the North Carolina

Department of Economic andCommunity Development, and the U.SDepartment of Labor. From the list ofcompetencies identified, an instrumentwas designed to determine theimportance of various academic andvocational skills.

Manufacturers with over 500employees, identified through theDirectory of North CarolinaManufacturing Finns (North CarolinaDepartment of Economic andCommunity Development 1992) weremailed surveys. Each survey wasaddressed to the representativeidentified in the Directory; most oftenthe company president or plantmanager. The representatives wereasked to rate skills as absolutelyrequired, desired but not required, ornot required from a high schoolgraduate in their firm. Companyrepresentatives were also given theopportunity to provide additionalcomments on high school graduationrequirements. Approximately onemonth after the initial mailing, a follow-up mailing was conducted for those notresponding to the first mailing Fromthe 289 firms identified and sentsurveys, 129 responded. Thisrepresented a 45 percent response rate.

For data analysis, the manufacturingfirms were categorized by the numberof employees at their location and theirtype of manufacturing operation.

Profile of Survey Respondents

Table 1 shows the sample sizesand respondents by establishment size.Information regarding the range ofemployee numbers at each particularfirm's location was provided in theDirectory. These ranges were used todetermine employee totals. Using thehigh and low ranges, it was estimatedthat between 98,000 and 165,000 NorthCarolina employees were directlyrepresented in this study. Whenrepresentatives were asked the numberof people the company employs inNorth Carolina, the total number ofemployees represented in this studygreatly increases. From the responses, itwas indicated over 250,000 individualsare employed throughout NorthCarolina by these firms and wereindirectly represented in the study.

Table 1: Respondents by Establishment Size

Number of Number of Firmsemployees responding

Percentage oftotal firms

500-999 91 70.5

1,000-2,4999 28 21.7

2,500+ 10 07.8total 129

According to the StandardIndustrial Classification System (SIC)used in the Directory, 13 broad groupsof manufacturers participated in thestudy. Since the survey was mailed toall nianufacturinv firms in North

Carolina identified in the Directory asemploying 500 or more at theirparticular location, no attempt wasmade to control for manufacturingtype.

Table 2 provides a summary ofthe manufacturing groups participating

121

in this study. Of the 129 respondents,more than 15 types of manufacturingfirms were represented. The textile andapparel group represented nearly athird of all manufacturing firms.

Electronic and machinery companies,combined with textile manufacturersrepresented over 50 percent of the firmsresponding.

Table 2: Respondents by Manufacturing TypeManufacturing Type

Textile & Apparel

Electronic & Electrical Equipment

Machinery & Computer Equipment

Food

Furniture

Chemical Products

Rubber & Plastic Products

Transportation Equipment

Lumber & Paper

Measuring & Analyzing Instruments

Printing & Publishing

Tobacco

Stcne, Clay & Glass Products

Miscellaneous

The Survey of Basic Academicand Vocational Skills requestedinformation from employers concerningthe number of current employees andanticipated hirees with only a highschool diploma. The purpose ofcollecting these data was to establishthe availability of jobs in manufacturingfirms which require only a high schooleducation.

Table 3 provides a profile of theemployees hired, according to the

NumberResponding

Percentage ofTotal

39 30.2

17 13.1

10 7.8

8 6.2

8 6.2

7 5.4

7 5.4

7 5.4

6 4.7

5 3.9

5 3.9

3 2.3

3 2.3

4 3.1

manufacturing firm representative. Asindicated in Table 3, over 69 percent ofthe employees from thesemanufacturing firms are hired withonly a high school diploma. Theemployers also reported there exists alarge number of jobs that could he doneby high school graduates. According tothese firms, nearly three-quarters of thejobs could be done by someone withonly a high school diploma.

122

Table 3: Employee Profiles

Characteristic Averageresponse

Percentage of people employed with only a high school degree 39%Percentage of jobs that could be done by someone with only a high school 73%degreePercentage of people hired in the past year with only a high school degree 72%

Percentage oftotal

Future number of employees expected to be hired with only a high schooldiploma will:

Increase 13%Decrease 30%

Remain the same 57%

Table 4: Reading, Writing and Math SkillsSkill statement: High school graduates should have the necessary skillsto:

perform simple mathematical functions (+,-,*,/)understand common job-related wordsread the local newspaperread instruments such as gauges and meters -write simple memorandaread technical manualsestimate time, weight, and speed measurementsunderstand elementary statisticsread blueprintsperform algebraic equationsunderstand geometric principleswrite a technical report

Table 5: Communication Skills

Mcan SD

1.90 .35..89 .341.73 .511.62 .551.48 .561.36 .571.26 .661.16 .580.95 .750.88 .670.86 .650.85 .64

Skill statement: High school graduates should have thenecessary skills to:follow procedural instructionsspeak in clear sentenceslisten to formal presentationsgive clear directionssketch and dimension an object in multiviewunderstand and/or speak another langivige

Mean SD

1.91 .311.81 .411.71 .491.71 .490.45 .620.30 .54

123

There was a high percentage ofhigh school graduates hired last year bythese manufacturing firms. Thisnumber compares favorably with thenumber of jobs that can be done with ahigh school diploma. Over half thefirms felt their percentage of new hireesrequiring only a high school diplomawill remain unchanged in the future.Only 13 percent indicated an increase,while 30 percent indicated a decrease.

Also requested in the surveywere skill levels needed 'romemployees with high school degrees.Statements regarding skills orcompetencies were generated from areview of current reports on education.These skill statements addressed notonly academic concerns; issuesregarding personal attitudes andconduct were induded as well. Ninecategories were used to group the skillstatements for the survey. Categoryheadings were generally patterned afteran earlier study conducted by NorthernIllinois University (1991) which onlybroadly defined these skill areas. Thefollowing pages summarize the results.

Reading, Writing and Math Skills

Table 4 shows the rating ofreading, writing and math skills forhigh school graduates. Employersagreed that basic math and readingskills were absolutely required for highschool graduates to successfully enterthe workforce. Graduates should beable to perform the simplemathematical functions of addition,subtraction, multiplication, anddivision. Almost equally importantwas an understanding of common jobrelated words. Generally, high schoolgraduates who are seeking employmentneed to be proficient in reading at alevel comparable to reading the localnewspaper. Seventy-six percent ofthose surveyed absolutely require thislevel of reading to he successful on thejob. There is less agreement amongemployers concerning required mastery

level of skills beyond basic reading andmath. For instance, few employersrequire high school-degreed employeesto understand algebra. While half ofthe respondents desire this skill, lessthan 20 percent require it.Understanding principles of geometrywas, in fact, as important to employersas algebra. An interesting finding fromthis study was that more employersdesired skills in elementary statisticsthan either algebra or geometry.Writing skills were viewed as being lessimportant than the reading and math,with employers generally desiring theseskills, but not requiring them.

Communication Skills

A great deal of consensus wasfound among employers related tocommunication skills needed for highschool graduates. As shown in Table 5,there were few employers who did notrequire graduates to be able to give orfollow clear directions. All but twosurvey respondents required ordesired these general listening andspeaking skills. The expectation is thathigh school graduates who go directlyto work, must be able to followprocedural instructions and speakclearly. Listening skills and the skillsnecessary to give clear directions wereviewed as being equally important.Over 70 percent of the respondentsconsidered these skills to be absolutelyrequired of high school graduates.While communication skills encompassmore than just listening and speaking,there was little indication thatemployers required such skills asrepresenting information graphically.Less than seven percent absolutelyrequired their employees have theability to sketch objects in multiview.While most employers did not requirehigh school graduates to speak orunderstand another language, one-fourth of the employers required ordesired these skills.

Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinking skills weregenerally viewed as being absolutelyrequired or desired by respondents. Asshown in Table 6, three of the four

Table 6: Critical Thinking Skills

statements were rated on the averageabove 1.58; indicating their importance.Generally, employers desired problem-solvers and independent thinkers. Theremaining area of critical thinking, theability to formulate a hypothesis,received less support.

Skill statementHigh school graduates should have the necessary skills to:understand problem-solving processestroubleshoot problemsmake decisions independentlyformulate a hypothesis

Mean SD

1.74 .441.68 .481.58 .511.05 .73

Every employer surveyedrequired or desired that high schoolgraduate employees demonstrate theability to solve problems. This itemwas one of only two statements on thesurvey that every employer supportedto at least some degree. Of the 129respondents, 96 required and 33 desiredthis skill. Also important for highschool graduates is the ability totroubleshoot problems and makedecisions on their own. Over half of thesurvey respondents absolutely requiredthat employees have these skills. Onlyone response in each of these areas didnot at least desire this skill.

Group Interaction Skills

As Table 7 indicates, all eightskill statements listed in the GroupInteraction Skills category receivedstrong support from employers. In fact,of the nine skill categories on thesurvey, high school graduates needinggroup interaction skills was marked thehighest. With the exception of onlythree areas: recognizing culturaldiversity, recognizing equality of sexes,and participating in group discussions,more than 100 of the 129 respondentsindicated all of these skills were

138

absolutely required of high schoolgraduates.

Respondentsgraduates who cansupervisors, teamcolleagues. Allstatements were rated on the averageabove 1.90; indicating how extremelyimportant it is for high school graduatesto possess the ability to get along withothers in the workplace. High schoolgraduates having the ability to workteam members was absolutely requiredby 94 percent of employers. This skillgoes beyond having to work well withsupervisors and colleagues. Workersmust be able to work together as a teamin order to solve problems in theorganizational environment. Alignedclosely with working well with othersand participating as a team member, isrespecting others' opinions. Thisstatement received a 1.85 averagerating; indicating its importance. Twoother areas, while receiving slightlylower ratings, were still viewed asbeing very important. These skills,seemingly related, are the willingness toask questions and participate in groupdiscussions. Finally, while there wassome disagreement of the importance torecognize cultural and ethnic diversity

especially wantwork well withmembers, and

three of these

1. is f

and the equality of the sexes, both areasreceived strong endorsements.

Table 7: Group Interaction SkillsSkill statementHi :h school duates should have the necessary skills to:work well with supervisorswork as a member of a teamwork well with colleaguesrespect others' opinionsbe willing to ask questionsparticipate in group discussionsrecognize equality of the sexesrecognize cultural and ethnic diversity

Mean SD

1.95 .251.94 .271.93 .281.85 .381.81 .411.74 .471.72 .501.64 .53

Personal Development Skills

There was again a great deal ofconsensus among employers on theneed for high school graduates to enter

Table 8: Personal Development Skills

the workforce with well-definedpersonal development skills. Table 8details the relative strength of thiscategory.

Skill statementHigh school graduates should have the necessary skills to:exhibit self-esteemestablish personal goalswork toward advancementrecognize career optionsdesire further education or training

High school graduates shouldexhibit self-esteem to be successful intoday's manufacturing world. As wasthe case for graduates having basicproblem-solving skills under theCritical Thinking Skills category, everyemployer required or desired thatemployees exhibit self esteem.Respondents want high schoolgraduates who set goals and worktowards advancement. Employers alsoexpected high school graduates torecognize career options. Finally, skillsrelated to further education andtraining were considered important.Over 98 percent of the employeesabsolutely required or desired all fiveskills in this category. Emphasizing the

139

Mean SD

1.71 .461.67 .511.64 .501.57 .511.57 .51

importance of this category, it is notedthat the category of PersonalDevelopment Skills was rated as thethird most-important category, whenaverage group responses werecompared (see Table 13 for comparisonsof categories).

Computer Skills

Computer skills were the leastimportant category of skills required ofhigh school graduates. This skillcategory ranked the lowest of all ninecategories. Table 9 shows the ratingsfor items in this category.

Table 9: Computer Skills

Skill statementHigh school graduates should have the necessary skills to:operate a computer keyboardoperate word processing softwareunderstand DOS commandsoperate spreadsheet softwareoperate database softwareoperate desktop publishing softwareoperate computer-aided drafting software

Mean SD

1.42 .580.95 .560.79 .630.78 .590.72 .570.60 .590.50 .59

As Table 9 indicates, the onlyskill receiving a high endorsement wasthe ability to operate a computerkeyboard. Even in this case, only 46percent of respondents absolutelyrequired this skill of its high school-graduated employees. Understandingsoftware for word processing wasrarely required but often desired. Only13 percent of respondents absolutelyrequired, while 68 percent desired thisskill. Nineteen percent did not requirethis skill at all. All other skills listed inthis category were rarely absolutelyrequired. With the exception ofkeyboarding operations and wordprocessing, no computer skill listed wasabsolutely required by more than 15 ofthe 129 respondents (12 percent).Equally as important, over 30 percentdid not require any of these five skillsfor high school graduates to enter theirmanufacturing firms. For instance,even the skill and ability to understand

Table 10: Technological System Skills

DOS commands was not required by 33percent of employers. Computer-aideddrafting skills were not required by 54percent.

Technological System Skills

Employers responding to thissurvey were mixed on the importanceof high school graduates needing tounderstand technology systems. Table10 details the results of this category.While more than 50 percent absolutelyrequired high school-degreedemployees to have the ability to selectproper tools or equipment for a giventask and follow written directions toassemble equipment, less than 30percent required graduates to calibrateinstrumentation or know howtechnological systems operate.

Skill statementHigh school graduates should have the necessary skills to:select the proper tools or equipment for a taskassemble equipment following written directionsknow how technological systems operate (e.g. communications,manufacturing)calibrate instrumentation

As indicated in Table 10, theskills necessary to select the propertools or equipment received an average

140

Mean SD

1.73 .511.48 .631.16 .65

1.00 .73

rating of 1.73; suggesting itsimportance. Following writtendirections, closer), related to the skills offollowing procedural instruction in the

ti

Communication Skills category,leceived a rather strong endorsement.Knowing how technological systemsoperate with such features as theinputs, processes, and outputs ofmanufacturing and communicationtechnology, was absolutely required byonly 30 percent of the respondents.However, it was desired by 55 percent.Calibrating instrumentation was theonly skill listed on the survey thatreceived a 1.00 rating; indicating theneutrality of employers desiring thisskill.

Table 11: Leadership Skills

Leadership Skills

Table 11 shows the ratings forleadership skills. Most employersrequired or desired graduates to haveleadership abilities. There was a greatdeal of consensus among respondentsthat graduates should enter theworkforce with general skills andabilities to lead others. Regardless ofwhether high school graduates begin inleadership positions, demonstratingleadership skills was viewed asimportant to employers.

Skill statementHigh school graduates should have the necessary skills to:negotiate and resolve conflictsimprove organizational effectivenessdemonstrate leadership qualitiesmotivate others

The relative importance ofindividuals being able to negotiate andresolve conflicts was noted. Over 96percent thought this skill wasabsolutely required or desired. Thisskill compared favorably with the skillslisted under the Group Interaction Skillscategory. While over half of thosesurveyed absolutely required graduatesto be able to negotiate and resolveconflicts, it was less important for highschool graduates to be able to motivateothers. Only 36 percent absolutelyrequired this skill. Improvingorganizational effectiveness wasconsidered a valuable skill for highschool-graduated employees to possess.Over 50 percent of respondentsabsolutely required that degreedemployees, participate suchproductivity-related matters. Gene-rally, employers are looking for thoseindividuals who have the skillsnecessary to lead the organization. This

Mean SD

1.53 .571.50 .591.39 .551.28 .60

skill was desired by 97 percent ofrespondents.

Employability Skills

Employability skills were thesecond-highest rated skill category inthis survey. With the exception ofparticipating in community and civicactivities, then was general agreementon the desirability of all skills in thisarea. A further indication of theimportance of the particular skills inthis category, was that maintainingquality standards and regular workhabits were the two skills fromthroughout the entire survey that weremost often rated by respondents asbeing absolutely required. Of the 129employers, 125 marked these areas asabsolutely required of high schoolgraduates. Table 12 shows the resultsfor this skill area.

Table 12: Employability Skills

Skill statement Mean SDHigh school graduates should have the necessary skills to:maintain quality standardsmaintain regular work habitsdemonstrate punctualitytake pride in one's workpractice a healthy lifestylehave knowledge of the companyparticipate in community/civic activities

1.96 .231.96 .231.95 .251.92 .301.76 .451.71 .471.25 .56

Employers want high schoolgraduates who are punctual and takepride in their work. Over 93 percent(120 of the 129 respondents) absolutelyrequired these skills. Of these four top-rated items, only one respondent peritem did not support the skill as beingrequired or desired. For Pxample, ofthe 129 respondents, 124 absolutelyrequired, four desired, and one did notrequire that employees demonstratepunctuality. While less important, itwas expected that high schoolgraduates practice a healthy lifestyleand have knowledge of the company.

least important area required in thiscategory was for employees toparticipate in community and civicactivities. Still, over 93 percent at leastdesired this participation.

Group Comparisons

A comparison was madebetween the nine categories of skills togauge their relative importance. Usingresponses to skill statements in eacharea, the average for the categories wasdetermined. Table 13 shows the resultsof the comparison.

Again, many employers (over 70percent) absolutely required thatgraduates demonstrate these skill, The

Table 13: Group ComparisonsSkill category Mean SDGroup interaction skills 1.83 .41Employability skills 1.79 .45Personal development skills 1.63 .50Critical thinking skills 1.51 .61Leadership skills 1.42 .58Technological system skills 1.34 .70Reading, writing and math skills 1.33 .69Communications skills 1.31 .83Computer skills 0 82 .65

Group Interaction Skills was themost important skill area high school-graduated employees must have. Thiscategory included such skills asworking well with colleagues andsupervisors, working as a teammember, and respecting others'

142

opinions. The second most importantskill area identified by employers wasEmployability Skills. High schoolgraduates should have skills necessaryto maintain quality standards, maintainregular work habits, and take pride intheir work. Personal DevelopmentSkills was the third most important skill

area. This category included exhibitingself-esteem, establishing personal goals,and. desiring further education. BasicReading, Writing, and Math Skills wereviewed as being less important toemployers than most other skillcategories. These basic academic skillsranked seventh of the nine categoriesexamined. It was interesting to notethat skill statements relating tostatistics, algebra, and geometry wererated below 1.00 for this category.

Communications Skills rankaround third, when the need for foreignlanguage and ability to sketch objects inmulti-view are not considered. Thiscategory was found to have the greatestvariance. Computer Skills wereindicated as being less important thanall others. Although there was a needfor basic keyboarding skills, littleindication was given for other areassuch as spreadsheets, databases, andcomputer-aided draning. A generalobservation made from thesecomparisons was that skills relating toaffective domains; that is, the attitudes,personalities, and emotions of theemployees were rated generally higherthan those categories dealing withtechnical or academic concerns.

Conclusion

Documents such as America'sChoice, High Skills or Low Wages!National Center for Education and theEconomy, 1991), The SCANS Report(The Secretary's Commission onAchieving Necessary Skills 1991), andAmerica and the New Economy(Carnevale,1991) have identifiededucational standards and workplaceskills. These documents described ingreat detail the state of the Americaneconomy and the changes being madein the workforce. North Carolina'sworkforce is a reflection of the type and

amount of education its citizens receive.With nearly 20 percent of high schoolgraduates not continuing furthereducation through community colleges,universities, or military service, theskills they receive from their terminalprogram is of paramount importance.This point, coupled with the over 12percent high school dropout rate, placeseven greater significance on the highschool experience.

Employers on the other hand,are left with a pool of individuals whomay, or may not have the necessaryskills for the types of positionsavailable. This study was designed tcclarify the necessary skills employersdesired of high school graduates. Thefocus group for the study wasmanufacturing firms in North Carolinaemploying more than 500 individuals attheir particular locations. Resultsindicated that high school-graduatedemployees will remain a commodity inthe future. That is, most firms willremain constant or increase the numberof jobs requiring a high school diploma.Further results indicate that thesegraduates may need different skillsfrom what is currently being suggested.

What has been traditionallyperceived as the skills necessary forhigh school graduates to be successfulin the workplace was not born out.Reading, writing and math skills, whileimportant, were not given the prioritythat would be expected. Conversely,group interaction skills received anoverwhelming endorsement. Generally,the affective domain was emphasizedby employers. Educators, policymakers, and the public are thereforerecommended to consider thesefindings when setting educationalpriorities, procedures and improvementstrategies for the future.

References

Carnevale, A. (1991). America and the new economy. Alexandria, VA: The AmericanSociety for Training and Development.

National Center for Education and the Economy (1991). America's choice: High skills orlow wages. Washington: author.

North Carolina Department of Economic and Community Development (1992).Directory of North Carolina manufacturing firms. Raleigh: author.

North Carolina State Board of Education (1985). Statistical profile of North Carolinapublic schools. Raleigh: author.

Northern Illinois University, Center for Governmental Studies (1991). Building public-private partnerships to improve vocational education in Illinois. De Kalb: author.

Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (1991). What work requires ofschools: A SCANS report for America. Washington: U.S. Department of Labor.

Volk, K. & Peel, H. (1994). Basic academic and vocational skills required of employeeswith only a high school diploma. (Executive Summary). Greenville: The EasternNorth Carolina Consortium for Assistance and Research in Education, EastCarolina University School of Education.

1,1

IRTEGIIRTIOR Of SISTRENNTICI

INTO TECH/I040619 ED:1011710D

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Chi Zhang

Michael Reese Hospital andMedical Center &University of Illinois at ChicagoCollege of Medicine

Bill Suess

Cape Henlopen High School

IntroductionIntegration of academic and

vocational skills has all the signs of anew movement in vocational education.Such efforts were supported by policymakers, business sectors, vocationaleducators, and cognitive scientists forvarious reasons (Grubb, Davis, Lum,Plihal, & Morgaine, 1991). It was alsothe benchmark for the Carl D. PerkinsVocational and Applied Technology Actof 1990.

The potential advantages tointegrate academic and vocational skillsin schools included: (a) richer, morecoherent curricula (Rosenstock, 1991);(b) more activity-based pedagogy; (c)more teacher collaboration andcoordination; (d) more attention toschool transition (Bodilly, 1992): and (e)increase in student retention (Crain &Hebner, 1992). A major study by Grubb,Davis, Lum, Plihal, & Morgaine (1991)characterized eight models of theintegration.

Research findings suggestedthat the successful integration ofacademic and vocational education wasaffected by many variables. Owens

(1988) identified 11 variables that couldsubstantially influence such integrationprocess, including (a) cooperationbetween teachers, parents andadministrators; (b) administrativesupport; (c) time for meetings; (d)threat of change; (e) extra work load; (f)feelings of isolation; () stepping out ofone's discipline; (h) teacher's attitude;(i) graduation requirements; (j) staffdevelopment; (k) certification ofinstructors. McNelly, Thomas, Mann,and Petty (1991) found that the majorbarriers for academic and vocationalintegration were: (a) the inadequatefunding; (b) lack of cooperation; (c)graduation requirements; (d) lack oftime; (e) guidance consolers; (f) poorvocational image, etc.. Other studies byCrain and Hebner (1992) andRosenstock (1991) concurred similarfindings.

As one of the vocationaleducation discipline areas, technologyeducation requires students tounderstand basic mathematicalprinciples (Barbato, 1991). Goetsch andNelson (1986) wrote that "a knowledgeof the fundamentals of algebra,geometry, and trigonometry, as theyrelate to drafting applications, isessentials" to drafting professionals.However, no empirical studies werereported in the area of integration oftechnology education and mathematics.

Goals and ObjectivesThis study is intended to

survey the perceptions of technologyeducation teachers on the integration ofmathematics into technology education.Specifically, there were three objectivesof this study:

1. to determine the extent towhich math was integratedinto technology education;

2. to describe the school climatein which the integration tookplace;

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3. to identify the variables whichsignificantly related to theteacher's efforts of integratingmathematics into technologyeducation.

BackgroundThis study was conducted in

the state of Delaware. As this study wasconducted in the 1993, dozens ofschools in- Delaware offered technologyeducation programs, including all thefive vocational technical schools andmany comprehensive secondaryschools. As a member state of theSouthern Regional Education Board onVocational Education, Delaware has ahigh priority to restructure itsvocational education programs. In 1986,the Governor's Task Force onVocational Education had concludedthat academic competency could becarried out through vocational courses.The Task Force pointed out that:

A modest attempt was madeat this a few years ago inDelaware, and failed.Teachers on both sides hadtrouble with it. We recom-mend that the idea be triedagain, with teachers givenmore incentives to make itwork, and with the provisionthat performance standardsbe kept high. (p. 27)

Many innovative appro-achesof curriculum and instruction werebeing experi-mented in many schools,especially in the vocational technicalschools. Some of the examples included:(a) student graduation projects, whichencouraged students to creativelyutilize their knowledge and skills invarious vocational and academicsubjects; (b) vocational clusters, whichbroke down the traditional subjectboundaries and forced both vocationaland academic teachers to worktogether; (c) cross field teaching, whichinspired vocational and academicteachers to learn from each oti.ler; and(d) extended teaching blocks, in which

vocational classes were taughtuninterrupted for several hours.Technology education teachers haveactively participated in these reformefforts.

Significance of the StudyThis study should enhance the

understanding of the integrationprocess of academic and vocationaleducation. Policy makers could setrelevant guidelines to assist vocationaleducators in their approaches to theintegration. It was also the fastempirical feedback to the state ofDelaware on its recent integrationefforts.

Research Methodology

Sample SelectionThe sample of the study

consisted of all (N=122) technologyeducation teachers who taught 6ththrough 12th grade in public schools inthe sate of Delaware. The names andmailing addresses of these teacherswere obtained with the assistance of theDelaware Department of PublicInstruction.

Instrument DevelopmentA survey instrument was

developed by the researchers, whichhad two parts (see appendices A). Part Isought information on the demographicdata of the respondents; Part IIconsisted of 25 questions with 5-pointLikert scales, which sought theperceptions of the respondentsregarding the integration. Thedevelopment for the Part II tookconsiderations of the study resultsreported by previous researchers (Crain& Hebner, 1992; Grubb, 1990; Owens,1988; Rosenstock, 1991).

A field test was conducted toassure the validity and reliability of thisinstrument. A group of ten teachers invarious vocational and academic fieldswere chosen for this purpose. As aresult of the field test, the instrumentwas revised and finalized.

Data Collection and AnalysisThe survey instrument was

mailed to the teachers along with acover letter from the researchers statingthe purpose of the study. A selfaddressed, stamped envelope was alsoincluded. Anonymity of therespondents was assured by notrequesting names when the survey wasreturned. fifteen days after the initialmailing, a second mail was sent to thenon- respondents.

Descriptive and inferentialstatistical analyses were conducted onthe data collected. An level of .05 wasused in the inferential statisticalanalyses.

Results and DiscussionsA total of 65 technology

education teachers (52.2%) respondedafter the two mailings. The respondentshad an average age of 41 (SD=10.40)and an average teaching experience of16 years (SD=9.97). The majority ofthem were male (n=60, or 92.3%) andwhite (a=57, 87.7%). About 92.3%(a=60) of them worked incomprehensive schools, while theremaining 7.7% (n=5) worked invocational technical schools. Moreover,the respondents varied greatly in theirbackground of mathematics, rangingfrom having 0 to 30 credit hours inundergraduate work (M=7.67,SD=6.50). About 72.3% (n=47) of themhad no graduate math credits at all.

Objective 1: to determine the extent towhich math was integrated intotechnology education

The first question in Part II ofthe instrument was designed to gatherinformation on this objective. Based onresponses of the technology educationteachers, this stud) sound that 54.69%(n=35) of the teachers responded either"always" or "often" attempted tointegrate mathe-matics into theirtechnology education courses; About42.19% (a=27) either "sometimes" or

"seldom" attempted to integrate; only3% (n=2) reported "never" tried tointegrate (see Table 1).

This result indicated that morethan half of the technology educationteachers in Delaware did integratemathematics into their classes on aregular basis. With few exceptions, thetechnology education teachers have notonly been aware of but adopted theapproach of integration.

Objective 2: to describe the schoolclimate in which the integration tookplace

There were 11 questions in PartII of the instrument which soughtinformation on this objective. Theperception of the respondents on thesevariables were reported in Table 2.More than half of the respondents(a=37, or 56.92%) believed that currentcourse scheduling either "always" or"often" restricted the course enrollmentof technology educa-tion classes.Moreover, about half (a=33, or 50.77%)of them felt planning time was"always" or "often" inadequate.specifically, 60.32% (a=38) of the samplereported that time was usually notallocated for inter-departmentalmeetings to develop the basic skills intheir courses. On the other hand, themajority of the teachers felt that boththeir school principals (a=35, or 53.85%) and curriculum directors (a=39, or61.90%) were "always" or "often"supportive of technology educationprograms. Furthermore, about 87.30%(a=55) of the teachers reported thatcounselors "always" or "often" directedstudents with basic skill deficienciestoward their courses. However, most ofthe technology education teachers(a=49, or 77.78%) did not receiveinstructional assistance for studentswith special needs. Finally, funding fortechnology education programdevelopment was rarely adequate asperceived by most of the teachers (a=35,53.85%).

Objective 3: To identify the variableswhich significantly related to theteadter's efforts of integratingmathematics into technology education

The Spearman rank-ordercorrelation analysis was used todetermine which were the variablessignificantly related to the efforts theteachers made on integration. A list ofvariables were analyzed, and the resultswere shown on Table 3. Based on thisinformation, the study identified 10variables which were significantly(a=.05) related to the teachers' efforts ofintegration:

(a) interests in integration (p=.645);(b) reservation for stepping out of thefield (p=-.496);(c) increase in work loads (p=-.434);(d) obligation to students (p=.378);(e) discontent with teacher reduction(p=.346);(f) positive feedback from students(p=.294);(g) concern for special needs (p=2.73);(h) concern for scheduling conflict(p=.260);(i) concern for students' mathematicsskills (p=.258);(j) support received for in-servicetraining (p=.253).

Most of the above variableswere associated with the overallattitudes of the teachers towardintegration, students, and theirprofession. A teacher with strongobligations to the student and theirprofession tended to be more likely topractice the integration. Practical issuessuch as work loads and support forin-service training were also veryimportant factors related to theintegration approach.

The identified variablesoverlapped somewhat to these reportedin research literature, such as teacher'sattitudes, work loads, feeling aboutstepping out of the field, and staffdevelopment. However, it wassurprised to find that support from theadministration was not a significantvariable relating to the teachers

integration efforts. Probably, it largelydepended on the teacher's owninitiatives to decide their individualapproaches to teaching technologyeducation courses. Also, the technologyteacher's perceptions on the graduationrequirements and program fundingwere not related to their integrationefforts. One explanation might be thatthese were global factors that have onlyindirect impact on the daily teaching ofthe technology education teachers.

ConclusionsIntegration of mathematics into

technology education was widely usedamong the technology educationteachers in Delaware. There was aconsiderable support from the schooladministration to integration. However,a systematic restructuring in coursescheduling was needed in order tosatisfy the new environment ofintegration. Integrated approach toteaching largely relied on the initiativesof individual teachers. In order toencourage further adoption of thisapproach, efforts should be made toincrease the teachers' recognition of itspotential values. In-service teachereducation can be a viable means to helpthe teachers to improve their teachingcompetencies.

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References

Barbato, A. A. (1991). Technology Education Overview K-12. Dover, DE: DelawareDepartment of Public Instruction.

Bodilly, S. (1992). Intcgrating academic and vocational education: Lessons from eightearly innovators (Report No. EDD00013). Washington DC: Office of Vocationaland Adult Education.

Crain, R. L. & Hebner, A. (1992). Career Magnets: Interview with students and staff.Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.

Goetsch, D. L. & Nelson, J. A. (1986). Technical drawing and design. Albany, New York:De km:: Publishing, Inc.

Grubb, W. N., Davis, G., Lum, J., Plihal, J., & Morgaine, C. (1991). "The cunning hand ,

the cultured mind": Models for integrating vocational and -academic education.(Report No. EDD00013). Washington DC: Office of Vocational and AdultEducation.

McNelly, D. E., Mann, E. C., Petty, G. C., & Thomas, C. D. (June, 1991). A statewideneeds assessment in Tennessee. Knoxville, TN: Department of Technologicaland Adult Education.

Owens, T. R. (April, 1988). Improving the collaboration of secondary vocational andacademic educators. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association. New Orleans, LA.

Rosenstock, L. (1991). The walls come down: The overdue reunification of vocationaland academic education. Phi Delta Kappan, 72, 433435.

The Governor's Task Force on Vocational Education (1986). Vocational Education inDelaware. Dover, Delaware.

Table 1.The extent to which mathematics was integrated into technology education

Always Often Sometimes Seldom NeverFrequency 14 21 20 7 2Percentage 21.88 32.81 31.25 10.94 3.13n=64, there was one missing case

Table 2.Responses to questions related to the school climate

Variable Question # Median Mean SDAcademic Requirement 2 3 3.23 1.04Course Scheduling 3 3.66 1.16Planning Time 4 2 2.57 1.15Support from Principals 7 4 3.68 1.11Support from Curriculum Directors 8 4 3.7 1.04Teachers Reduction 9 3 3.22 1.35Students with Skill Deficiencies 10 4 3.87 1.17Time for Inter-department Meetings 11 2 2.14 1.12Assistance for Special Needs 12 1 1.84 1.19Program Funding 23 2 2.25 1.12Support for In-service Training 24 3 3.16 1.14

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Table 3.Correlation between the possible variables and the teachers' efforts on integration

Variable Question # Correlation p ValueAcademic Requirement 2 .095 .457Course Scheduling 3 .219 .082Planning Time 4 -.024 .853Concern for Scheduling Conflicts 5 .260 .038*Technology Course Content 6 -.238 .060Support from Principles 7 -.089 .486Support from Curriculum Directors 8 -.102 .430Discontent with Teacher Reduction 9 .346 .006*Students with Skill Deficiencies 10 .154 .232Time for Inter-department 11 .216 .092MeetingsAssistanct for Special Needs 12 .038 .769Reservations for Stepping out 13 -.496 .000*Interests in Integration 14 .645 .00;0*Increase in Work Load 15 - 434 .000*Enrollment of Special Needs 16 .273 .030*Success of Special Needs 17 -.043 .739Identification of Specific Math Skills 18 226 .072Concern for Students' Math Skills 19 .258 .039*Positive Feedback from Students 20 294 021*Obligation to Students 21 .387 .002*Calculator Use 22 .151 .239Program Funding 23 .089 .494Support Received for In-service 24 .253 .045*TrainingTraining Received for Integration 25 .156 .225n=65* Significant at .05 level

Appendices A

SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE INTEGRATION OF MATHEMATICS INTOTECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

Part I

Please respond to the following questions:

1. Your Gender: Female Male

2. Your Age:

3. Your Race:

4. Years of your teaching experience (induding this year):

5. Your highest educational level:

6. Number of undergraduate credits earned in mathematics:

7. Number of graduate credits earned in mathematics:

8. Number of in-service credits earned in mathematics:

9. Certification title (s):

10. Do you have any experience in working in an industry that is related to yourteaching position?

Yes No

If YES, years of experience:

Type of Work:

11. Type of your school: Comprehensive Vocational

12. Size of your school (full time student enrollment):

13. Grade level that you are presently teaching this year:

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Part II Please circle your answer for the following questions based on the scale below:5 =Always 4=Often 3 =Sometimes 2 =Seldom 1 =Never

1. I attempted to teach mathematical activities in my technologyclasses

2. An increase in academic requirements results in decreasingtechnology education course enrollment

3. Current course scheduling restricts technology education courseenrollment

4. Planning time is adequate for technology education courses5. Scheduling conflicts exist between academic and technology

education classes in my school6. Technology course content does not allow me to integrate

mathematical activities7. My principal is supportive of technology education programs8. My curriculum director is supportive of my choice for the

technology education course content9. Teacher reduction affects technology education program at my

school10. Counselors direct students with basic skill deficiencies toward

my course11. Time is allocated for inter-departmental meetings for the

development of basic skill activities in non-academic courses12. I receive instructional assistance for students with special needs13. I have reservations in integrating mathematics into technology

education because it is not my instructional area14. I am interested in integrating mathematics into technology

education courses15. Increase in work load hinders my efforts to integrate

mathematics into technology education16. Students with special needs enroll in my technology education

courses17. Special needs students satisfactorily pass my technology

education courses18. I identify specific mathematical skills that I plan to teach in my

techology education for the year19. I test for specific mathematical skill development after

instruction20. Students' mathematical skills improve as a result of taking my

technology education courses21. I feel responsible for helping students to strengthen their basic

skills22. I allow students to use calculators to solve mathematical

problems in my class23. Funding for technology education program development in my

school is adequate24. 1 receive adequate support (reimbursement) for in-service

training from the school district25. I attend in-service workshops that focus on the integration of

mathematics into technology education

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