DISEASESNURSERY DISEASES OF VEGETABLE

Vegetables such as tomato, chillies, brinjal, onion, cauliflower, sweet paper, curcurbits tec. Ate raised through nursery. Damping off a commonly occurring disease of nursery of vegetable appears usually in poorly managed nursery beds sown with infected seed with pathogen and by adopting wrong cultural practices. Damping off is the cause for poor germination and gappy stand of the seedlings in nursery beds. The disease become more severe when pre disposing factors are favourable. The disease may be physiogenic due to water scarcity/excess watering.

Symptoms : Symptoms of the disease occur in two phases, (i) pre-emergence and (ii) post-emergence.

Pre-emergence phase : There is a failure of seedling emergence from the soil due to seed rot or killing of sprouting seedlings before emergence from the soil which results in patchy appearance of seedling stand in the nursery. Since this disease occurs under the soil surface, the farmers normally do not recognize this condition of the crop as it is not visible.

Post-emergence phase : Post-emergence phase is visible to the farmers due to conspicuous killing of seedlings. Disease is characterized by toppling over of infected seedlings. Infection usually (Pic. 1) occurs at ground level and the infected tissue appears as water soaked tissue near the ground level and with the advancement f the disease stems become constricted at the base and the plants may collapse. The seedlings with apparent healthy appearance one day may collapse in the next morning. The disease is most severe when there is a more moisture and the temperature is comparatively high. Sometime killing of seedlings may occur completely under favourable disease development conditions. Major loss generally of nursery is pre-emergence damping off.

Causal organism : The most common fungi reported to be responsible for damping off of seedlings are species of Pythium,Phytophthora, sclerotinia, Botrytis, Fusarium, Phoma, Glomeralla, and Rhizoctonia. These organisms become more severe in ill-aerated and ill-drained soil especially in heavy soil. Loose soil having good proportion of sand exhibits less disease. Over crowding of seedlings are more attacked by the disease.

Control measures : Pre-emergence damping off is easily controlled by treating seed with chemicals like Bavistin, Captan, Vopper compounds, Thiram, organo mercurials. A fungicide has to be chosen with the knowledge of the exact cause of the disease. Soil sterilization of the nursery beds can be done by foamaline by diluting 1:50 of water and sprinkle on loose

soil making it wet to the depth of 4”. One gallon of such solution would be required for 2-3 sq. ft. of the soil. Sowing should be done after many days when there are no flumes of formalin. Drenching with fungicide for control of post-emerging damping off can be one with broad spectrum fungicides like Bavistin, Captan, Thiram and Copper Oxdycloride. Such chemicals can be applied to the soil surface with fungicide solution (0.2 – 0.5 %).

Important precautions :1. Do thin sowing and avoid over crowding.2. Grow nursery in light soil.3. High fertility soil should be used for nursery raising.4. Manure applied to the nursery soil should be well composed.5. Give light irrigation at frequent intervals.6. Raised nursery beds should be used for growing nursery.

OKRA (BHINDI)ROOT ROT

Rhizoctonia bataticola

The disease appears in very serious form in spring season crop. The rainy season crop shows less incidence.

Symptoms : The symptoms start appearing in early stage of the seedling. The first attack may start on any underground portion and seedling may collapse at early stage. Sometimes the infection starts at soil level and the stem is girdled due to attack of the fungus. The affected plants are stunted and show wilting. The leaves droop initially (Pic. 2) and finally dry up. Shredding of the bark is the common feature. The black round minute fungal structures called sclerotia are produced underneath the bark of the stem.Conditions for disease development : Plant mortality increases under soil moisture stress conditions. During rainy season this disease remains in low proportion due to high soil moisture.

Control : Seed treatment with Captan @ 3 g per kg seed reduce the incidence of the disease.

CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT

Cercospora habisci

The disease is quite serious during August-September when there is high humidity in the atmosphere. Crop kept for seed purpose is more prone to the attack of the disease.

Symptoms :

Dark, olivaceous, brown spots appear on the lower leaves first. The spots turn (Pic. 3) ashy in the centre and with the advancement of the disease they coalesce with one another and nearly cover the entire lamina. On the under surface of the leaves there is sooty, black mouldy growth of the pathogen. The infection results into premature defoliation. The mature pods are also attacked and show blackish spots. It is sometimes associated with other fungi also.

Conditions for disease development : The disease is favoured by cloudy and rainy weather with temperature in the range of 25° to 29° C.

Control : Spray the crop with Bavistin @ 200 g in 200 litre of water per acre or Bordeaux mixture (2:2:250) at 14 day intervals from the appearance of the symptoms. Three sprays are enough.

YELLOW VEIN MOSIAC

Yellow vein mosaic virus

This is a serious disease of okra, especially in rainy season. There is total yield loss if the plants are affected at the early stage.

Symptoms : The characteristic symptoms of the disease are vein clearing followed by chlorosis of leaves (Pic. 4). The veins and the veinlets become yellow and thickened. In severe cases, there is complete yellowing of the leaf. The fruit set is reduced on the infected plants and the fruits become yellow, malformed and comparatively smaller in size.

Transmission: The disease is transmitted through white fly (Bemisia tabaci). The disease is particularly serious in rainy season.

Control :1. Spray the crop with 560 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 250 litres of water per acre to

knock out white fly.2. Always grow resistant verieties of okra Punjab 7, Punjab 8, and Padmani.3. Remove the weeds susceptible to yellow vein mosaic from near by fields.

BRINJALPHOMOPSIS BLIGHT AND FRUIT ROT

Phomopsis vexans

It is common disease wherever brinjal is grown, however, it occurs in a severe form in Punjab causing 50-60 % loss in yield. The pathogen causes leaf spot, wait and fruit rot.

The fruit rot phase of the disease causes heavy damage in the field and during transmit.

Symptoms : The pathogen causes damping off in nursery. In the field, the pathogen attacks leaves and fruits. On leaves, small circular spots appear which become cinnamon-buff coloured with irregular blackish margin and light coloured centres. The old spots show numerous back dots called pycnidia. The affected leaves turn yellow and die. Lesions may also develop on petioles and stems. The girdling of the stems due to infection leads to yellowing of leaves, wilting and drying of the shoots above the infection point. The infected portion is sparsely covered by pycnidia. On the fruits, the disease appears as minute, sunken dull and dusky spots which later on merge to form rotten areas. In severly infected fruits the entire fruit may rot. In advances cases numerous pycnidia develop on the affected parts of the fruits (Pic. 5), which are scattered or arranged in concentric rings. The lesions may appear at any place on the fruit but more often near the stem end. Conditions for disease development : The fungus is seed borne and can survive on plant debris. The organism is disseminated as water borne spores but they can also be disseminated by tools and insects. The fungus requires wet weather and temperature range of 22-25° C for the fruit rot infection. The over wintering of the pathogen takes place in infected plant debris and on seeds.

Control :1. Always take seeds from disease free fruits.2. Treat the seed with Thiramof Captain @ 3 g per kg seed before sowing.3. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 200 g in 100 litres of water at weekly

intervals after transplanting.4. Crop rotation can delay the initial appearance of the disease.

SCLEROTINIA DISEASE

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Sclerotinia is a serious disease of brinjal. The damage to brinjal is mainly through partial or complete wilting of the plant. The pathogen attacks the fruit also. The disease appeared in epidemic form in 1996 causing yield loss upto 60-70%. The disease is severe under low temperature and high moisture.

Symptoms : The infection can occur on any part of the foliage, stem/branches or fruits. Leaves : The disease appears as characteristic pink or redish-brown water-soaked areas which become covered with white mycelium under humid conditions. The infection on the leaves is normally through the senescent buds/flowers, which are covered by white mycelial growth (Pic. 6). Of the pathogen.

Stem rot/wilt : Stems develop pale or dark brown lesions, first at the base but later on any where n the stem. Lesions are covered by white cottony growth of fungal mycelium. The sclerotia of fungus can be formed either internally in the pith of the stem, giving no outward signs of their appearance, or they can be formed on the outside of the stem where they are apparent (Pic. 8). Rapidly, the fungus invades and spreads through the stem, as a result, the plant collapses and wilts.

Fruit infection : The fruits are attacked either through their closest point to the ground or through their senescent flower parts. The fungus causes a wet rot-which spreads and causes the fruit rot. The infected portion completely rots and disintegrates. The white mycelium and black sclerotia are visible externally (Pic. 7). The fruit can be attacked in all the stages of its development.

Conditions for disease development : The pathogen survives in the form of sclerotia in the soil or, plant debris. Ascospores formed from sclerotia either directly infect the host or they fall on the fallen flowers and grow on them and produce mycelium. This mycelium is a primary source of infection. High soil moisture and low temperature (15-20°C) is necessary for infection. The pathogen can attack a number of vegetable crops like pea, cauliflower, tomato, bean etc.

Control :1. The plant debris should be collected and burnt.2. Deep summer ploughing should be done in such a way that surface soil is buried

deep.3. Crop rotation will help in reducing the disease.4. Use of farm yard manure reduces the disease.

ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT

Alternaria melongenae

Several leaf spots occur on brinjal but most common under Punjab conditions is Alternaria leaf spot.

Symptoms : The spots on leaves are brown irregular in shape with concentric rings. Several spots may coalesce to form larger necrotic patches. (Pic. 9). The disease normally starts from the margin of the leaves. Severely infected leaves may drop off. The fruits are also infected. Large, necrotic sunken spots develop on the fruits which turn yellow and drop. Conditions for disease development : The disease initiates in the months of late Oct. to early Nov, however, is severe during Nov to December. The disease is more in the humid conditions. Frequent rains or heavy dew favours the disease development.

Control :1. Always take the seed from the disease free fruits.2. Treat the seed with Captain, Thiram @ 3 g or Bavistin @ 1 g per kg of seed before

sowing.3. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 or Indofil Z-78@500 – 700g/acre at 15 day

intervals. Start the sprays in the month of November.

LITTLE LEAF

Mycoplasma – like organism (MLO)

Little leaf of brinjal is a serious problem in brinjal cultivation. The disease becomes more pronounced when the crop starts flowering. It reduces the cop yield drastically.

Symptoms : The characteristic symptom is the smalling of leaves. The leaves on the affected plants are clustered together and the newly formed leaves are much shorter. The inter-nodes of the stem are also shortened. Auxillary buds get enlarged but the petiole and leaves remain short. This gives a bushy appearance to the plant (Pic. 10). Diseased plants fail to produce flower and fruits. Transmission : The disease has several other hosts and it occurs in nature in Datura fatuesa and Vinca rosea. The disease is transmitted by jassids.

Control :1. Spray the crop with Malathion or Metasystox @ 250 ml in 100-125 litre of water

in nursery and the field.2. Rogue out the affected plants as soon as observed.

MOSAIC DISEASE

Mosaic viruses

This disease occurs on al varieties of brinjal cultivated in the state. On this crop atleast five different viruses cause mosaic symptoms either individually or in combination.

Symptoms : Field infected brinjal plants show a pronounced mosaic mottling of younger leaves, which are visible clearly (Pic. 11) against transmitted light. Older leaves show only mild mottling. Leaves of diseased plants are reduced on size and are also malformed. The infected plants remain dwarf and bear less fruits. Transmission :

All viruses are sap transmissible and one of them is also transmitted by aphids. Virus can infect tobacco, tomato, pepper, datura plants and many weeds. Control :

1. Clean cultivation and destroying of all infected material and weeds before cultivating the crop is recommended.

2. Spray the crop with Metasystox or Rogor @ 1 ml/litre at ten day intervals.3. Avoid unnecessary contact with infected plants and remove them as soon as

observed.

CHILLIANTHRACNOSE, DIE BACK AND RIPE FRUT ROT

Colletotrichum dematium, Colletotrichum piperatum

This is one of the worst diseases of chillies and is severe during the rainy season. The disease is mainly a problem on mature fruits. However, the symptoms on immature fruits have also been found. The pathogen also causes die back disease of chilli plants. The pre and post-harvest fruit losses are upto 50%. The fruit rot phase of the disease can cause heavy damage in the field and also during transit. The disease is more in Shahkot, Sangrur and Ludhiana one as of the northern plains.

Symptoms : Die back. The disease cause necrosis of the tender twigs from the tip backwards (Pic. 12). The entire branch or the entire top of the plant may wither away. The twigs are water soaked to brown, becoming greyish white or straw coloured in advance stage of the disease. Large number of black dots called acervuli are formed on the affected twigs. Ripe fruit rot. The disease usually occur on mature fruits as circular to elliptical sunken spots with black margins and marked with concentric rings (Pic. 13). Badly diseased fruits turn straw coloured from normal red. On this discoloured area, numerous black dots (acervuli) are present. The diseased fruit may drop off prematurely.

Conditions for disease development : The fungus is externally seed borne and the secondary spread is through air borne inoculum. The disease development and spread is favoured by moist weather and temperature between 28-35°C. The disease is severe after rains normally during July-August. The pathogen survives on crop debris in the field which serve as a source of primary inoculum.

Control :1. Obtain seeds from healthy fruits.2. Treat the seed with 2g of Thiram per kg of seed before sowing.3. Spray the crop with 750g of Indofil M-45 Blitox 50 WP 250 litres of water/acre at

10 day interval. Give first-spray in the 1st week of July followed by 3-4 more

sprays.

WET ROT

Choanejphora ccurbitarum

The wet rot is one of the important fungal diseases of chillies which is severe duging the month of August and September.

Symptoms : The pathogen attacks flower, buds and tender young shoots. The infected portion shows the tendency of wet rot with luxuriant growth of fungus on the infected portion which appears as black pin heads. The infection spreads downwards and the infected portion becomes limpy, resulting in the death of the distal parts. The disease also appears on fruits causing soft rot with luxuriant growth of the pathogen with characteristic bead like black conidial heads. (Pic. 14). Conditions for disease development : The disease is favoured by warm and humid weather conditions. The optimum temperature for disease development is 28 – 30°C with high relative humidity

Control : Same as in die back disease and ripe fruit rot.

LEAF CURL

Tobacco leaf curl virus (TLCV)

The leaf curl of chillies is very common wherever the crop is grown. It is a major limitation in successful cultivation of both hot and bell pepper.

Symptoms : The most characteristic symptoms are the curling of leaves, their small size (Pic. 15) shortened internodes and general dwarfing of the plant which assumes a bushy appearance. Leaves are of pale yellow colour and roll downwards. Fruiting is stopped, if fruit are formed, they are small and deformed.

Conditions for disease development : The disease is transmitted by white fly, Bemisia tabaci. This vector spreads the maximum disease during the months of August to October.

Control :1. Rogue out the virus infected plants as soon as visible and destroy them.2. Protect the crop in the nursery beds from insect vector (white fly) by spraying

Metasystox or Rogor @ 1 ml.litre of water at 10 days interval and Spray the crop with 400 ml Malathion 50 EC in 100-125 litres of water per acre at 15-20 day

intervals.3. Spraying should be stopped at least 20 days before plucking the fruits.4. Collect seeds from disease free plants.

CHILLI MOSAIC

Chilli mosaic viruses

It is attacked by number of viruses and various types of symptoms are produced.

Symptoms : Characteristic symptoms are appearance of dark green and yellow areas on the leaf surface. These may be sunken or raised (puckering). Sometimes the leaves are greatly reduced in size and filamentous or shoe string like (Pic. 16). Diseased plants produces less flowers and fruits.

Transmission : The chilli mosaic virus is sap transmissible and can be easily transmitted through contact during cultivation. Natural transmission of virus occurs through aphids. Disease crop refuse left in the field is also a source of inoculum.

Control :1. Rogue out the affected plants.2. Collect the seeds from virus free plants.3. Avoid unnecessary touching of plants.4. Spray with 400 ml Malathion 50 EC in 100-125 litres of water per acre.5. Use virus free seedlings.

COWPEACERCOSPRA LEAF SPOT

Cercospora canescens, Cercospora cruenta

The disease generally appears after flowering and results in defoliation. Both organisms are prevalent in the Punjab State.

Symptoms : Roughly circular, cherry red to dark red spots, variable in size are (Pic. 17) formed by C. canescens. In case of C. cruenta black mats due to mouldy growth of the fungus are caused. Defoliation occurs in both the cases. At maturity, infected pods show black sporulation of the fungus.

Conditions for disease development : The disease is serious during rainy season under high temperature conditions.

Varieties having dense foliage show more disease.

Control : Spray the crop with 0.2 percent Indofil M-45 at 10 day interval, soon after the appearance of the disease.

COWPEA MOSAIC

Cowpea mosaic virus

It is prevalent on all the commercial varieties and appears in more severe from during rainy season.

Symptoms : The leaves develop a typical mosaic of broad and raised patches along with chlorific streaks or spots (Pic. 18). The diseased plants bear a distinctly pale appearance.

Transmission : The virus is readily transmitted through sap inoculation and is also carried in seed to the extend of 4-22 percent. In nature the virus is spread by aphids. It is able to infect many other hosts such as beans, sunhemp etc.

Control :1. Since the disease is seed borne, it is essential that seed free from virus should be

used.2. Rogue out infected plants as soon as observed.3. Spray the crop with Rogor or Metasystox @ 1 ml/litre of water at 15 day intervals.

CRUCIFERSSCLEROTINIA STALK ROT OF CAULIFLOWER

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Symptoms : The earliest symptoms are loss of turgidity of leaves during day time but recovering during night. The bright green shine of the affected plants is replaced by dull whitish green colour which becomes pale yellow. The yellowing starts from the tip of older leaves downwards till the whole leaf becomes yellow and shed prematurely. Mid-rib and petioles of lower leaf touching the ground show dark brown to black soft rot and fluffy growth of the fungus. Rotting from the petiole advances to the stalk where dark brown to black spots are formed which girdle the stem at the ground level. In pith of the stem fluffy mycelium and sclerotia (Pic. 19) of the fungus are produced. The curds also get infected, showing brown to dark rotting which generally starts from the centre. Conditions for disease development :

The disease is favoured by cool humid conditions. The fungus survives in soil and plant debris.

Control :1. The plant debris should be collected and burnt.2. Deep summer ploughing should be done in such a way that surface soil is buried

deep.3. Addition of farmyard manure reduces the incidence of stalk rot.4. Practise crop rotation without host crop e.g. wheat etc.

BLACK ROT

Xanthomonas pv. Campestris

This is one of the wide spread diseases of crucifers, where rainfall or heavy dews are plentiful. If the pathogen becomes established in the early growing season it becomes extremely destructive. If the favourable conditions prevail cabbage plants are unable to produce marketable heads. The pathogen can attack cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, radish etc. There are different strains of the bacterium attacking different groups of these crops.

Symptoms : The plant may be affected at any time during its growth from the yongest seedlings until it matures. The disease appear as chlorotic lesions near the leaf margin, which progress towards the centre in the form of “V” shaped yellow spots. In the affected portions, the veins and the veinlets turn brown and finally black which is a characteristic of the disease. The vascular blackening of petiole and stem causes systemic spread of the causal organism. Bacterial ooze may also be seen on the surface of the diseased tissue. Curds also get infected and rot (Pic. 20).

Conditions for disease development : The organism survives in diseased plant debris for sometime but mainly survives in seed. The disease is severe where rainfall or humidity is high and average temperature is between 15 to 22°C. The secondary spread of the pathogen is y irrigation water, rain, wing and by cultural operations.

Control :1. Take the seed from the bacterium free areas and from the plants free of disease.2. Treat the seed before sowing with hot water at 50°C for 30 minutes and dry, then

treat with Thiram or Captain @ 3 g per kg of seed.3. Destroy the diseased debris in the field after harvesting.4. Spray the crop with 20 gm of Streptocycline and 100 gm of copper oxychloride in

100 litres of water/acre. 2-3 sprays are required depending upon the intensity of the disease.

ALTERNARIA BLIGHT

Alternaria brassicae & A. brassiciola

Both the species of Alternaria attack cruciferous including cabage cauliflower, redish and turnip etc. When too many spots are formed on the leaves they die pre-maturely, affecting the plant stand and in addition, the spots pre-dispose the heads to various types of rots during transit and storage. Symptoms : The disease appears as small dark coloured areas which spread rapidly and from circular spots with concentric rings (Pic. 21). In humid weather the fungus appears as bluish black growth in the centre of spots. The cauliflower curds are also infected which show browning, beginning at the margin of the individual flower or flower clusters and later on the whole curd may get brown and rot. Brown to black spots appears on pods in the seed crop of cruciferous vegetables.

Conditions for disease development : The disease is favoured by hot moist weather. The conidia and mycelium persists in diseased crop debris and the conidia formed on the debris come in contact with leaves causing primary infection. The secondary infections occurs through conidia disseminated by wind or insects etc.

Control :1. Treat the seed before sowing with 3 g of Captan or Thiram per kg of seed.2. Destroy the disease debris after harvest.3. Spray the crop with Dithane M-456 at 500 g per acre at 7 day intervals.4. If black rot and Alternaria blight occur together, add 30 g Agrmycin 100 to the

solution of Indofil M-45 before spraying.

DOWNY MILDEW

Peronospora parasitica

Downy mildew disease is of wide prevalence. In addition to cauliflower and cabbage, the disease occurs on radish also. The disease is quite common in young plants. It causes heavy losses to the seed crop.

Symptoms : The disease is characterized by the appearance of purplish brown spots on the under surface of the leaves. The upper surface of the leaf on the lesion is tan to yellow. (Pic. 22). Fungal growth appears on the under surface of these lesions. (Pic. 23). The stem shows dark brown and depressed lesions or streaks. In cabbage, the infection exposes the

heads to soft rot during transit. The affected cauliflower curds turn brown at the top and the severely infected curds rot and fail to produce seeds.

Conditions for disease development : The fungus thrives well in a cool, moist environment. The disease development and spread takes place between 15 to 24°C.

Control :1. Always use seeds from healthy crop.2. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 (500g/acre at 7 day intervals start spray before

the appearance of the disease.3. Destroy the disease debris after harvest.

RADISH SCAB

Streptomyces spp.

The radish scab has been noticed in sandy soils on all the varieties. It is more commonly observed in the months of May- June on the off season crops.

Symptoms : The disease symptoms are recognized only at the harvesting time. Two types of scab i.e surface scab and pitted scab are observed in the roots. Shallow scab lesions appear as eye shaped spindles with long ends and run parallel to each other horizontally along the root girth (Pic. 24). Initially they are smaller in size but later on the size increases. In the pitted scab, the distinct black coloured corkey and sunken lesions of variable size are present on the radish roots. Pits and tunnels on the roots coalesce and cover large surface area of the roots. The top root portion uncovered by the soil remain free from scab.

Conditions for disease development : The organism survives for long periods on decaying plant parts in the soil or probably on roots of living plants. Dry soil conditions favour disease development.

Control :1. Do not sow the crop in infested fields.2. Maintain proper moisture in the field to reduce the disease build up.3. Avoid cultivation of radish n sandy soils.

CUCURBITSCOLLAR ROT / PYTHIUM ROT

Rhizoctonia solani / Pythium spp.

Both collar rot and phythium rot are serious diseases of cucurbits in Punjab. The

affected field, due to mortality of plants, give patchy appearance of the crop. Due to mortality of vines, the crop stand is greatly affected thus resulting in poor yields. The incidence is high at fruit formation stage young plants also die just after emergence and rottening of roots takes place in early stages. Wilting of plants at fruit formation is mainly due to the attack of Fusaium sp.

Symptoms : The disease is characterized by dark brown water soaked lesions, girdling the base of the stems at the soil level which ultimately results in the death of the plants. The disease manifests its symptoms at fruit stage of the vines also. Both types of rots sometimes occur n the same field and result in heavy losses (Pic. 25).

Control :1. Treat the seed with Thiram @ 3 g per kg of seed before sowing.2. Drench the vines with Ridomil Mz (0.2 per cent) when the disease is noticed in the

field and for wilt apply 0.1 % Bavistin at the root zone of the plants.3. Avoid flood irrigation in the field.4. Grow the crop on raised beds.

POWDERY MILDEW

Sphaerotheca fuliginea

The fungus attacks all the cucurbits but is more destructive on pumpkins, bottle gourd and squashes.

Symptoms : The characteristic symptom is the appearance of white to dirty grey spots, which become powdery as they enlarge. This white powdery coating (Pic. 26) cover leaves, stem and other succulent parts of the plant. Severe infection may lead to premature defoliation and death of vines.

Conditions for disease development : The pathogen can cause infection in dry as well as wet atmosphere. The optimum temperature is 26 to 28 °C. 16 t 23 days old leaves are highly susceptible.

Control : Spray the crop with Karathane 50-80 ml per acre as soon as the disease appears. Repeat the spray at 10 day intervals. Three to four sprays are required depending upon the disease intensity.

DOWNY MILDEW

Pseudoperonospora cubensis

Downy mildew of cucurbits is a limiting factor for successful cultivation of various cucurbits in Punjab especially muskmelon.

Symptoms : Disease first appears as small water soaked lesions on the underside of the leaf. Such lesions when viewed from the upper side of the leaf, appear as angular spots and greyish spore mass (Pic. 27) of the fungus is clearly visible on the under side of these spots. The lesions subsequently become necrotic. The severely infected leaves become dry and curl upwards giving blighted appearance to the vines.

Conditions for disease development : The disease appears in epiphytotic form during the months of April to June. Low night temperature (less than 20°C) and long dew periods are the most important determinant factors for the onset and development of downy mildew under local conditions. The fungus perpetuates on off-season vines.

Control :1. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 300-600 g in 100-200 litresof wter per acre

depending upon the growth stage. Start first spray in 2nd week of April before the appearance of the disease followed by six more sprays at weekly interval. Give spray promptly after rains. Under heavy disease risk give two sprays of Ridomil Mz @ 500 g or Allette @ 600 gm/am 10-day intervals instead of 3rd and 4th spray of Indagil M-45.

2. Destroy over wintering vines of cucurbits.3. Avoid flood irrigations.

ALTERNARIA BLIGHT

Alternaria cucumerian

It is not a very serious disease in the state, however, at times, it occurs in greater proportions under humid conditions.

Symptoms : The characteristic symptom is the appearance of yellow spots on the leaves which turn brown and finally black with age. They usually start from the margin and produce concentric rings. Severly infected vines look like burnt charcoal (Pic. 28). This disease is more severe on watermelon and bottle gourd.

Conditions for disease development : The disease is favoured by high temperature and high humidity conditions. Dense planting favours the disease. Free irrigation to the flat sown crop increases the incidence.

Control : Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 300 g in 100 litres of water per acre at an interval

of 10-15 days. First spray should be given only when the disease is observed.

ANTHRACNOSE

Colletotrichum lagenarium

Almost all the cucurbits are attacked by the anthracnose pathogen. It is more destructive on watermelon, bottle gourd and cucumber under Punjab conditions.

Symptoms : The pathogen produces different types of symptoms on leaves, petioles, tendrils, stems and fruits, symptoms on young fruits appear in the form of numerous, water soaked depressed, oval, circular to elongated spots (Pic. 29) which coalesce covering large areas. In the centre of these spots, black pin headed bodies called acervuli bearing pink masses of spores can be seen in humid weather. Pinkish gummy exudates may appear on the lesion which is due to exudation of spores. The lesions first appear on vines as brownish specks, which grow into angular to roughly circular spots with or without distinct borders. Lesions on petiole and stem are elongated and depressed, thereby girdling the affected portions and produce general blight symptoms. On bottlegourd fruits, depressed black lesions are formed.

Conditions for disease development : The disease occurs in epidemic form only when there is more than average rainfall. Disease development occurs at 20-30°C with 100 per cent relatives humidity for atleast 18 hours. The left over plant debris serves as source of inoculum.

Control :1. Treat the seed with Bavistin (2.5/kg seed) before sowing.2. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 (-0.3 per cent) or Blitox 50 or Bavistin (0.1 per

cent) at ten day interval.

MOSAIC

Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)

A variety of mosaic symptoms occur on different curcurbits. The nature of symptoms depends upon the host and strain of the virus associated with the disease. The losses are high when the young plants are attacked Maximum losses occurs on squashes, bottle gourd, muskmelon, pumpkin and cucumber under Punjab conditions.

Symptoms : The characteristic symptom is yellowing of cotyledons and ultimately wilting of the seedlings when the plant is attacked soon after emergence. In older plants, there are alternate green and yellow patches (Pic. 30) on the leaf. The spots are irregular in shape

and enlarge rapidly. The diseases leaves are mottled, deformed, small and sometimes curled downwards, the veins and veinlets also turn yellow. Young fruits formed are rough, mottled, deformed and smaller in size.

Transmission : The virus is seed borne and transmitted by aphids. The disease can also be transmitted through sap and mechanical methods. Some weed hosts serve as source of inoculum.

Control :1. Collect the seeds from virus free plants.2. Spray the crop with insecticides viz. Rogor or Metasystox @ one ml/litre of water

at 10 – day intervals.3. Weeds around the fields should be removed.

ONION AND GARLICPURPLE BLOTCH

Alternaria porri

Purple blotch is a common disease of onion both on seed and bulb crops. Losses due to the disease are heavy on seed crop. It also attacks garlic crop.

Symptoms : Small, water soaked areas develop on the leaf or the seed stalk, which turn brown. As the spot enlarges, it becomes zonate and more or less purplish (Pic. 31 A & B) in colour with a purplish or red margin and is surrounded by yellow halo. In moist weather, the surface of the spot is covered with the brown or almost black sporulation of the fungus. The affected leaves or seed stalks fall down in a continuous moist weather the seeds remain shrivelled.

Conditions for disease development : The pathogen requires the presence of rain or persistent dew for sporulation and infection. The optimum temperature for sporulation and infection is 25-28°C. Infestation of thrips pre-dispose the plants to disease.

Control :1. Treat the seed with Captan or Thriam @ 3 g per kg of seed before sowing.2. Spray the crop with 600 gm Indofil M-45 mixed with 200 ml Malathion and 200

ml of Triton (Sticker) or linseed oil in 200 litres of water per acre as soon as the disease appears. This should be followed by three or more sprays at 10 – day intervals.

PEA

WILT AND ROOT ROT

Fusarum oxysporum f. pisi

Root rot is a common disease of peas, especially in early sown crop. Severe root rot is caused by a complex of Fusarium. Pythium and/or Rhizoctonia spp.

Symptoms : The diseases chiefly occurs on the undergrounds parts of the plants or on the stem at the soil level forming reddish brown, slightly sunken lesions. The lesions may extend to root system and completely decay them, which results in poor growth of the plant, yellowing of leaves and finally wilting of the plant. (Pic. 32) Conditions for disease development : Disease may develop at any temperature above 18°C but the optimum is 27-30°C. the early season crop which grows at relatively higher temperature and under high soil moisture conditions suffers the most. Disease inciting fungi survive in the soil. Control :

1. Avoid early sowing in badly infested areas.2. Treat the seed of early sown crop with 1 gm Bavistin 50 WP in 15 ml of water per

kg of seed before sowing.3. Grow only recommended varieties in the early season.

POWDERY MILDEW

Erysiphpe polygoni

This disease causes heavy losses on mid season or late maturing varieties. Early sown varieties escape the attack of powdery mildew in the state.

Symptoms : The disease first appears on leaves and then on the other green parts of the plant including the pods. The characteristic symptom is the formation of white floury patches on both the sides of the leaf, tendrils, stems and pods. These patches originate as minute discoloured specks from which a powdery mass radiates on all sides. In the advance stages of infection, all the aerial parts of the plant are found covered with white floury patches which consists of mycelium and spores of fungus (Pic. 33). Seeds shrivel and loose taste. Conditions for disease development : The disease normally appears in the end of January and starts its development as soon as the season warms up. Dry weather at 24-32°C favours the disease. The pathogen is an obligate parasite and the disease perennates through Cleistothecia is the soil.

Control :1. Practise field sanitation.2. Destroy disease debris.3. Grow early maturing varieties for vegetable purposes. 4. Spray the crop with karathane 40 EC @ 80 ml or Sulfex 600 gm acre during the

end of January or first week of February. Give 3-4 sprays at 10 days interval.

RUST

Uromyces fabae

Rust of pea is very destructive disease in the north and north-western parts of the State. In cool and wet weather it becomes very serious, often killing the entire plant. It is more serious on mid season or late maturing varieties. The symptoms of the disease appear in the month of December – January.

Symptoms : The most characteristic symptoms is the appearance of yellowish to reddish-brown, spherical raised pustules, mainly on the lower side (Pic. 34) of the leaves. Disease also appears on the stem, tendrils, stipules and even pods. During March-April reddish spherical small pustules of different types appear on aerial parts. In hot days, third type of raised blackish pastules appear which are covered with epidermis initially and rupture in the centre subsequently.

Conditions for disease development : The rust completes its life cycle on the host itself. The hosts such as Lathyrus aphaca (mattri) and Vicia hirsute (Rewari) are the hosts of this rust and provide inoculum to the crop. Mild temperature and humid climate favours the disease development. Control :

1. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 @ 400 g in 200 litres of water during December. Give 3-4 sprays at 10 days interval. Alternatively other fungicides namely Bayleton (0.05 percent) and Calixin (0.2 percent) are known to be effective against rust.

2. Destruction of the diseased crop debris is important for minimising the losses from this disease.

3. Keep the field free from Rewari and Mattri weeds which serve as a source of inoculum.

4. Long crop rotations avoiding legume crops should be followed. 5. For controlling powdery mildew and rust together Karathane @ 80 ml or Sulfex @

600 g and Indofil M-45 @ 400 g per acre can be sprayed in combination.

ASCOCHYTA BLIGHT AND POD ROT

Ascochyta pisi

The disease occurs on leaves as well as on pods. The early sown crop suffers more from this disease as compared to the main season crop.

Symptoms : The lesions on leaves are tan coloured with dark brown margins. These spots may remain small and not well demarcated or may increase in size, turn brown to black, and become zonate with definite margin. Such leaves soon dry and hang down still clinging to the plants. The leaf blight usually starts on lower leaves and spreads to upper leaves. Stem infection becomes apparent as a browning or blackening of the basal portion of the stem. On pods, the spots are circular, sunken, tan coloured with dark brown margins. Black pin-point size pycnidia are often conspicuous. (Pic. 35). Conditions for disease development : The pathogen is carried in infected seed and over winters in infected plant debris. Control :

1. Seed treatment with thiram or captan.2. Production of seed in areas of low rainfall during the growing season.3. Practice field sanitation.

POTATOEARLY BLIGHT

Alternaria solani

Early blight is less serious disease of potato in the Punjab state. It appears in minor proportion towards maturity of the crop. The crop with poor health is more prone to the attack of early blight.

Symptoms : The disease appears on lower older leaves as small scattered dry spots. These spots turn brown-black and circular to avoid as they expand and later show concentric rings which give them a black target board appearance. Elongated, black lesions sometimes appear on stem (Pic. 36). Disease development and spread : Warm and humid weather is favourable for the disease development. The disease is often more severe when the host has been pre-disposed by injury, poor nutrition or other type of stresses. Control :

1. Proper fertilization helps to reduce the disease to a larger extent by maintaining

the vigour of the plants.2. Spray the crop with copper oxychloride 50 WP @ 750 g to 1 kg or Indofil M-45

@ 500-700 g per acre. Repeat the spray at 15 day interval if the disease continue to appear.

LATE BLIGHT

Phytophthora infestans

Late blight is the most destructive of potato in the state and causes significant losses in potato yield, which can go as high as 80 % in late sown crop in epidemic years. In the past years, severe epidemics of the disease have appeared during 2985-86, 1989-90, 1992-93 and 1997-98 in the state. Late blight has been occurring frequently in the districts of Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Nawanshahar, Kapurthala, Amritsar and Ropar. It is usually observed first incertain pockets of Hoshiarpur notably Mehtiana, Phuglana, Sham Chaurasi and Tanda areas and spreads further to adjoining areas under favourable weather conditions.

Symptoms : Smaller water soaked spots develop on the tips, margins or any other part of the leaves which enlarge to from irregular dark brown lesions. During morning hours, a whitish cottony growth of the fungus is visible around the dark brown lesions o the under surface of leaves especially when weather remains sufficiently humid. If the weather turns dry, the lesions dry up. Under favourable environmental condition (low temperature, high humidity) the lesions grow rapidly killing the entire leaflets and spread to the stem killing the entire plant. The brown elongated lesions may appear on the stem near the growing point or at the nodes and extend both up and down the stem. Infected tubers show irregular shallow or sunken reddish brown patches. The underlying infected tissue is spongy and rusty brown to varying depths. Initially, the lesions on tuber surface are firm and dry but later on these are often invaded by secondary pathogens resulting into soft rot. If humid climate continues the whole crop may be killed within 7-10 days giving blighted appearance and a distinctive odour comes out from the severely affected fields. Disease development and spread : The infected seed tubers serve as a main source of the disease. Early sown crop (September sown), which is harvested in early November, generally escapes the attack of late blight due to high soil and air temperature. It generally appears in first and second week of November when the main season crop is 40-45 days old. When winter rains occur in Nov. – Dec. raising the humidity to more than 90% and cloudy or foggy days persist for 6-7 days with atmospheric temperature in the rang of 10-20°C, late blight develops rapidly with multiple infections on adjoining plants and then on entire field through spread by the air borne sporangia of the fungus. Sporangia washed by rain cause infection on tubers in the soil. Partially exposed tubers stored in the cold storage unit along with healthy tubers serve as the main source of disease for the crop of next year.

Control :

1. Disease free certified seed should be used. Infected tubers and cull piles stocked near cold stores should be destroyed.

2. Follow high ridge cultivation and proper earthing up to prevent tuber infection and restrict irrigation during cloudy days.

3. Grow late blight tolerant varieties like Kufri Jyoti, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Satluj etc.

4. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 or Kavach @ 500-700 gm/acre as prophylactic sprays in the 1st week of November before the disease appearance and repeat 5 times at 7 day intervals. Under heavy disease risk situation, give 3 rd and 4th spray of Ridomil MZ @ 700 gm/acre at 1 day interval and then give 5th spray of Indofil M-45 kavach.

5. Avoid the use of self made mixtures of Metalaxyl with Indofil-45 as mixtures in improper ratio may cause development of resistance in the pathogen.

BLACK SCURF

Rhizoctonia solani

It is a common disease of potato tubers and is observed both in hills and plains. Black scurf does not cause significant loss in yield but it results into qualitative damage as it decreases the market value of the tubers both for table as well as seed purpose. The disease is more prevalent in those areas of the state where potato is sown after rice crop as the same fungus also causes sheath blight of rice. The pathogen is soil borne in nature and is widely distributed in all the soils.

Symptoms : The most prominent symptoms of black scurf is the presence of black rough encrustations on tubers which are infact the sclerotia of the fungus (Pic. 38). These may be flat and superficial or large, irregular lumps resembling soil that will not wash off. These sclerotia are normally seated on the skin and do not cause any damage to the tuber inside. (Pic. 39A). Stem canker phase in which sunken circular or elongated brown necrotic spots appear on the developing stem often causing girdling and collapsing of stem is less common in India (Pic. 39 B). Disease development and spread : Both soil and infected seed tubers serve as primary source of inoculum. The pathogen survives as sclerotia in the soil and as mycelium on plant debris in the soil and its viability is greatly reduced by exposure to hot summer temperatures. Sclerotia germinate under favourable environmental conditions and invade emerging potato sprouts of stem especially through wounds. Low temperature and high soil moisture are conducive for infection on sprouts and stems this phase is not common on early autumn crop in the state as the temperature remain high. The more common phase is black scurf on tuber surface where the sclerotia formation is favoured at temp. of 28°C. The number of sclerotia on tubers vary with soil temperature and moisture. Black scurf on tubers is more common in crops grown in sandy to sandy loam and moderately wet soil. Pathogen has wide host range having both solanaceous and non solanaceous plants such as rice, sunflower,

maize, cucurbits, moong etc. Control :

1. Planting of healthy and disease free tubers is helpful in reducing the incidence of the disease.

2. The increase in organic matter content of the soil helps in reducing the population on the fungus to enhance activity of the antagonists.

3. Disinfect the tubers to be used for sowing by dipping in 0.5% Agallol (5 gm/litre of water) or 0.25% Emisan-6 (2.5 gm/litre of water) for 10 minutes.

COMMON SCAB

Streptomyces scabies

Common scab of potato was introduced into the state through infected seed potatoes from hills in early seventies and is more widely prevalent in district of Hoshiarpur and Jalandhar. Although the disease dose not cause much direct loss in yield but it reduces the quality of potatoes and thereby lowering the market values due to rough and blemished skin, storing ability is not affected.

Symptoms : Symptoms of scab are generally seen on tubers as circular 5-8 mm in diameter but may be irregular in shape and larger when infections coalesce (Pic. 40). The lesions may be shallow or deep pitted. In shallow scab the affected tubers show superficial roughened areas sometimes raised above but often slightly below the skin of the tubers. In deep pitted scab the lesions are dark brown corky and may join together involving entire surface of the tuber.

Disease development and spread : The Pathogen can survive in soil for several years. The infected tubers play major role for its carry over from one season to other. The pathogen has been introduced virtually into all potato soils by infected seed potato. It can survive for many seasons on diseased plant debris and infested soils which also help in initiating disease in succeeding crop of potato. The pathogen is active at temperature range of 20-30°C and pH range of 5.2-8.0. The pathogen is active in dry soils and is suppressed by watering. Control :

1. Use healthy and disease free seed tubers in order to reduce primary source of inoculum.

2. Green manuring before sowing potato reduces the disease by increasing the activity of certain microbes antagonistic to the pathogen.

3. Treat the seed before sowing as in black scab.4. Prevent drying of soil by regular irrigation from tuberization to maturity.

LEAF ROLL

Leaf roll Virus

Potato leaf toll virus (PLRV) is a serious virus disease of potato and is of great economic importance. It reduces the tuber yield significantly in case of severe infection.

Symptoms : There are two types of symptoms caused by this virus. Potato plants infected due to virus in the current season show rolling of the upper leaves especially of the leaflet base. The infected leaves tend to remain upright and turn pale yellow in colour. Plants produced from infected tuber show rolling of lower leaves and stunting of plants, upright habit and paleness of upper leaves. (Pic. 41). The rolled leaves are leathery, stiff, brittle, pink or brown pigmented on their underside. Infected plants remain stunted, chlorotic and make rattling noise when shaken. Sometime stunting is very severe. Marginal interveinal chlorosis of leaflets is visible on the upper leaves.

Disease development and spread : PLRV is transmitted through infected tubers and spreads by several species of aphids. The disease is more severe under warm conditions. Control :

1. Always use disease free certified seed from reliable source.2. Rogue out infected plants as soon as these are observed.3. Spray recommended insecticides regularly to check the further spread of aphid

vectors.4. Apply 5 kg of Thimet 10G (Phorate)/acre to the soil at the time of the first

earthing up. There is no need of any insecticidal spray after the application of thimet. (Phorate).

MOSAIC

(Potato virus X (PVX), Potato virus Y (PVY) and Potato virus S (PVS)

Mosaic disease caused by various viruses is more common in the areas where healthy seed is not used. PVX and PVY are more damaging in nature than PVS. Considerable level of yield reduction can occur if the incidence and severity of these viruses attain high proportion. This is the most wide spread viral disease of potato and is prevalent in most of the potato growing areas.

Symptoms : Different types of symptoms are produced on the potato crop depending on the cultivar of the crop and the virus strain. PVX induces interveinal or faint mosaic causing mild or barely perceptible mosaic symptoms with light and dark green patches, mottling with strunting and often crinkling with virulent strains. There is considerable dwarfing or plants and reduction in leaflet size (Pic. 42). PVY induces severe or rugose mosaic. Mild

to severe mosaic and veinal necrosis occur, plants remain stunted. Severe mosaic causes rugosity, bunching or twisting of leaves, stunting and necrosis in some cultivars. Only some veins develop necrosis. Older leaves collapse and drop with premature death. Rarely some tubers also show ring spots at harvest. Symptoms caused by PVS are barely perceptible as mottle or faint vein bending. Transmission : Mosaic disease is transmitted by infected tubers, cutting knife and aphid vectors. Many plants of solanaceae, chenopadiaceae and leguminoceae act as alternate host of this disease. Control :

1. For the effective control of the disease, only virus free certified seed should be sown.

2. Rogue out infected plants as soon as they are observed in the field in early crop period.

3. Keep the aphid population under check by spraying insecticides like Rogor or Metasystox @ 250 ml/acre.

4. Cut the haulms in 3rd or 4th week of December when aphid infestation starts (20 aphid/100 leaves) and leave the tubers in soil to mature till the end February. These tubers will be considered free from virus.

5. Apply 5 kg of Thimet 10G (Phorate) as mentioned in case of leaf roll.

TOMATOEARLY BLIGHT

Alternaria solani

The disease is common wherever the tomato crop is grown and the pathogen can attack the crop at any stage of the growth, however, it is more destructive at the maturity of crop. The disease initiates in the month of April but is severe in the end of May. Severe epidemics can result in 78% loss in yield.

Symptoms : The most characteristic symptoms are produced on the other lower leaves as circular to angular, dark brown to black, concentric ringed spots (Pic. 43B) surrounded by chlorotic halos. Severe infection leads to pre-mature leaf senescence, withering, dropping and eventually abscission. If there are may lesions, the whole leaf turns yellow and dries up. The infection also takes place on the leaf petioles and stems as dark black lesions. Symptoms on fruits occur at stem end as dark, leathery, sunken lesion with characteristic target board appearance (Pic. 43A). Conditions for disease development : The disease occurs during warm rainy or humid weather conditions. The optimum temperature for the disease development is 28-30°C with high relative humidity of 96 per

cent. Frequent rains or heave dew is essential for sporulation. Less vigorous crop is more prone to the attack of the pathogen. The pathogen remains viable for more tan a year in dry infected leaves. The over wintering of the pathogen takes place in infected plant debris and on tomato seeds. Control :

1. Always take the seed from disease free fruits for next crop.2. Threat the seed with Captan or Thiram @ 3 g per kg of seed before sowing.3. Spray the crop with Indofil M-45 500-700 g/acre at an interval of 10-15 days.

Start spraying the crop after transplanting.

LATE BLIGHT

Phytophthora infestans

The disease initially starts in the sub-mountainous districts of Punjab State and becomes serious on tomato crop wherever it is cultivated in the state. During favourable conditions, it causes completed failure of the crop. The disease appeared in a epidemic from during 1987, 1991 and 1997.

Symptoms : The first symptom of the disease is bending down of the leaf petiole. Lesions produced on the leaves and stems are large, irregular, greenish black water soaked patches. As these patches enlarge they turn brown and paper like. During wet weather, the lesions on the under surface of the leaves (Pic. 44) have fine white mass around them. Blightening of the entire foliage may occur during moist conditions within a short period and can cause heavy losses. Green fruits are also attacked and infected fruits are firm which have large, irregular, brownish-green blotches. The surface of the fruit lesion has a greasy rough appearance. In moist weather white Mycelial growth of fungus develops over the infected parts which is later on followed by rot of the fruit (Pic. 44). Conditions for disease development : The disease is favourable by temperature between 15-20°C accompanied by heavy dew, rain or cloudy weather. The spread of the disease is through sporangia or zoospores which are dispersed by rain, irrigation water, contact among the leaves and wind. Under these conditions, the disease progresses rapidly and can ruin the crop within a few days. Control :

1. Spray the crop with fungicides, copper oxychloride, Indofil M-45, @ 500-700 per acre during Feb-March at 10-15 day intervals. Depending upon the intensity of the disease, 4-6 sprays can effectively control the disease. While spraying, care should be taken to cover the foliage on both the surfaces.

2. Under heavy disease risk situation in mid February spray the crop @ 500 gm/acre with Ridomyl MZ.

3. Do not use infected frits for seed extraction as it can carry the fungus on seed and can cause seedling mortality in the nursery.

LEAF CURL

Tobacco leaf curl virus (TLCV)

The tomato curl disease is very common in the State on rainy season crop. It can cause heavy losses in the crop when infected in the early stage.Symptoms : The leaf curl is characterized by sever stunting of the plant with downward rolling and crinkling of the leaves. The young leaves show chlorosis while older curled leaves become (Pic. 45) leathery and brittle. There is stunting of the plant and the diseased plant produces more lateral branches resulting in bushy growth. Plants bear few flowers and fruit and sometimes the crops fails totally.

Transmission : The leaf curl of tomato is transmitted by whit fly, Bemisia tabaci Even a single viruliferous whit fly is able to transmit the virus and the virus is persistent in the vector and is retained for more than 12 days or whole life of it. Many hosts are attacked by this virus.

Control :1. Rogue out the affected plants as soon as noticed in the field.2. Protect the crop in the nursery beds and field from insect vectors (white fly) by

spraying insecticides like Rogor or Metasystox @ 1 ml/litre of water at 10 - day intervals.

MOSIAC

Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

The disease is common in most of vegetable and field crops. It is more severe in rainy season crop than winter crop.

Symptoms : The characteristic symptoms are the downward curling of leaf with slight turning down at margins. Surface of the leaf is rough, wrinkled or corrugated. Chlorosis starts as small points of yellow areas and gradually spreads. In extreme cases almost the entire surface of the old or new leaves become pale yellow (Pic 46) with scattered islands of dark green which stand up as blisters. The growth of the plant is retarted and there is low fruiting. Transmission : TMV is easily sap transmissible and is principally transmitted by man during cultivation or by implements. Diseased crop refuse left in the field is source of primary inoculum. TMV is also seed borne and has wide host range which can serve as source of inoculum.

Control :1. Use virus free seedlings for planting.2. Rogue out the affected plants.3. Avoid unnecessary touching of plants.4. Spray with insecticides viz., Rogor or Metasystox @ 1 ml/litre of water at 10 days

interval from the nursery onwards.5. Raise nursery away from the source of inoculum.

COLOCASIAPHYTOPHTHORA BLIGHT

Phytopththora colocasiae

This is the most serious disease of colocasia. It appears every year and affects crop yield. Survey conducted during 1999-2000 reveals that the disease incidence was higher in Hoshiparpur (70%) and Jalandhar (40%) areas. The disease is minimum in the crop sown between 15th February to 15th March.

Symptoms : The disease appears from August to September. The earliest symptoms are the appearance of small, dark roundish spots on the leaf. These spots enlarge become circular, oval or irregular, gradually very large part of the lamina in involved (Pic. 47). Often, drops of a yellow liquid ooze out of the affected areas. Later the spots dry and affected portions drop out leaving shot holes in the leaf. The periphery of the spots is zoned in different shades of brown, green and yellow and may contain a delicate haze of sporalgial growth of fungus causes rooting of corms (Pic. 48, 49). Conditions for disease development : Disease survives as myceolium on the infected corms. Disease spreads fast at 21°C and 100% relative humidity. RH less than 90% totally inhibits sporulation of the fungus on the host. Practice of storing seed corms at farm house was found to be the best as in this treatment both disease severity and percentage of corm decay was less. Control :

1. Use disease free corms.2. Practise field sanitation and destroy infected plants.3. Five sprays of Indofil M-45 @ 0.3% at 10 day interval or 3 sprays of Ridomil

MZ, Acrobatt MZ or Patafol each @ 0.2% at 5 day interval starting at the appearance of the disease will check the disease. Addition of sticker like linseed oil or Triton to the spray material in crease the efficacy of fungicides.

NEMATODES

ROOT-KNOT

Root-knot nematodes

The root know nematode is a minute round worm which causes typical galls on the roots of most of the vegetable crops like tomato, brings, okra (Pic. 50)O and cucurbits etc.

Symptoms : Above ground symptoms caused by damage to the root system are very general, non specific and generally appears as clearly defined patches in the field. Symptoms includes those associated with premature leaf fall, wilting, decline in fruit production and loss in yield. When associated with fungal pathogens, the damage is much more severe. Yield loss of 40-60 percent is usual in vegetables and is more pronounced in lighter sandy soils. Infected nursery seedling are the major source of spread of this nematode. Life cycle : Infective second stage larvae penetrate the host roots and settle there, where they feed on giant cells which develop around the head. Three moults occur with the larvae developing into the adult male or female. Reproduction is parthenogenetic and the life cycle is normally completed in 23-30 days. Moderate temperature of 16°C to 27°C favours development of the nematode.

Control :1. Once a field is infected it is virtually impossible to eliminate the nematode. Using

resistant varieties provides the most effective control. Tomato variety Punjab NR-7 and hybrids like TH-2312 and TH 802 are highly resistant to this nematode.

2. Rotations with non-host crops like wheat, rice, corn etc. provided satisfactory level of control.

3. Successive deep ploughing during hot weather and soil solarization with polyethylene sheets gives very good control.

4. Treating nursery beds with carbofuran 3G @ 3.0 gm/m2 reduces the damage due to these nematodes..

INSECT PESTS CUCURBITS

RED PUMPKIN BEETLE

Aulacophora foveicollis

Red pumpkin beetle is a pest of pumpkin, ashgourd, spongegourd, tinda, melon and cucumber. However, muskmelon is the most preferred host.

Identification: The beetle is oblong and 7 x 2.5 mm in size. The dorsal surface of body is pubescent with brilliant orange red while ventral surface is black. The grub is creamy yellow with

brown head and possesses slightly dark oval shield at the back. Damage : The beetles eat leaf lamina, cause perforation, irregular holes or complete defoliation and damage is severe, particularly at cotyledonary stage of the crop (Pic. 51 & 52). The grubs feed on the underground stem and root portion of the host plant forming holes/galleries (Pic. 53 & 54) leading to drying up of branches or whole plant. They may also attack the fruits touching the ground surface by making holes. Life History : The adults hibernate among dried creepers, weeds and grasses. Beetles appear in February and remain active up to October, with peak period during March-April. The female lays 150-300 eggs in soil around the bases of host plants during their life span of 60-85 days. The grubs bore into the roots and underground parts of plants. They pupate in soil. The life cycle is completed in 26-37 days. It has five generation in a year. Control :

1. Sow the crop early in November to avoid the damage.2. After harvesting the cucurbits, the fields should be deep ploughed to expose and

kill the grubs in soil.3. Spray 75-150 g of Sevin/Hexavin 50 WP (carbaryl) in 50-100 litres of water per

acre. Repeat the sprays at an interval of 10 days. Or Apply only once just after germination, 2.75 kg of Furadan 3 G (carbofuran) per acre 3-4 cm deep in soil near the base of the plants followed by light irrigation.

APHID

Aphis gossypii

The pest feeds on cucurbits, cotton, potato, okra, brinjal, tomato, chilli, colocasia, celery, etc.

Identification : The adults are yellow to dark green in colour and of about 1.25 mm size possessing two cornicles near the posterior end of the abdomen. They are normally wingless, but winged forms appear during summer near the maturity stage of cucurbits. The nymphs are green to brown in colour. Damage : Both adults and nymphs suck sap from the underside of the young leaves in the early growth stage of cucurbits leading to curling and yellowing of leaves (Pic. 55). They also secrete honeydew on which black sootymould develops which hinders the photosynthetic activity of the leaves. Besides, they transmit mosaic viruses in muskmelon, watermelon, cucumber, vegetable marrow, chillies and tomatoes due to which plants remain stunted and fail to bear normal fruits. Maximum damage to cucurbits is done during February-

March.

Life History : The pest starts its activity from the over-wintering eggs in the months of February when the wingless nymphs and adults are in abundance. Wingless females reproduce without mating and give rise to 2-3 generation on cucurbits in a period of one month. During March-April, the winged forms appear which finally migrate to secondary host plants and remain there till late December. There are several over-lapping generations of the pest in a year. Control : Spray 250 ml of Malathion 50 EC using 100 litres of water per acre as and when the pest is noticed. If necessary, repeat the spray after 10 days.

FRUIT FLY

Bactrocera cucurbitae

Cucurbit fruit fly is a major pest of all cucurbitaceous vegetables. Besides, it also infests guava, citrus and peach.

Identification : The fully developed maggot is 9-10 mm in length, pale white and tapers at one end. The fly has reddish brown body with transparent and shining wings bearing yellow-brown streaks. It is 12-15 mm long and possesses a conical abdomen. The eyes and head are dark brown. Damage : The maggots cause serious damage to vines (Pic. 56) and the developing fruits. The attacked branches dry up as a result of its attack. The attacked fruits, get distorted and even drop from the creepers. The larvae tunnel the fruit contaminating them with frass and providing entry points for fungal and bacterial pathogens which causes the fruit to rot. Infested fruits show mass of white maggots in the pulp of fruit, if dissected (Pic. 57). Life History : Adult fly hibernates under the creepers and dry leaves. It become active in March and starts breeding with the outbreak of rains. The shiny white eggs are laid singly or in clusters of 4-12 into the flowers, stems of mature/ripening fruits with the help of sharp ovipositor of female. The eggs hatch in 2-9 days. The young maggots feed on the internal contents of fruits and become full grown in 3 to 21 days. They come out of the infested fruit and drop to the ground where they pupate at a depth of 1.5 to 15 cm for 5 to 28 days. The life cycle is completed in about 15 to 90 days depending upon weather. There are several generations in a year and the peak period is during June-July.

Control :1. Collect and destroy infested fruits by burying them deep in the soil. 2. The bait spray of 0.05% Malathion containing 20 ml of Malathion 50 EC plus 200

g gur or sugar dissolved in 20 litres of water should be sprayed at weekly intervals. Spraying the bait on lower surface of the leaves of maize plants/grown in rows at a distance of 8-10 meters in cucurbit field is effective as the files have the habit of resting on such tall plants.

RED SPIDER MITES

Tetranychus spp.

Most common mites which infest vegetable crops in Punjab are two spotted red spider mite (Tetranchus cinnabarinus Boisd) and red vegetable mite (T. neocaledonicus Ander). The pest is polyphagous and attacks a wide variety of plants but cucurbits, brinjal, okra and beans are the most preferred ones.

Identification : The adult of two spotted mite is light brown or yellowish brown with two dark lateral spots on the oval body and possesses four pairs of legs as in nymph. However, the newly hatched larva is slender in shape, straw coloured having only three pairs of legs. The adult of red vegetable mite is reddish, greyish green or light brown without dark spots. Nymphs are light brown and have two eye spots and four pairs of legs.

Damage : Larvae, nymphs and adults of these mites lacerate the leaves from the lower surface and suck sap resulting in the production of white patches at feeding sites between main veins (Pic. 58). The infested leaves become yellow and severely mottled which fall of prematurely. In case of severe attack, intense webbing occurs that invites trapping of dust particles giving dusty appearance underside of the leaves. The growth of the plant is hindered and fruit setting reduced. Life History : After passing winter as gravid females, mites resume their activity in March and continue to cause damage till October. In March, the females start laying eggs under webs. The eggs are hatched in 2-6 days. The larvae are of light green brown colour and are transformed into nymphs in 3 to 4 days. They are fully fed within 4-9 days after passing through two stages. The life-cycle is completed in 9-20 days in two spotted red spider mite and 4 to 10 days in the red vegetable mite. The pest has 32 generations in a year in Punjab. Control : The mites can be controlled by spraying 200 ml of Metasystox 25 EC (oxydemeton-methyl) or Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) in 100-125 litres of water.

LEAF MINER

Liriomyza trifolii

This is a polyphagous pest which has earliar limited distribution but now considered as cosmopolitan pest, known to infest numerous ornamental and vegetable cops with a host range of 400 plants over the past ten years.

Identification : The larva (maggot) is pale or yellow coloured cylindrical and changes to brown colour in the last instar. The anterior end of maggot tapers and the posterior end is truncated. Its tiny fly adult has a pair of transparent and shining wings. Damage : Leaf miner causes heavy leaf mining in leaves (Pic. 59 & 60). Mine location may vary on upper or lower side of the leaf mesophyll. Mines start from the margins of leaves and progress towards the base/centre of leaf. Mines are initially narrow and gradually enlarge often twisting through leaf. Stippling of young seedlings occur. Severe leaf mining slows down the plant growth and accelerates the leaf drop. Excessive leaf mining, reduces the photosynthetic activity of foliage and ultimately reduces the crop yield. In cucurbits and tomato, old leaves gets infested first, dry up and fall down.

Life History : This pest is active throughout the season. Pupa and adult are able to survive the freezing temperatures. The mated female punctures leaves either for oviposition or for feeding. It lays white translucent 100-600 eggs singly or in close proximity in the tubular leaf tissues on abaxial or adaxial leaf surface. Maximum oviposition occurs at 20-27°C. Eggs are hatched in 2-8 days. After hatching larvae start feeding in palisade mesophyll of leaves till their emergence from leaf. The larvae move via peristaltic action of their hydroskeleton. There are four moults/instars. In case of over crowding, larvae are forced to complete for resources and they may enter to leaf stalk or main stem of plant. Larval duration can be as shot as 4-6 days. When larva is ready to pupate, it cuts a semicircular slit on leaf surface. Larva emerges with characteristic locomotic action and fall down on ground. Rolling motion forces larva to fall from leaf to the ground surface. Pupation also occurs on leaf surface, or at base of leaves, stems or stalks. This is more common on plants with large curled leaves like squash plants. Larvae emerge from leaves during early day lights before 0800 hrs. Prepupal stage is about 2-4 hrs. Pupal duration varies from 8-11 days. Adults emerge from dorsal anterior end of puparium and change to adult in about 45 min. to 3.20 hrs. Adult female flies are larger than males. Females live for 15-20 days and males 10-15 days. Control :

1. Adults are known to be attracted to yellow cards and with application of adhesive,

those may be very effective monitoring tools. Trap location with respect of crop influences the number and species of flies captured.

2. The movement and dispersal of adults may be affected by aluminium foil mulches around tomato and squash plants. This has been shown to reduce the population of leaf miner, presumably by repelling adult flies.

Minor pests : The other minor pests on cucurbits are jassids (see under okra), American bollworm (see under tomato) (Pic. 61), termites and cutworms (see under polyphagous pests).

TOMATOTOMATO FRUIT BORER

Helicoverpa armigera

It is a polyphagous pest. Besides tomato, it also attacks gram, cotton, peas, chilli, okra, maize, groundnut, pigeonpea, bean, soybean and large number of ornamental plants.

Identification : Adult moths are medium sized, stout, brown in colour with a wing span of about 30-44 cm (Pic. 62). Forewings are live green to pale brown in colour with a dark brown circular spot in the centre and indistinct double waved antemedial lines. Hind wings are pale smoky with a broad blackish outer border. The stout caterpillars are greenish or brownish with longitudinal bands alternatively dark and pale, the pale bands on the lateral side of the body are conspicuous (Pic. 63). The full grown larva is 40 mm long and has short fine hair on its body. Damage : In the pre-fruiting stage, the caterpillar feeds on tender foliage including leaves, flowers and buds and the crop gives a perforated look. After fruiting, they bore large, clear, circular holes into fruits and feed on the pulp (Pics. 64 & 65). Infested fruits become unfit for consumption. The granular frass of caterpillar is easily seen on the plant or on the ground. Life History : The moths start emerging during February. The female lays about 1000 or more eggs singly on the tender parts of the host plants (Pic. 66 & 67). Young larvae feed on the foliage for sometimes and ultimately bore into the fruits. After getting full grown in the 14-24 days, they descend into the soil and pupate (Pic. 68). Life cycle is completed in 4-6 weeks. The pest has 8 generations in year and remains inactive during severe hot and cold months. Control : Give three alternate sprays with any of the following pesticides at fortnight intervals

starting from the initiation of flowering, using 100 litres of water per acre. Use Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) 800 ml; Sevin/ Hexavin 50 WP (carbaryl) 800g; Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) 100ml; ripcord 10EC (cypermethrin) 200 ml; Decis 2.8 (deltamethrin) 160 ml.

WHITEFLY

Bemisia tabaci

Whitefly is reported from many wild and cultivated host plats in India. In Punjab, it is a vector of tomato leafcurl virus. It is responsible for the failure of autumn crop of tomato in the State. It becomes extremely serious during dry season.

Identification : The adults are tiny winged insects having light yellow body of 1 mm length dusted with a white waxy bloom (Pic. 69). They have 2 pairs of pure white wings and 3 pairs of prominent long legs. The nymphs are louse like sluggish creatures, which cluster together in the under surface of leaves (Pic. 70). The last instar nymph (called pupa) is about 4-7 mm long and red eyes of the adult can be seen through the transparent integument during this stage (Pic. 71). Damage : Both nymphs and adults suck sap from the leaves of the host plants and lowers their vitality. Tiny white scale like creatures on the underside of leaves are visible. Once the plant is disturbed, a cloud of tiny adults flutter out and resettle rapidly. Black sootymould develops on the honeydew excreted by whiteflies on the affected leaves and thus whiteflies infested plants look sick. It is a vector of viral diseases in okra, tomato, chilli, etc. Life History : This pest breeds throughout the year. The female lays about 100 eggs singly on the underside of the leaves. The nymphs on emergence move for sometime but soon fix their mouth parts in the plant tissue and suck the cell sap. Once settled, they do not move. All nymphal instars are greenish white, oval, scale like and some what spiny. On getting full grown, they transform into pupae at the same site which ultimately give rise to adults in about 2-4 weeks. The total life cycle is completed in 14-122 days depending on the season and there are about 11 generations of the pest in a year. Control : Spray 400 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 80-100 litres of water per acre. Repeat the spray at 10 days interval. Minor pests : The other minor pest of tomato is cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (see under cucurbits).

BRINJALSHOOT AND FRUIT BORER

Leucinodes orbonalis

Brinjal shoot and fruit borer is the most serious pest of brinjal and is also known to feed on some other solanaceous plants like night shade (Solanum nigrum), shamak namoli (Solanum xanthocarpum), datura (Datura stramonium) etc. in Punjab.

Identification : Full grown caterpillar appears light pink from dorsal surface, and measure 18-23 mm in length (Pic. 72). Head is brown and the forewings of white coloured moth are ornamented with a number of black, pale and light brown spots (Pic. 73). Apical and anal margins of wings are fringed with pubescent hair. Thorax and abdomen of moth are also covered with brown or black spots. Damage : The larvae bore into the petioles, mid-ribs of fully grown leaves and tender shoots. The shoots infested with borer droop downward and dry up causing dead heart like condition (Pic. 74). With the onset of fruiting, they bore into flower buds and fruits. Flower buds are normally shed, whereas infested fruits have a varying number of holes. (Pic. 75). Life History : The caterpillars hibernate in the winter and pupate early in the spring (Pic. 76). The adults emerge in March-April and lay 80-120 creamy white eggs, singly or in batches of 2-4 on the underside of leaves, on stems, flower buds, etc. the young larvae bore into tender shoots near the growing points and developing fruits. It completes its life cycle in 20-43 days. There are five overlapping generations of this pest in a year. The maximum activity of pest is during July-September. Control :

1. Destroy the borer infested shoots and fruits.2. Avoid rationing and grow tolerant varieties- Punjab Barsati, Punjab Sada Bahar

Baigan, Punjab Jamni Gola, BH - 1 and BH – 2.3. Transplant crop early in March-April or late in July.4. As soon as attack starts, give 3-4 alternate sprays with any of the following

insecticides belonging to different groups at 14 days interval using 100-125 litres of water per acre : 800 ml of Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan); 800g of Sevin 50 WP (carbaryl); 200 ml of Ripcord 10 EC (cypermethrin); 160 ml of Decis 2.8 EC (deltamethrin); 100 ml of Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate); 40 ml of Ambush 50 EC (permethrin); 800 ml of Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos); 550 ml of Monocil 36 SL (monocrophos); 500 ml of Hostathion 40 EC (triazophos).

5. A waiting period of 4 days in case of Ekalux and Hostathion and 7 days for Monocil should be observed after the spray.

6. Insecticides of the same group should not be used repeatedly in order to avoid the

development of insecticide resistance and appearance of secondary pests.

STEM BORER

Euzopertha perticella

Brinjal stem borer is widely distributed in India. Besides brinjal, it attacks chilli, potato, tomato and Solanum aviculare. Identification : Forewings of moth are pale straw yellow, whereas, the hind wings are whitish. Full grown caterpillar is creamy white with a few bristles having tapering body towards the posterior end. Damage : The caterpillars attack the main stems at the ground level and tunnel them as a result of which the affected branches or plants completely wither and dry up (Pic. 77). Generally infestation can be spotted out only at the fag end of the season. Life History : The pest passes winter in larval stage in the stem of old brinjal plant. The moths start emerging by last week of March and lay 104 to 363 creamy scale-like eggs on the underside of young leaves, petioles and branches. The young larvae after feeding for a few minutes on exposed parts of plants, bore into the stems wherein they make longitudinal tunnels feeding on the pitch. Full grown larvae pupate in silken cocoons either within the feeding galleries or in cracks and crevices in the soil. The life cycle is completed in 35-76 days and the pest has 5-6 overlapping generations in a year. Control :

1. Ratoon crop of brinjal should be avoided.2. The withered plants should be uprooted and destroyed.3. Spray insecticides as recommended for the control of shoot and fruit borer.

HADDA BEETLES

Epilachna dodecastigmaE. vigintioctopunctataE. dumerillii

Hadda beetles feed on brinjal, tomato, potato and cucurbits in vegetable growing areas of Pujnab.

Identification : Dark yellow coloured grubs are about 6 mm long, having six rows of strong branched spines (Pic. 78). Adults of E. dodecastigma are deep copper-coloured and have six spots on each elytron (Pic. 79). E. vigintioctopunctata are deep copper-coloured and have 14 black spots on each elytron (Pic. 80) E. dumerillii beetles are light copper coloured and each elytron is provided with six black spots. Damage : Both the adults and the grubs are destructive to the crop. The adults feed on the upper surface of leaves. And eat out regular area of leaf tissues, whereas the grubs feed on lower surface of leaves. In attacked leaves, all green tissues are eaten away leaving the epidermis intact, the leaves, thus, present a lace like appearance. They turn brown, dry up and fall off (Pic. 81 and 82). Life History : Beetles pass winter as hibernating adults among heaps of dry plants or in cracks and crevices in the soil. Beetles resume activity in March-April and lay cigar shaped eggs in cluster on the underside of leaves (Pic. 83). Eggs hatch within a few days to produce yellow spiny grubs which feed on green matter of plants and ultimately transform into dark coloured pupae. The life cycle is completed in 17 days in summer and 50 days in winter. The pest passes through seven broods from March to October and its peak infestation is noticed during May-June. Control : During early stages of crop growth, spray 250 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 100 litres of water, at 10 days interval. Later during fruiting stage of crop, the pesticides sprayed against borers shall also control the Hadda beetles.

LACE-BUG

Urentius hystricellus

Lace-bug is found on brinjal crop in plain areas of north-western parts of India.

Identification : The nymphs are pale ochraceous and are stoutly built, with grey prominent spines. The straw coloured bugs measure about 3 mm in length and are black on ventral side. On the pronotum and the wings, there is a network of markings of the veins. Damage : Both adults and nymphs suck the sap from the leaves and the young nymphs can be seen feeding gregariously on the lower surface of leaves (Pic. 84). The feeding of nymphs cause yellowish spots and mottling on infested leaves which is conspicuous on the upper surface of leaves. The kind of mottling is produced as a result of toxic saliva injected by

bugs. Pest is serious during August-September. Life History : The pest hibernates in adult stage from November to March in cracks and crevices in the soil. Hibernating adults become active in April and lay 35-44 shining whit nipple shaped eggs singly on the underside of the leaves. The eggs hatch in 3-12 days. The nymphs become adults in 10-23 days which may live for 40 days. The insect produces 8 overlapping generations in a year. Control : Spray 250 ml of Malathion 50 EC at 10 days interval as soon as the attack appears using 100 litres of water per acre. The pesticides used for the control of borers during fruiting stage shall also control this pest.

LEAF ROLLER

Eublema olivacea

Brinjal leaf roller mainly attacks the brinjal crop in the vegetables growing areas of the Punjab. Besides, it infested other wild solanaceous plants.

Identification : The moths are medium sized having a wing span of 4 cm and forewings are white with olive-green tinge. The caterpillars when full grown, are beautiful purple brown with yellow spots and are usually found in rolled up leaves (Pic. 85). Damage :Brinjal leaves wither and dry up as result of severe feeding by caterpillars. The larvae roll up the leaves and feed on green matter while remaining inside the folds, ultimately the folded leaves also wither (Pic. 86). Life History : The female lays eggs on leaves. The eggs hatch in 3-5 days. After emerging, the young caterpillars fold the leaves from the tip upwards and feed on the green matter by remaining inside the folds. Full grown caterpillars pupate inside the folds of the leaves and ultimately adults emerge out. Control : Remove rolled up leaves and destroy them. Chemical control measures are same as in brinjal shoot and fruit borer. Other pests : The other pests which attack brinjal are jassid, where plants become pale and finally bronze (Pic. 87) (see under okra); aphid (see under cucurbits); whitefly (Pics. 88 & 89) (see under tomato) and spider mites (Pic. 90) (see under cucurbits).

OKRA (BHINDI)JASSID

Amrasca biguttula biguttula

In Punjab, jassid is most destructive pest of many plants including okra, brinjal, potato, cotton, castor and wild malvaceous plants.Identification : The adult is wedge shaped and pale green (summer)/reddish brown (winter) and is of about 3 mm length having a black dot on the posterior end of each semi transparent forewing. The wings generally extend beyond the abdomen. Adults hop and fly quickly. The nymphs are wingless, pale green, wedge shaped and possess wing pads extended up to fifth abdominal segment (Pic. 91). Nymphs walk diagonally when disturbed.Damage : Both nymphs and adults suck plant sap and inject phyto-toxic saliva into leaves. Initially the feeding results in marginal yellowing of the leaves followed by curling (cupping) and reddening (Pic. 92). Finally, due to intense hopperburn, defoliation occurs and the plant may totally be denuded of leaves.

Life History : The pest is active throughout the year, but in winter only adults are found on plants such as tomato, brinjal, potato, etc. in spring, they migrate to okra. The female lays 60 eggs on the underside of the leaves embedded in one of the large leaf veins or leaf stalks. The nymphs hatching out of the eggs, suck cell sap and transform into winged adults after passing through five nymphal instars. The life cycle is completed in 15-45 days depending on the season and there are 10-12 generations in a year. Control :

1. In early stages before flowering, spray the crop once or twice at fortnightly interval with 500 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 100-125 litres of water per acre. After flowering, apply the insecticides as recommended for the control of fruit borer.

2. For seed crop apply 8 kg of Thimet 10 G (phorate) per acre at sowing or give 2 sprays at fortnightly interval starting 15 days after sowing with 250 ml of Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) in 100-125 litres of water and thereafter (45-days-old crop), use insecticides as given under fruit borer.

FRUIT BORER

Earias insulanaE. vittella Both the species of fruit-borer are serious pests of okra in Punjab. They also feed on cotton, hollyhock and many ornamental plants and weeds.

Identification : The adults of E. vittella have white forewings with a greenish wedge shaped band in the middle, 19-24 mm wing span and yellow head and thorax (Pic. 93). The adult of E. insulana larva is greenish, spindle shaped, hairy, and black spotted. Prothorax has orange tinged spots. Abdominal and the posterior two thoracic segments bear two pairs of tubercles per segment due to which it is also called spiny bollworm. Distinct yellow spots at the base of thoracic tubercles are prominent, whereas, in the larva of E. vittella, there is a brownish and white mid dorsal stripe but without finger like stout tubercles (Pic. 94). Damage : In the pre-fruiting stage of the crop, the caterpillars bore into the soft terminal shoots which wither and droop downwards (Pic. 95). When the flowers, buds and fruits appear, the caterpillars eat out conspicuous holes into them (Pic. 96). These holes are generally filled with excretory pallets. The attacked fruits become distorted, deform and are rendered unfit for human consumption. Life History : The pest is active from April to October. The moths appear in April and lay eggs singly on flower buds, brackets, tender leaves, fruits and other plant parts. Newly hatched caterpillars bore into tender shoots, flower buds of fruits where they feed in concealment. The pupation takes place under fallen buds, leaves, or in soil at 5-25 cm depth (Pic. 97). The life cycle is completed in 17-19 days depending on the season. There are 7-8 generations of the pest in a year. The peak population is during July-August. Control :

1. Edible crop : At initiation of flowering, give three sprays with 500g of Sevin/Hexavin 50WP (carbaryl) or 350 ml Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or 100 ml Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) or 80 ml of Cymbush 25 EC (cypermethrin) or 160 ml of Decis 2.8 (deltamethrin) in 100-125 litres of water per acre.

2. Seed crop : After 45 days of sowing, give two sprays at 15 days interval of 425 ml Sumithion/Folithion/Accothion 50 EC (fenitrothion) or 400 ml of Nuvacron 36 SL (monocrotophos) or 80 ml of Cymbush 25 EC (cypermethrin) or 100 ml of sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) or 160 ml Decis 2.8 EC (deltamethrin) in 100-125 litres of water per acre.

Minor pests : The other minor pests of okra are aphid (see under cucurbits); Whitefly (see under tomato) and mites (see under cucurbits).

CHILLI & CAPSICUMMITE

Polyphagotarsonemus latus

This pest is observed feeding and breeding on 44 plant species including chillies.

Identification : Younger female mites are initially transparent and then turn yellow, dusky white strip appears on mid dorsal surface of idiosoma. Males are elongated and light yellow in colour. Adult females are comparatively larger than the males. Posterior end of female is broader while in males, it is pointed. Larvae are oval shaped and milky white in appearance and have three pairs of legs. The full grown larvae are lighter in colour. Quiescent stage of mite is transparent, shinny and pointed at both ends. Damage : Mites prefer to feed and breed on the underside of young growing leaves. As a result of feeding, leaves became elongated, strap shaped and curled downward and lower surface appears slivery shinny (Pic. 98 & 99). Whereas, the upper surface of leaves look more dark green as compared to healthy ones. Life History : Female lays eggs preferably on underside of leaves, tender twigs and flower buds of chilli. Eggs hatched out in about 2 days at 22-27° C. Larval stage lasts for about 1-2 days. Subsequently, the larvae enter quiescent stage which normally lasts for 18 hrs. to 1-2 days. Development of mite is faster at 27.5°C. Fecundity is maximum at 22.5°C. Unfertilized females produce only male off springs, but fertilized female produce both males and females. Mite population appears from March to September. Control : Same as in cucurbit mites.

CHILLI THRIPS

Scirtothrips dorsalis

This is a polyphagous pest having a wide range of host plants. Two other trips viz. groundnut thrip, Caliothrips indicus (Bagnall) and blossom thrip Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) have also been reported infesting the leaves and flowers of chilli, respectively. Both the species are polyphagous.

Identification : Nymphs and adults are tiny, slender, fragile, yellowish straw coloured. Adults have heavily fringed wings that are uniformily grey in colour. Damage : Both nymphs and adults of chilli thrips lacerate the leaf and imbibe the oozing sap. Some times even buds and flowers are also attacked. Tender leaves and growing shoots are preferred for feeding, while the older leaves are rarely attacked. The infested leaves start curling and crumbling and ultimately shed (Fig. 100). Whereas, buds become brittle

and drop down. If there are no rains, the entire plant may dry up and wither away. A severe infestation by groundnut thrips results in the formation of silvery sheen on underside of the leaves while the infestation by blossom thrips causes drying and premature shedding of flowers. Life History : Minute and dirty white eggs are laid on or just under the leaf tissues. A female, on an average lays 100 eggs @ 2-4 eggs per day. On emergence, nymphs and adults start feeding by lacerating leaf tissues. Reproduction is both sexual and parthenogenetic. In case of sexual reproduction, oviposition period lasts for a month. Life cycle is completed in 14-17 days. There are 25 overlapping generations of this pest in a year. Control : Control measures are same as in Chilli mite.

APHIDS

Many aphid species like Aphis gossypii (Pic. 101 A) Glover, A spiraecola (Patch,) A. craccivora (Koch), A. fabae (Scopoli), A. tumbrella, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), Acyrthosiphum pisum (Harris), Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) and Rhopalosiphum padi, suck plant sap (for control see under cucurbits). The other pests which attack chilli/capsicum are Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Pic. 101 B) (see under tomato), Cut worms, Agrotis spp, (see under polyphagous pests), Termites, Microtermes spp (see under polyphagous pests), Pod borers, like tobacco caterpillar and tomato fruit borer (Pic. 101) (see under tomato and polyphahous pests.).

ONIONTHRIPS

Thrips tabaci

The onion thrips attack mainly onion and garlic but may also appear on other crops such as Brassica, cucurbits, peas, tomato, potato, cotton, sugarbeet and tobacco, etc.

Identification : The adult are yellow brown with dark transverse bands across the thorax and abdomen and about 1 mm long. The males are wingless while females have long narrow strap like wings, which have long hairs on the hind margins. The nymphs, which in general resemble the adults, are wingless and slightly smaller. Damage : Both nymphs and adult rasp the epidermis of tender leaves and imbibe the oozing sap. As a result of rasping of sap, the leaves develop numerous white specks (Pic. 102). Heavily infested leaves curl up and get distorted and ultimately the top of attacked plants wither away – a condition called as silver top (Pic. 103). The pest is also serious at

flowering stage of seed crop and impairs seed formation. Maximum damage is caused during February-May. Life History : The pest is active throughout the year but appears on onion and garlic during November. The maximum population of onion thrips is found during February-May. The female lays 50-60 eggs singly in slits that are cut in the leaf tissues with the help of ovipositor. After hatching, white or yellow nymphs moult twice in about five days. Nymphs are present in large numbers at the bases of leaves. Pupation takes place in the soil and insect remains in pupal stage for 4-7 days. The life cycle is completed in 2-3 weeks. There are 5-10 generations of this pest in a year. Control : Spray 250 ml Malathion 50EC in 80 litres of water per acre as soon as the pest appears. Repeat the application if necessary after 15 days.

MAGGOT

Delia antique

Onion maggot attacks onion, okra, muskmelon and spongegourd.

Identification : The greyish-body coloured slender fly measures about 6 mm in length. Its maggots are white legless, tapering at one end and 8 mm long.

Damage : The attacked plants become flabby and yellowish. The leaves of the infested plant turn brown from tip downwards. The bulb and the base of the leaves become flaccid and watery and contain maggots (Pic. 104). The maggots eat out the small bulbs completely leaving only outer sheath, whereas the larger bulbs are attacked by many larvae which make cavities in them. The infested bulbs rot in storage due to bacterial infection. Life History : The fly appears in serious from in onion fields during January-February. The female lays eggs at the base of plant or in cracks in the soil. The white maggots enter inside leaf sheath and bore through the underground stem into the bulb. These maggots become fully within 14-21 days. Pupation takes place in the soil. Total life cycle is completed in 4-6 weeks. There are 2-3 generations of this pest in a year. Control : Apply 4 kg of Sevin 4G (carbaryl) or Lindane 6 G (gamma-BHC) or Thimet 10G (phorate) in soil as the attack appears. Give light irrigation immediately after application of granules.

Other pests : Cut worms also cause damage to onion by making feeding holes into bulbs and leading to wilting of crop (see under polyphagous pests).

STEM FLY

Ophiomyia phaseoli

Pea stem fly causes serious damage to early sown pea crop in Punjab. In addition to peas, this pest also feeds on soybean, green gram, black gram and cowpea.

Identification : Metallic blackfly measures 2 mm in length. Its wings are almost transparent. Full grown white maggot is 4 mm long. Damage : The infested plants turn yellow, stunted and often completely wilted. In the initial stage, firs two leaves turn yellow and drop, often mistaken with nitrogen deficiency Subsequently stem just above soil surface are thickened and usually cracked. (Pic. 105). Life History : Stem fly resumes its activity from mid – February. During May and June, the population of pea stem fly decreases. Again, its number increases in monsoon and is highest during August-September, decreasing in the winter months. The female lays 14-70 eggs usually on the lower surface in the tissues of the leaves and stems with help of its ovipositor. The newly hatched larva mine the leaf, side branch of the stem of the plant. The full grown larva makes an exit hole in the stem for emergence of adult. The pupation occurs in the underground portion of the stem or a side branch. There are 8-9 generation of the pea stem fly in a year. The winter is passed in pupal stage. Control :

1. Sow the crop in the second fortnight of October to escape the attack of pea stem fly.

2. Remove and destroy the affected branches during the initial stage of attack.3. Apply 3 kg of Thimet 10 G (phorate) or 10 kg of Furadan 3G (carbofuran)

granules per acre in furrows at sowing.

LEAF MINER

Chromatomyia horticola

Pea leaf-miner has been recorded on more than 105 host plants but is a pest of pea, mustard, cauliflower, cabbage, knolkhol, turnip, radish, safflower, lentil, berseem,

hollyhock, barley, carrot, potato, linseed, poppy, etc.

Identification : The full grown larva is yellowish green in colour and measures 3 mm in length. It tapers towards the anterior end and bluntly rounded from the posterior end. Tiny fly is greyish black with a pair of transparent shining wings. Damage : The larvae feed on epidermis by making prominent whitish zig-zag tunnels in the leaves (Pic. 106 & 107). Usually, the mine starts from the periphery and terminates towards mid-rib and harbours one larva. The attacked leaves wither and dry up. The flowering and fruiting of the infested crop is reduced as the tunnels interfere with photosynthesis. Maximum damage is done between December to March.

Life History : The pest is generally active from December to May. The mated female fly punctures the leaf with the ovipositor either for feeding on the plant juice or for oviposition. It lays 329 to 360 oval elongated eggs close to one another into the leaf tissues. The eggs are hatched in 2 to 3 days. The larval period ranges form 5 to 12 days. It pupates in the larval mine for 7 to 15 days (Pic. 108). The summer and autumn are passed in the pupal stage. Pea leaf miner has 4 to 5 generations in a year. Control : Pea leaf-miner can be checked by spraying 400 ml of Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) in 80-100 litres of water per acre as soon as attack starts Repeat spray at 15 days interval, if necessary.

LINTIL POD BORER

Etiella zinckenella

It is a serious pest of green pea, cowpea, pigeonpea, lima bean, horse gram and lentil in Northern India. It also feeds on a variety of other pulses.

Identification : The moth is greyish brown with a pale white band on each of the forewings. Head possesses downwardly deflected snout. Besides, the forewings have dark marginal lines and are interspersed with scales. The full grown larvae are rosy, with a purplish tinge.

Damage : The greenish caterpillars enter the pods and eat away the young developing seeds (Pic. 109). There could be 1-2 larvae in a pod. The larvae feed on blossoms causing them to drop on the soil.

Life History : The moths emerge in February-March and are nocturnal. The eggs are laid both singly and in clusters on various parts of the plant including the developing pods. The eggs hatch in 5 days. The newly emerged larvae feed on floral parts and then bore into the pods. The larval stage is completed in 10-27 days. Pupation takes place in soil and is completed in 10-15 days. The total life cycle is completed in 22-24 days during active season. The pest breeds throughout the year and passes through 5 generations.

Control : Spray 300 ml Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or 900 g Sevin 50 WP (carbaryl) in 80-100 litres of water per acre at two weeks intervals stating from intiation of pod formation. Note : Some other species like tomato fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Pic. 110 & 111) and pea blue butterfly Lampides boeticus (Linn) also attack peas and can be controlled as in case of pea-pod borer.

Minor pests Other minor pests of peas are Thrips, Caliothrips indicus (Bagnall) and aphid, Acyrthosiphom pisum.

POTATOAPHID

Myzus persicae

During winter and spring season, the potato crop is attacked by various aphid species like M. persicae, Aphis gossypii and A. fabae. Of these, M. persicae, causes serious damage to potato crop by transmitting viral diseases.

Identification : Both nymphs and wingless adults are agile and shining green in colour. Winged adult has black body with transparent wings. Damage : Aphids suck sap of plants, as a result of which leaves curl and dry up (Pic. 112). Aphid excrete shoneydew on which black sootymould develops which reduces the photosynthetic activity of plants. The pest also transmits various viral disease like leaf roll virus, virus Y and virus A to potato plants. These viruses may cause heavy reduction in the yield, besides the degeneration of the seed stocks. Life History : The pest passes winter in egg stage under the bark of Prunus spp. (peach, plum, apricot, etc.). During flowering season, the nymphs come out of eggs and are transformed into wingless adults within a few days. They breed for two generations on the same host plants and in December, the aphids start appearing on potato crop and remain there till ends of march. With the rise of temperature, winged forms are produced which migrate

again to primary host plants. Control :

1. Spray 300 ml of Metasystox 25 EC (oxydemeton methyl) or 200 ml of Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) in 100 litres of water per acre.

2. In case of seed crop, apply 5 kg of Thimet 10G (phorate) in the soil at the time of first earthing up.

JASSID

Amrasca biguttula biguttula

For identification and life history (see under okra)

Damage : Both nymphs and adults of jassid suck plant sap as result of their severe attack, the leaves curl, turn pale, bronze and dry up (Pic. 113) resulting in hopper burn.

Control : Spray the crop with 300 ml of Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) or Metasystox 25 EC (oxydemeton methyl) in 80-100 litres of water per acre. If necessary, repeat the spray after 10 days.

CRUCIFERSHEAD BORER

Hellula undalis

This pest is commonly found infesting on early grown cruciferous vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, radish, knol-khol, turnip, mustard and beet in Punjab.

Identification : The full grown larva is 14-16 mm long creamy yellow with a pinkish tinge and possesses five distinct pinkish brown longitudinal stripes. The moth is greyish brown, forewings have many grey markings and hind wings pale dusky. Damage : The young larvae mine the leaves mostly by side veins. The mines are whitish in colour having larval excreta. The older larvae bore into the central shoot and growing point of the plant is killed rendering it unable to bear the flower-head. (Pic. 114). A badly damaged plant show many tunnels in cauliflower head and stem. The infested heads rot and produce foul smell. The pest is serious on young plants in the nursery and field.

Life History :

The stem borer is serious on cauliflower and cabbage during July-August. Adult lays 125-150 pinkish oval eggs mostly on the under surface of leaves and occasionally on the shoots and tender stems. The larvae hatch from eggs in 2-3 days. The larvae are fully fed in 7-12 days. The larva pupates generally in the soil and sometimes also within the stem. The adults emerge in 6 to 10 days. Total life-cycle is completed in 21-28 days. Control : Stem borer can be controlled by spraying 100 ml of Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or 150 g of Sevin/Hexavin 50 WP (carbaryl) in 50-60 litres of water per acre. Repeat the spray after 10 days, if necessary. Avoid transplanting nursery plants with killed central shoots by the borer.

DIAMOND BACK MOTH

Plutella xylostella

The pest is widely distributed in India and attacks food plants like cauliflower, cabbage, mustard, rapeseed, radish and turnip.

Identification : Larva is greyish-green with spindle shaped body (tapering at both ends) covered with black scattered airs all over. Larva either wriggles actively or drops down with a silken thread produced from the mouth, when disturbed. The adult moth has light-brown forewings. Each of these wings has three conspicuous yellowish-white spots on the forewings which appear like diamond pattern, when in repose. These patterns are bright in males and appear dusky in females. Damage : Young larvae feed in mines on lower surface of leaves of cruciferous plants and later on found exposed on the leaves. The larval feeding on the leaves leave intact parchment like epidermis. Besides, they produce shot holes in leaves (Pics 115 & 116). The growth of the young plants is greatly inhibited. Maximum damage is caused during August-September. Life History : Diamond back moth is active throughout the year. Yellowish eggs of the size of pin-heads are laid singly or in batches of 2-40 on the underside of leaves. The larva becomes full grown in 8-17 days. They pupate in silken cocoons attached to the leaf surface. The life cycle is completed in 5-18 days during September-October. It passes through 8-12 generations in a year and is most serious in August-September and again during February-March. Control : Spray the crop with 200-400 ml of Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos), or Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan), or Diptrex 50 EC (trichlorophon) or 125-250 ml of Basudin 20EC

(diazinon) or 100 ml of Sumicidin 20 EC (fenvalerate) in 80-100 litres of water per acre. Repeat the spray after 10 days.

CABBAGE CATERPILLAR

Pieris brassicae

The cabbage caterpillar is a serious pest of cabbage, cauliflower, knoll-khol, turnip, sarson, raya, radish and toria.

Identification : Full grown larvae are greenish yellow and measure 40-50 mm in length. The head is black and the dorsum is marked with black spots (Pic. 117). The wings of butterflies are pale white, with a black patch on the apical angle of each forewing and a black spot on the coastal margin of each hind wing. The females have tow black circular dots on the dorsal side of each forewing. The males have back spots on the underside of each forewing (Pic. 118). Damage : The young caterpillars scrape the leaf surface, whereas older larvae eat up leaves from the margins inwards, leaving intact the main veins (Pic. 119 and 120). They also bore holes into cabbage heads and foul them with excretory pallets. Life History : The pest is migratory in habit, summer is passed in hills (April-October) while in winter it causes damage to cabbage crop in plains. The pest appears in October and remains active up to April. Yellow conical eggs numbering 200 are laid in clusters on the leaf. The eggs hatch in 3-17 days. The larval period is complete in 15-40 days. Pupation occurs on the adjoining hedges, bushes and trees but rarely on a plant (Pic. 121) the cabbage butterfly has four generations during its active period in plains and the pest is serious during December-April. Control :

1. The leaves having egg masses and larvae in the gregarious phase can be plucked and destroyed.

2. Chemical control measures are same as for diamond back moth. Spot application can be done, in case the attack is localized on isolated plants.

CABBAGE SEMI LOOPERS

Thysanoplusia orichalcea Autographa nigrisigna

Identification : The adults of T. orichalcea are light brown with a large golden patch on each of the fore-wings. The moth of A. nigrisigna are darker and have dark brown dirty-white

patches on the forewings. The larvae are plump and pale green (Pic. 122). They move by forming semi-loops.

Damage : The caterpillar is the destructive stage. They feed on leaves by biting holes of varying sizes. The complete defoliation of plant is possible during severe infestation.

Life History : The pest remains active during winter and spring seasons, whereas it is unknown how they survive the heat of summer. The moth lays about 400 eggs on the leaves. After hatching, the semi-loppers feed voraciously and pupate inside the folded eaves or in the debris lying on the ground. During its active period, the life cycle is generally completed in 30 days, but it may be prolonged depending upon the weather conditions. The pest is serious during February-March. Control : Control measure are same as for cabbage caterpillar.

PAINTED BUG

Bagrada hilaris

The painted bug attacks cruciferous crops and vegetables in the Punjab.

Identification : The nymphs are black with a number of brown markings on the body, whereas, the adults are about 7 mm long appear typically shield shaped with a mixture of black, white and orange markings (Pic. 123). Damage : Both the nymphs and adults suck cell sap from the foliage. Whitish marking appear on the infested leaves (Pic. 124). The leaves wilt and dry up. Young plants often die completely. Life History : The pest is active throughout the year from February to December except May-June when the bugs aestivate in the cracks and crevices of soil. It passes winter in the adult stage under harvested heaps of dried oilseed plants lying in the fields. The female lays more than 100 pale-yellow eggs singly or in groups of 3-8 eggs in the soil or on leaves. There are five nymphal instars, which take 2-3 weeks for development the life-cycle is completed in 19-54 days in the active season. There are 9 generations of this pest in a year and the pest is more serious during February-March in field and July-August in nursery. Control : The bugs can be checked by spraying 400 ml of Malathion 50 EC in 80 litres of water

per acre immediately on the appearance of this pest.

MUSTARD APHID

Lipaphis erysimi

There main species of aphids i.e. Brevicoryne brassicae, Lipaphis erysimi and Myzus persicae are found attacking cruciferous vegetables including cabbage, cauliflower, knol-khol, chinese cabbage, radish and turnip, etc. of these, L. erysimi is the most common and has world wide distribution.

Identification : Both nymphs and wingless adults are louse like and pale-green in colour. Besides, adult aphid (apterous) is olive green and plumpy, dorsum with two longitudinal rows of coarsely reticulated shining areas. Cornicles on of 5-6 abdominal segment are present. Whereas, in a late adult, had and thorax are black, abdomen is provided with blackish lateral areas and transparent wings. Damage : The damage is caused by nymphs and adults by sucking cell-sap from the leaves, tender shoots, stems, inflorescence or the developing pods (Pics. 125 & 126). Leaves acquire a curly appearance, the flowers fail to form pods and the developing pods do not produce healthy seeds. Life History : L. erysimi is most abundant in winter from December to March on its various host plants. During summer, it is believed to emigrate to the hills and also survive on cruciferous weeds in the plains. The pest breeds parthenogenetically and the female gives birth to 26-133 nymphs. Nymphs attain the adult status in about 7-10 days. About 45 generations are completed in a year. Control : Spray 250-500 ml of Malathion 50EC or 100-350 ml of Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) in 80-100 litres of water. Repeat the spray at 10 days interval if necessary. Other insect pests The other insects which attack cruciferous vegetables include tobacco caterpillar and cutworms (see under polyphagous pests).

POLYPHAGOUS PESTSCUTWORMS

Agrotis ipsilonAgrotis segetum

Cutworms are serious pests of potato crop but may also appear on tomato, okra, brinjal, chilli, cucurbits, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, mustard, peas, turnip, onion and any other cruciferous vegetables. Identification : The dark brown larva with a red head has a smooth and greasy skin and measures 25-30 mm in length (Pic. 127). Forewings of adult moth are dirty brown with a characteristic marking. The hind-wings are usually whitish and semi transparent (Pic. 128). Damage : Larvae cause damage by cutting the young plants at the ground level or by making feeding holes into the tubers of potato, onion, etc. (Pics. 129 & 130). The larvae may carry the cut portion of plants into their burrows. It inflicts heavy damage to the spring sown potato crop. They are more active during night. Life History : The pest breeds on potato and gram from September to March. The female moth lays 35-1775 eggs singly or in batches of up to 30 eggs on the underside of lower leaves. The eggs hatch in 2 to 13 days. The larva becomes full grown in about a month. It pupates in the soil in an earthen cell and the adult emerges in 10-30 days. The life cycle is completed in 42-70 days and there are 3-4 generations in a year in the plains. This pest is reported to aestivate as a moth during summer and the attack is most serious during February-March. Control : Drench the soil with a sprinkling cane around the plant and the ridges with chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1 litre/acre in 400 litres of water on the appearance of this pest in January-February

TOBACCO CATERPILLAR

Spodoptera litura

This pest is wide spread in India. Besides tobacco, it feeds on cabbage, cauliflower, pea, cowpea, potato, tomato, cotton, groundnut, legumes, millets, soybean, maize, chilli and castor.

Identification : The caterpillars are stout, cylindrical, velvety black, 35-40 mm long with yellowish green dorsal stripes and lateral white bands (Pic. 131). The moth is dark coloured with white-wavy markings on the forewings. Hind wings are whitish in colour with brown

margins. It measures about 22 mm in wing expanse. Damage : The young larvae first feed gregariously and scrape the leaves (Pic. 132) and later on they spread out in the field and may completely defoliate plants (Pic. 133). The pest causes maximum damage during August to October. Life History : The pest breeds throughout the year, but its activity is reduced during severe winter. The female moth lays 300 eggs in clusters on the underside of the tender leaves which are covered with a tuft of brown hairs. These eggs hatch in about 3-5 days. Larval period is completed in 15-30 days. Pupation takes place in the soil for 7-15 days. The life cycle is completed in 32-60 days. The pest has eight generations in a year. Control : The leaves having egg masses and larvae in the gregarious phase can be plucked and destroyed. Spray 200-400 ml of Ekalux 25 EC (quinalphos) or Thiodan 35 EC (endosulfan) or Dipterex 50 EC (trichlorophon) in 80-100 litres of water per acre. Spot application can be done, in case the attack is localized in isolated plants.

TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS

Microtermes obesiOdontotermes obsesusTrinvervitermes biformis

Termites, also commonly called white ants, are soft-bodies social insects. There are sub-terranean and mound forming species of termites. In a colony, there are numerous workers, soldiers and a queen, a king and a good number winged sexual of both sexes formed seasonally Identification : The queen (5-10 cm in length and about 1 cm in the thickness) is the biggest in size of all members of the colony. Head is oval, wings are shed off, abdomen large with transverse dark brown stripes (terga) and the whitish area uniting the terga is the stretched inter segmental membrane. The king is much smaller than the queen, but is bigger than the soldiers and workers. In king, the abdominal sterum backwardly protruded to form the subgenital plate which covers the vestigial genitalia. Soldiers may be mandibulate with long and sickle shaped mandibles or nasutiform with syringe like mouth used for defense by spraying defensive chemicals. On the other hand, worker has oval head, whitish moniliform antennae and thin and soft cuticle (Pic. 134). Workers normally avoid light and their body shrivel up quickly when exposed outside.

Damage : Damage is caused by the feeding and foraging activities of the workers which cut tunnel into plants, especially seedlings. In chillies and peas, the workers of termite feed on roots, and make galleries into the underground portion of stems. As a result of which the plants wilt, leaves turn yellow, and ultimately dry up (Pic. 135). If such plants are completely uprooted, the soil will be found filled in channels/galleries. Life History : Termites are social insects and live in colonies. Eggs are laid by the queen in the royal chamber and, in many cases, are removed by the workers and placed in the fungus grown in the colony for food. A queen may lay eggs at the rate of 30,000 eggs per day during the life span of 6-9 years. In the summer, the eggs may hatch in about a week and within 6 months, the nymphs develop to form soldiers or workers. The reproductive castes when produced are winged. During the evenings after the first showers of rain, the winged males and females fly up in the sky in thousands, fall down as pair on the ground where they mate, burrow a new nest and start new colonies. Control :

1. Keep fields clean of all refuse vegetation.2. Avoid the use of green or farm yard manure in partially rotten conditions.

BIHAR HAIRY CATERPILLAR

Spilosoma obliqua

The bihar hairy caterpillar is a sporadic pest and causes serious damage particularly to cruciferous vegetables, sesamum, mash, mung, linseed, mustard, etc.

Identification : Newly hatched larva has bright brown head, yellowish body covered with numerous hair and measures about 40-45 mm in length. Legs are brownish in colour, whereas, older larvae are much darker and have numerous dark brown hairs of almost uniform length. The ventral side of body and head are dull yellow in moths. The eyes, thorax and antennae are black. Abdomen is bright red with dorsal median series of black dots. Forewings with redish tinge and hind wings are provided with dark brown spot. Antennae are bipectinate in male and pectinate in female moth. Damage : Caterpillars eat leaves and soft portions of stems and branches (Pic. 136). In case of severe infestation, the leaves are skeletonized and the plants may be completely defoliated. Life History : The pest breeds from March to April and from July to November. It passes cold winter

months and the hot summer months in the pupal stage hidden in plants debris or in the soil. The moths emerge in March and start laying 400-1500 light green spherical eggs in clusters on the underside of leaves. The eggs hatch in 8-13 days. The young caterpillars feed gregariously on leaves. Later, they disperse and feed voraciously. After feeding for 4-8 weeks, they pupate for 7-15 days. The life cycle is completed in 35-42 days during the summer and 70-84 days during the winter. The pest has 3-4 generations in a year. Control :

1. Collect the leaves infested with young gregarious caterpillars and destroy them.2. Young caterpillars can be killed by applying 10 kg of Malathion/Trichlorophon

5% dust per acre.3. The grown up caterpillars should be destroyed by spraying 500 ml of Thiodan 35

EC (endosulfan) or 375 ml of Diptrex 50 EC (trichlorophon) or 200 ml of Nuvan 100 EC (dichlorovos) using 80-125 litres of water per acre.

WEEDSVegetables are the integral part of the human diet. These crops are cultivated on a sizeable area in the state and being slow-growing during the initial stages of growth are badly infested by the weeds which inflict heavy losses in the yield. Moreover, the growing conditions especially wider two spacing, frequent irrigation and the addition of farm yard manure/compost add to the intensity of different categories of weeds growing in association with these crops. Some of the weeds species develop a specific association with the vegetable crops because of their continuous cultivation over years. Since last many decades, the removal of weeds in these crops with the manual weeding/hoeing has become a common practice with the vegetable growers. Because of the prevailing field conditions, particularly soil moisture, most of the weeds escape removal and produce enormous seeds and hence continue to appear in the same field year after year. In some of the vegetable crops weeds not only reduce the yield but also affect the quality of these crops. Hence the timely removal of weeds in vegetable crops is quite important in order to produce the desired quantity and the quality of these crops. The use of herbicides has become quite popular with the farmers because of cost-effectiveness and the timely control of weeds in vegetable crops. The following weed management practices are recommended in different vegetable crops to attain the potential yield of these crops.

Weed management in Kharif vegetables with the use of herbicides :

Okra : This crop being a rainy-season crop is badly infested with different weeds including Madhana (Eleusine aegyptiacum), Chirian da dana (Eragrostis tennela), Chulai (Amaranthus viridis), Bhakhra (Tribulus terrestris), Itsit (Trianthema portulacastrum), Tandla (Digera arvensis), Motha (Cyprus rotundus) etc. These weeds if not controlled timely, cause heavy loss in the yield. Pre-emergence application of Lasso (alachlor) at 5 L/ha in 500 litres of water sprayed with knap sack sprayer fitted with flat fan/flood jet nozzle can help controlling the weeds from the corp. Also the pre-plant application of Basalin (fluchloralin) at 2.5 L/ha in 500 litres of water can be used to control annual

weeds in this crop. In order to ensure good control of weeds uniform application of the herbicide may be ensured.

Onion (rabi) : This crop is infested by various type of weeds flora including Maina (Medicago denticulata), Bathu (Chenopodium album), Ghuien (Poa annua) Chirian da dana (Eragrostis tenella), Lunak (Portulaca oleracea) and in latter stages even It sit (Trianthema protulacartrum). Weeds appear in a rank growth slow growing in nature and cannot withstand the weed competition and thus sometimes the crop is completely smothered by the weeds if not timely removed. The rabi crop of onion can be sprayed with Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) at 1.0 kg/acre or 750 ml as pre-emergence. After the transplanting of the seedling in the field followed by irrigation. Stomp can be sprayed by dissolving the field is having proper moisture in 150-200 litres of water/acre when the field is having proper moisture (watter). In order to get uniform spray over the entire field it is necessary to use flat fan or flood jet nozzle. In case the weeds appear in the later even after the application of Stomp, a hoeing may be done to check any loss in the yield of this crop.

Peas : Vegetables peas are infested by both autumn and winter annual weeds namely, Itsit/chupati (Trianthema portulacastrum), Bathu (Chenopodium album), Maina (Medicago denticulata), Maini (Trigonella polycerata), Khandi (Melilotus alba), Bili Booti (Anagallis arvensis), Matri (Lathyrus apheca), Wild hallon (Cornopus dydimus) and Ghuien (Poa annua). When the pea crop is grown after rice, it is badly infested by phalaris minor as well. In order to control weeds in this crop, pre-emergence application of Stomp 30 EC (pedimethalin) at 1.0 litre/acre can be made by dissolving it in 200 litres of water. This crop when sown on ridges the application of this herbicide may be made after first irrigation which is generally given immediately after sowing on ridges. Uniform application of the herbicide may be ensured by spraying with either flat fan or flood jet nozzle fitted with knap-sack spray pump. When there is good stand of the crop and normal growth is taking place, the later flushes of weeds, if emerge, can be smothered by the crop. In case the crop stand is patchy, the later flushes of the weeds are likely to emerge and hence a hoeing at later stages of the crop can help eliminating the weed competition successfully.

Cauliflower and cabbage : These crops are grown from June to April and are badly infested by the weeds of the different season. During rainy season the weeds like Itsit/chupati (Trianthema portulacastrum) Madhana (Eleusine aegyptiacum), Chulai (Amaranthus viridis), Motha (Cyperus rotundus) appear in these crops. While in the main crop, Ghuien (Poa annua), Bathu (Chenopodium album), Jangli dhania (Spergula arvensis), Jangli palak (Rumex dentatus) Jangli halon (Cornopus dydimus) and sometimes Phalaris minor are the weeds which appear in a rank growth in these crops. The use of Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) or Basalin 45 EC (fluchloralin) can be made to eliminate these weeds. The pre-emergence application of Stomp at 1.0 litre or 750 ml/acre may be done after first irrigation, which is done immediately after transplanting of the seedlings in the field. The herbicide should be

dissolved in 150-200 litres of water and the spraying may be done with flat fan/flood jet nozzle fitted with knap sack spray pump. Alternately, weeds can be controlled by giving pre-plant (before transplanting) application of Basalin at 750 ml/ac. The herbicide should be sprayed in a well prepared seed bed and afterwards be incorporated in the soil by running disc harrow. After doing these operations, the transplanting of the seedlings may be done, followed by irrigation. Sometimes weeds may appear in the later stages of the crop which may be removed by giving a hoeing so as to check the weed competition, if any.

Potato: Potato crop is infested by different categories of weeds which appear in different seasons. The crop which is sown in the month of September or early October faces a lot of competition due to the appearance of Itsit (Trianthema portulacastrum), Chirian da dana (Eragrostis tennella), Madhana (Eleusine aegyptiacum), Chulai (Amaranthus viridis), Tandla (Digera arvensis). The crop which is shown in winter i.e. after October has the infestation of Bathu (Chenopodium album), Maina (Medicago denticulate), Bili buti (Anagallis arvensis), Jangli palak (Rumex dentatus), Jangli halon (Cornopus dydimus), Ghuien (Poa annua) and sometimes Guli danda (Phalaris minor) when crop is grown after rice. To control weeds effectively the following herbicides can be used in this crop.

Name of the herbicide Dose/acre Time of application

Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) 1.0 litres Pre-emergence but after first irrigation to potato crop

Isoproturon 500 g - do -

Sencor 70 WP (Metribuzin) 200 g - do -

Lasso 50 EC (Alachlor) 2.0 litre - do -

Atrataf (Atrazine) 200 g - do -

Gramaxone 20 EC (Paraquat) 500 ml – 750 ml When 5-10 percent emergence of potato takes place and weeds have emerged completely.

In case of Gramaxone the lower does (500 ml) may be used when the weeds have a less growth (1-2 leaf stage) whereas higher does may be used when weeds grow little more (2-3 leaf stage). In field where Ghuien (Poa annua) is a problem avoid the use of Gramaxone as it does not kill this weed because of the later emergence of this, weed while the other herbicide because of their soil residue help controlling this weed even if emerges later on. In field where musk melon or another crop of cucurbits is to be sown after potato, don’t spray Atrazine to potato crop as it kills the seedling of musk melon due to its soil carry over.

Tomato

This crop is mainly infested with winter weeds such as Bathu (Chenopodium album), Maina (Medicago denticulate), Jangli dhania (Spergula arvensis), Khandi (Melilotus alba), Jangli halon (Cornopus dydimus), Jangli palak (Rumex dentatus) and Ghuien (Poa annua). During initial stages of crop growth, these seeds may over grow the cop if not controlled timely. These can be controlled by spraying Stomp 30 EC (pendimethalin) or Basalin 45 EC (fluchloralin) or Sencor 70 WP (Metribuzin). Of thses, Stomp at 1.0 litre or 750 ml/acre or Sencor 300 g/acre can be sprayed by dissolving in 200 litre of water on a well prepared seed bed 3-4 days before transplanting of seedling. After spraying, transplanting of seedlings of tomato crop may be done followed by light irrigation. In case Basalin is to be used, it may be sprayed at 1.0 litre or 750 ml/acre before sowing by mixing it in 200 litres of water. After spray, it should be thoroughly incorporated in the soil by running a disc harrow and after this the transplanting of tomato crop seedlings may be done as per recommendation. In case the weeds appear in the later stages of the crop (before flowering) a hoeing may be given to eliminate weed competition. Precautions for herbicide spray

Ensure uniform spray which can be done by making use of flat fan/food jet nozzles.

While making solution of herbicide in water, make use of rubber hand gloves to prevent the contact of body parts with herbicide.

Before start spraying, caliberate the spray pump for the quantity of water to be used for the area to be sprayed.

Ensure that the whole field is sprayed by one spray man otherwise second person engaged may not be able to spray in the same manner because of change in speed etc.

Spray the herbicides on a calm day so as to check air drift of the spray solution. In case the whole solution of the herbicide in water is made at a time in a big

container, it is very necessary to stir the solution each time before filling the tank of the spray pump. This is more important for wettable formulation as the material settle downs at the bottom of the container.

Keep the herbicide out the reach of the children and destroy the empty tins/packs of the herbicide after use.

KHABBAL (Barmudagrass)

Cynodon dactylon

Identification : A perennial grass with creeping stem. It tightly holds the soil through adventitious roots (Pic. 137). Flowers throughout the year propagates through stolons and root stocks. It is a serious wed in uncultivated fields, kharif crops, orchards and appears from April to September. It is also used as lawn grass and pasture grass. Once gets established continues its infestation over a longer period till the crop cycle is changed.

Control :1. Prevent the movement of farm implements from field until thoroughly cleaned of

weed parts.2. Deep and frequent ploughing during hot months (May and June). Collection of

root stock from the infested fields and burning.

DILA OR MOTHA (Nutgrass or Nutsedge)

Cyperus rotundus

Identification : It is most persistent common abnoxious perennial weed grows in summer, rainy season and early winter vegetable crops (Pic. 138). Its infestation is more serious in sugarcane, cotton, maize and other field crops and kharif vegetables. This weed propagates through tubers and rhizomes. It is a very prolific weed and a single parent plant produces large number of secondary plants, rhizomes and tubers in a single season. New tubers are formed within 3 weeks and remain viable over years. It flowers form May to October. Most of the tuberization takes place from August to October when the day length shortens. Control :1. Preventing this weed to intrude new fields through the cleaning of implements from

tubers before any operation in the new field will check its spread.2. Repeated fallow cultivation during hot and dry months of April, May and June can

kill the rhizomes and tubers and basal bulbs.3. Application of Glyphosate as post emergence in between the rows of the wider row

sown crops may prove better to eliminate this weed.

TACKRI GHAS (Crab ghas)

Digitaria sanguinalis

Identification : Annual, sometimes, perennial, when growing in a perennial crop. It is usually tall growing and attains the height varying from 90 to 100 cm. Well branched from the base but during initial stages of growth remains spreading and assumes upright growth in the later stages (Pic. 139). Rooting from the nodes and sometimes forming extensive mats. It flowers during the months of September to November and propagation by seed and runners (stems rooting at lower nodes). Grows actively during rainy season but can also grow well in semi dry regions. It is found in okra, brinjal, chillies, early radish, peas and potato.

Control :1. Repeated cultivations during growing period particularly before and after rainy

season.

2. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin in okra, potato cabbage, cauliflower and pre-emergence application of atrazine/paraquat in potato, metribuzin in potato and tomato.

3. Post-emergence spray of paraquat of glyphosate in wider row vegetable crops.

MAKRA MADHANA (Wiregrass/crow foot grass)

Eleusine indica

Identification : There are two species of Eleusine.

(i) Elusine aegyptiacum (Madhana) has tufted erect stem 30-60 cm high, leaves 7-10 cm long and flat, leaf sheath loose and overlapping leaf blades 7-10 cm long. Has spikes 3-7 at the top of the stem. It flowers and fruits from August to October and produces numerous seeds and propagate through seeds (Pic. 140 A).

(ii) The other species E. indica (Makra) has soft stem, fibrous roots which form a mat like structure at the ground when more in number. Propagation is through seeds (Pic. 140 B). Both species are found in all summer, rainy season and early winter vegetables.

Control :1. In case, the field remains fallow for a short period, a hot weather

cultivation may be helpful in reducing its intensity. 2. Two hoeings (3 & 6 weeks after sowing) in case of closer row vegetable

crops and two inter-culture operations in wide row crops can help eliminate this weed especially cucurbits, brinjal and chillies.

3. Use of pendimethalin in okra, early potato and cole crops and also atrazine/paraquat/metribuzin in potato crops can give good control of this weed.

CHIRYA DA DANA

Eragrostis Tenella

Identification : It is a shade loving grass, about 40 cm. high with many slender stems. It makes its appearance in summer season and grows in abundance in rainy season but continue its growth up to early winter period also. It is found common in about all vegetable crops, like okra, brinjal, cucurbits, beans, onion, potato and cole corps (Pic. 141). Inflorescence-spikelets are not very strongly compressed and are rather held very loosely. Seeds are pale brown in colour. It is profilic in nature and propagation through seeds.

Control :1. Clean cultivation so that the plant is not allowed to shed seeds.2. Hoeing in solid drill vegetable crops while interculture in crop sown at wider

distance as cucurbits.3. Use of chemicals like pendimethalin in okra, potato, early cole crops, tomato and

onion; atrazine/metribuzin/isoproturon in potato, metribuzine in tomato.

CHULAI (Pigweed)

Amaranthus Viridis

Identification : An annual glabrous (without hair smooth) much branched herb usually 25-50 cm. all Grows abundantly from July to October in fields, on bunds of fields and moist places. Stem is grooved, often tinged with purple colour. Leaves are deep green, simple, ovate, alternate with long stalks (Pic. 142). It flowers during August-September. Seeds are minute, black and shining, prolific in nature and propagate by seeds. It is commonly found in okra, cucurbits, early cauliflower, potato and peas. Amaranthus spinosis : An annual herb, with hard stem having spines, it is found growing on farm yard manure pits, lands and in field crops also.

Control :1. in heavily infested fields, allow the weed to grow with a pre-sowing irrigation and

then plough the field before sowing the crop.2. In chillies and cucurbits this weed can be controlled with tow hoeings. Use of

pendimethalin in okra, early cauliflower and onion while atrazine metribuzin and paraquat in potato can eliminate this weed.

DODHAK (Spurge)

Euphorbia hirth

Identification : It is an annual erect herb growing to a height of 100-150 cm. it is found in kharif season and may keep on growing till late fall. The plant contains white milky juice. Stem is (Pic. 143) hairy, leaves opposite and in pairs, elliptic with oblique bases, oblong, green or reddish above and pale beneath. Flowers are minute, present in terminal cluster in axis of leaves producing large number of seeds. Seeds reddish brown in colour. It is a very common weed of lawns and grassy play grounds. This weed is commonly found in summer vegetables like chillies, okra, early cauliflower etc. it also grows in early crop of potato under certain situations especially in field where organic matter content is high.

Control :

1. Give tow hoeings before seed setting.2. Application of pendimethalin may be used in okra and early cauli-flower, while in

early crop of potato, atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat may be used for controlling this weed.

BHAKHRA (Puncture vine)

Tribulus terrestria

Identification : It is a serious annual weed which spreads very quickly due to its nature, produces large number of fruits. Stem is prostrate, round much branched, with hairs, especially on the terminal regions. Its leaves are opposite and compound. Flowers are small and light yellow. Fruit is five angled bearing four hard pointed spines – two of which are larger than the rest. Flowering and fruiting season is during June-September (Pic. 144). It grows commonly in summer vegetable, uncultivated light sandy-loam soil and along roads.

Control :1. Plough fields infested with this weed early before flowering seed setting

especially where winter vegetable crops are sown.2. Two hoeings or mechanical removal with wheel hoe can control this weed before

the plants set seed. Hoeing must be done before fruit and seed setting, otherwise it becomes difficult to control this weed.

3. Use pendimethalin in okra, potato and early cauliflower. This weed can also be controlled with the application of atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat in early crop of potato.

TANDLA (Digera)

Digera arvensis

Identification : It is a common pot herb 25-50 mm high. The plants are erect and slender. The lower branches are prostrate. Leaves are simple, alternate; flowers are red and small. Flowers and fruits appear during July to September. It propagates through seeds and grows abundantly in fallow and cultivated fields. It is commonly found growing in summer and spring vegetable crops grown on light textured soils. It is also used as pot herb.

Control :1. Plough field infested with this weed early before flowering/ seed setting

especially where winter vegetable crops are sown.2. Two hoeings in crops may be done where this weed grows abundantly.3. Use pendimethalin in okra, potato and early cauliflower. This weed can be

controlled with the application of atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat only in potato.

DICOT WEEDSITSIT/CHUPATI (Horsepurslane)

Triantheme portulacastrum

Identification : It is a weed of high organic matter soil. An annual rainy season succulent herb with prostrate forked branches 20-40 cm long. Leaves are opposite or sub-opposite, unequal broadly ovate and oblong 12-15 mm, inflorescence’s solitary, flowers sessile, white or pinkish from the forks of the branches, sepals 5, coloured, stamens 15-24 (Pic. 146) Five to seven seeds are produced in a capsule which is present in the leaf or branch axil. Seeds are black with concentric lines. It flowers and fruits from March to October. This weed is found growing in all the vegetables crops grown during the summer season including cucurbits, okra, chillies, early sown cauliflower and potato. Control :

1. Use well rotton farm yard manure free from the seeds of this weed. 2. By giving 2 to 3 hard hoeings/inter-cultures, the population pressure of this weed

can be reduced.3. It can be controlled very effectively by spraying pendimethalin in okra,

cauliflower/cabbage and onion whereas, in potato the use of atrazine/metribuzin/paraquat /pendimethalin can help elimintinating this weed.

MATRI (Meadow pea)

Lathyrus aphaca

Identification : A non-serious little herb, leaves being reduced to tendrils at the base of which the large hastate ovate foliaceous stipules perform the function of leaflets. Flowers are yellow, pods 25 mm sub-falcate, seed black/dark green, smooth compressed (Pic. 147) the flowering time is from December to April and propagations by seed only. It is weed of winter vegetable crops.

Control :1. One or two hoeings can easily eliminate this weed from different crops.2. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin in peas, potato, cauli-flower; pre-

emergence application of Atrazine/Metribuzin in potato and Metribuzin in tomato.

KHANDI/WILD SENJI (Sweet clover)

Melilotus sp.

Identification : Wild senji is a common weed of rabi vegetable cops but more prevalent in areas where crops are grown with moisture. There are two species of this weed (i) Melilotus alba with white flowers is erect growing, 30-60 cm high. Leaflets 2.5 mm (Pic. 148). Clovers generally white in recemes 7-10 cm long, Pod 3 mm long. Melilotus indica with yellow flowers is somewhat spreading but in other respect quite similar to M. alba. The infestation of this annual weed is more common in vegetable crops grown on light to medium textured soils. Can be fed to cattle as fodder after removal.

Control :1. Use clean seed for sowing.2. Uproot the plants with the help of two hoeings-first hoeing 4 weeks after sowing

and second, there weeks after the first hoeing. Dry hoeing is more useful.3. Pre-emergence application of Atrazine/Metribuzin/Pendimethalin, in potato and in

peas, tomato and onion can provide good control of this weed.

BILLI BOOTI (Blue pimpernel)

Anagalis arvensis

Identification : It is very fast growing weed in all the vegetable crops grown during winter season. Stem is erect or procumbent with 4 angled branches 12-25 cm long and sessile ovate or oblong ovate or lanceolate leaves 10-20 mm in length. Flowers are very pretty blue on slender peduncles. (Pic. 149). Capsule are about 5 mm in diameter. Seeds is trigonous and can grow and produce seeds in partial shade.

Control :1. Give hand hoeing-first dry hoeings before irrigation and second after irrigation if

required.2. In tomato, cauliflower, potato and pea, this weed can be controlled with the use of

Pendimethalin. Metribuzin can also be used in tomato and potato while Atrazine may be used only in potato crop to control this weed.

MAINA (Bur clover)

Medicago denticulata

Identification : It is a small prostrate plant with trailing branches. Leaves are alternate, compound, trifoliate typical of clovers, ovate, touched with broad tips. Flowers are small, bright

yellow in colour, in clusters and appear from January to March (Pic. 150). It propagates through seed and germinates usually after the first irrigation. Fruits are coiled, spiny, containing minute seeds which are dispersed by canal water, sheep, goats, dogs, etc. this weed is generally found in all winter vegetable crops.

Control :1. Irrigate the field and let the seeds germinate and then plough up the young plants.2. Use clean seed of crops in order to prevent its infestation in the fields.3. Give two hoeings first hoeing three weeks after sowing and followed by second,

three weeks later.4. In tomato, cauliflower and onion crops, pre-emergence application of

pendimethalin can control this weed. In potato, pre-emergence application of atrazine/metribuzin/isoproturon and early post-emergence application to paraquat can control this weed.

BATHU (Lambs quarter/goose foot)

Chenopodium album

Identification : A common weed found abundantly in all winter vegetable crops. It also appears in rain fed winter crops. It is an erect annual herb, with smooth, leaves which are somewhat fleshy and alternate and upper surface is dark green. Stem are angled, variegated (striped green, red and purple). Flowers are in clusters, green, very minute and appear during March-May (Pic. 151). Seed are numerous, minute and shiny. The plants have a strong and deep tap root system. Seed shed during pervious year germinate in October-November. Its seeds are generally mixed in the seeds of different vegetable crops especially which are grown for seed purpose.

Control :1. Irrigate the field and let the seeds germinate and then plough up the young plant. 2. User clean seed of crops in order to prevent its infestation in the new fields.3. Give two hoeing-first 3 weeks after sowing and followed by second 3 weeks later.4. In tomato, cauliflower and onion crops, pre-emergence application of

Pendimethalin can control this weed effectively, whereas, in potato, atrazine/metribuzin/isoproturon/paraquat can be applied for the control of this weed.

CHOTTI SWANK (Little bran yard grass)

Penicum colonum l.

Identification : An annual tuft grass, it is well tillered from the base and branching from the nodes.

Stem sometimes bends towards the base. Leaves are glabourous and 10-15 cm long and 2-3 cm wide are grows actively during season but remains stunted if the season is dry (Pic. 152). Prefer to grow on moist heavy textured soils. Flowering head a panicle. Flower during July to November and propagation is by seeds. It is a common weed of okra, brinjal and chillies and sometimes may appear in early sown cauliflower and potato.

Control :1. Clean cultivation, hoeing/inter-culture of infested fields before seed formation,

especially in brinjal and chillies.2. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin in okra, early sown potato and pre-

emergence application of atrazine/metribuzin in potato.

JANGLI PALAK (Deck)

Rumex dentatus

Identification : It is an erect, deep-rooted glabrous annual weed, 30-100 cm tall Roots are deep and are of red-colour while stem are ribbed. Radical leaves are much longer and oblong. Flowers are green (Pic. 153) and grow luxuriantly in moist fields having more organic matter. Flowering and fruiting is during February to April.

Control :1. Use clean seeds for sowing to prevent infestation.2. Give two hoeings at 3 and 6 weeks after sowing of winter vegetable crops.3. Pre-emergence spraying of Atrazine/Metribuzin/Isoproturon in potato;

Metribuzin/Pendimethalin in tomato; Pendimethalin in cabbage, cauliflower and onion will check this weed.

GULLIDANDA / SITTI / KANKI / MANDUSI (Canary grass / bird seed grass)

Phalaris minor

Identification : A robust weed associated with wheat crop especially in dwarf varieties. Its infestation is common in fields where winter vegetables are grown after rice, especially peas, cauliflower, potato etc. Stem is erect with distinct nodes and internodes; leaves are long, ligule exceptionally long (about 1 cm) (Pic. 154) and clasps the stem. Panicles are cylindrical, erect; seeds are small, shining and resemble those of linseed. Panicles commence maturity about 2 weeks before wheat harvest.

Control :1. Use clean seeds free of this grass seeds.

2. Dab system also gives some relief form this weed. To stimulate weed seeds by irrigating the field in first week of November followed by another irrigation. After this prepare seed bed and sow late potato/tomato. This practice though delays sowing by about 2 weeks but population pressure of this weed is reduced.

3. By using herbicides namely isoproturon, atrazine, metribuzin in potato and tomato, pendimethalin in potato, cauliflower, peas, tomato and onion.

4. Change of rotation – sowing of other crops in fields badly infested with this weed can help providing great relief from this weed.

NUTRITIONAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS Physiological disorders can be defined as the disturbance in the physical process in the plants due to deficiency or excess of certain nutrient elements, cold and hot weather effects and lack of water supply etc. Sixteen elements are essential for normal growth and development of a plant. The major nutrients required by the plats are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur. In addition, some elements like iron, managanese, copper, zinc, boron, molybdenum and chlorine are required by plants in very small amounts. Nutritional problems must be considered in relation to all the conditions in which plant grows and not merely in terms of the amount of plant nutrients contained in or added to the soil. The availability of different nutrients may be affected by conditions of light, temperature, water supply and by other general environmental factors. Soil conditions also greatly complicate the problems of nutrient supply to crops. The deficiency of nutrients can lead to the manifestation of characteristic symptoms. Here an efforts has been made to explain the diagnostic symptoms of nutrients deficiency and other environmental factors which use physiological disorders in vegetable crops.

NITROGEN DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : Nitrogen is one of the nutrients that plant can readily translocate from older to growing parts. The symptoms of its deficiency, therefore, always appear first on older leaves as yellow discoloration which start from the tip and later extend toward the base of the leaf. With time, the whole of the affected leaf turn yellow, wither and finally die. The younger leaves remain green during initial stages of its deficiency (Pic. 155 radish, Pic. 156 carrot). As the deficiency advances these symptoms may also appear on younger leaves too and the entire crop gives a pale look. The crop shows stunted growth with poor branching, flowering and fruiting. Succulence, which is an important parameter of vegetable quality, will be less in nitrogen deficient plants. Almost all the crops have similar symptoms of nitrogen deficiency.

Conditions for development : Most of the Indian as well as the Punjab soils are low in nitrogen and the deficiency symptoms are very common where sufficient quantities of nitrogenous fertilizers and decomposed organic manure is not applied. The deficiency of nitrogen is however, server in sandy soils which are low in organic matter.

Remedial measures : Use the recommended dose of nitrogenous fertilizers.

PHOSPHORUS DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : The symptoms of phosphorus deficiency appear on older leaves. Initially the older leaves become dark green and later turn to purplish from the tip toward the base and start drying (Pic. 157) cabbage, Pic. 158 carrot). As the deficiency increases the stem of the plant also turn purple. Such plants have very poor growth. Generally, in all the vegetable crops these symptoms are identical. In cauliflower sometimes, the head also shows intensive purple shade.

Conditions for disease development : The availability of phosphorus is generally affected by the amount of iron and aluminium ions in acidic soils and calcium in alkaline soil, as these ions form some complex with phosphate ions which have low solubility. The coarse textured soils low in organic matter as well as soils high in sesquioxides are generally low in phosphorus supply. Its deficiency is common on such types of soils where phosphorous fertilizer are not used in adequate quantity.

Remedial measures : Use recommended dose of phosphatic fertilizers at the time of sowing/planting. It is advisable to place the fertilizer in close proximity of the seed/root, as the mobility of phosphorus in soils is negligible.

POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : Deficiency of potassium appear as chlorosis at the tip and along the margin of older leaves followed by necrosis. With progress in time, the necrotic region turn brown and brittle because of scorching. According to crop the scorched margins may curl up or downward (Pic. 159, turnip, Pic. 160 A bhindi). As the deficiency increases, these symptoms may appear on younger leaves too. In potato, symptoms of potassium deficiency are exhibited on both recently matured as well as older leaves (Pic. 160 Potato). The leaves ban downwards and the up rolled margins give them ladle like appearance. The foliage wilts and dies with signs of scorching. In cauliflower and cabbage, yellowish to whitish brown blotches with dark edges appear on margins of the older leaves. These later unite, leading to scorching of the leaf margin, which roll inward. In case of peas the margins of affected leaves bend downwards.

Conditions for disease development : Potassium deficiency is encountered on coarse textured soils which are low in organic matter; acid soils with a low cation exchange capacity or; on soils with high content of three-layered clay minerals that have lost much of their potassium owing to intensive cultivation. Since potassium uptake by plants largely depends upon mass flux, its availability is reduced in dry period. Plants may consequently exhibit sign of potassium deficiency after long dry spell even on soils with a good potassium status. Remedial measures : Since the mobility of potassium in soil is very low hence, top dressing of potassium fertilizer may not be fully effective. Therefore, recommended dose of potassium fertilizer must be applied at the time of sowing to soils low in this nutrient.

SULPHUR DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : Contrary to nitrogen, the symptoms of sulphur deficiency first appear on younger leaves. Which become chlorotic leaving the tip slightly green. As the deficiency increases the entire leaf turns yellow. Sulphur deficient plants are poor in growth than normal plants. They are stunted and have a rigid appearance (Pic. 161) chilli. In cauliflower, leaves develop interveinal chlorosis starting from the margin and extending towards the base of the leaf and curve inward (Pic. 161 B cauliflower). The leaves have prominent mid-rib and narrow lamina.

Conditions for disease development : Crops grown on coarse textured soils, low in organic matter, irrigated with canal water and far from industrial areas may exhibit sulphur deficiency symptoms. Remedial measures : Use sulphur containing fertilizers or 50-100 kg gypsum per acre at the time of sowing. One can apply gypsum in standing crop on the appearance of deficiency symptoms but to achieve proper response gypsum must be mixed in the soil by hoeing followed by light irrigation. Gypsum should not be applied on wet foliage as it will cause burning.

MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : Magnesium is relatively mobile in plant system therefore, the deficiency symptoms first appear on older leaves as interveinal chlorosis. The deficient plants give a mottled appearance. In extreme causes, the chlorotic tissues dies and turn brown in colour. Cabbage, cauliflower, muskmelon, tomato and beans have high magnesium requirement (Pic. 162 cabbage).

Conditions for disease development : Heavy doses of potash depresses magnesium uptake and enhances its deficiency. Soil compactness, water logging/stress aggravate this problem. The deficiency symptoms mostly appear as the crop maturity approaches, on sandy soils and in wet weather. Remedial measures : Fortnightly spray of 2.0 per cent magnesium sulphate (2 kg. in 100 litre of water) is recommended.

MANGANESE DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : Manganese deficiency symptoms are similar to those of magnesium deficiency except that these first appear on the younger leaves, while in case of magnesium, it first appear on the older leaves. Initially chlorotic spots appear between the veins of the fully mature new leaves. Later, depending upon crop, these spots turn to brown, radish brown, brownish black and some time pinkish gray. In cauliflower and cabbage chlorosis spread form the margins of the middle leaves. The leaves are relatively smaller in size. As the deficiency increases with to whitish brown necrotic spots appear in the increasingly pale chlorotic patches. (Pic. 163 radish, Pic. 164 cauliflower). In potato the light chlorotic patches appear between the veins of the younger leaves, and are immediately followed by numerous brown, dot like necrotic spots. These spots are mainly concentrated in the basal part of leaves while tips remain relatively unaffected.

Conditions for disease development : Managanese deficiency is fairly common on coarse textured calcareous soils. Alkaline soils, low in reducible manganese may also exhibit manganese deficiency. Remedial measures : Spray the crop with 0.2-0.5 per cent manganese sulphate (200-500 gm. in 100 litre of water) solution at weekly interval. Depending upon the deficiency two to four sprays are required.

BORON DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : Due to its deficiency, cracked corky areas are developed on stems and midribs. The death of growing point, distortion & blackening of new leaves with consequence loss of apical dominance and outgrowth of side shoots takes place. Cauliflower is relatively more susceptible to boron deficiency and symptoms are more visible at curd formation stage. Curd formation is delayed and browning of curd takes place. The trouble first

appears as water soaked areas in the stem and curd surface and later the curd becomes brown in colour (Pic. 165 & 166 cauliflower). It is also called as brown rot or red rot of the curd. The curd becomes bitter in taste, which is undesirable for marketing. The symptoms are also associated with thickening, brittleness, downward curling of lower leaves and hollow stem of cauliflower.

Conditions for disease development : Boron deficiency is fairly common in areas of high rainfall especially on light soils of pH above 6.5. Symptoms often occur soon after the end of a drought. Deficiency symptoms are more acute in neutral or alkaline soils. Remedial measures : The application of common borax (sodium tetraborate) controls browning and other symptoms in cauliflower. The quality of borax needed to control the trouble depends on the characters of soil, the soil reaction and extent of deficiency. On acidic soils 5 -7.5 kg borax per acre is sufficient while on neutral or alkaline soils, large quantity may be necessary.

IRON DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : The symptoms of iron deficiency are alike in almost all the crops and their species. Younger leaves show a faint interveinal chlorosis under conditions of mild iron deficiency. In case f moderate iron deficiency, visual symptoms initially appear as typical interveinal chlorosis in younger leaves. Later, green veins also turn yellow (Pic. 167 chilli). The older leaves remain green. With an increase in the severity of iron deficiency, the whole leaf blade turns pale yellow to white in colour and the emerging leaf loses its green colour and becomes bleached. In most severe cases plants become with and eventually die.

Conditions for disease development : Iron deficiency generally appear in coarse textured calcareous soils. It is also induced by water logging and excess of copper, zinc and phosphorous in the soil. Remedial measures : For correcting the deficiency symptoms of iron in calareous soils, the pH may be lowered by application of sulphur compounds to ensure adequate supplies of iron to plants. Two to three sprays of 0.2 – 0.5 per cent (200-500 gm in 100 litres of water) ferrous sulphate are recommended at weekly interval.

MOLYBEDNUM DEFICIENCY

Symptoms : Molybdenum deficiency causes chlorostic interveinal mottling of the older leaves. Leaf blade fails to expand and flower formation is inhibited. In acute deficiency, necrosis of leaf tissues occurs. Cauliflower is relatively sensitive to molybdenum deficiency. the leaf blades do not develop properly and remain narrow strap like and severely savoyed. When the deficiency is severe, only the midribs develop. This disorder is commonly known as ‘whitptail disease’ (Pic. 168 cauliflower) the growing point is severely deformed and the plants do not produce a marketable head.

Conditions for disease development : Its development is more in acid soils due to non-availability of molybdenum under acidic conditions. Remedial measures : Liming of the acidic soils to pH 6.5 should be done. The malady can be corrected by application of sodium or ammonium molybedate solution (0.03%) as foliar spray.

SUNSCALD IN CHILLI

Symptoms : Fruits exposed to the sun side loose their lustre and green colour. The affected fruits turn white (Pic. 169) and skin becomes papery. The affected fruits are sometimes invaded with fungal organisms and they rot in severe cases. The fruits affected by sun injury cannot synthesize pigment as a result of which ripening of fruits does not occur. The premature fruit drop is also noticed in may cases.

Conditions for disease development : The cultivars with longer fruit size are more prone to this type of injury. The plants with less foliage cannot protect the fruits from sun heat as a result fruits scorch. The cultivar Punjab Surkh is likely to be affected by this type of injury. Remedial measures :

1. Plants or cultivars with enough foliage should be preferred for cultivation Cultivars like Punjab Lal and hybrids CH – 1 and CH – 3 are less affected by this injury.

2. Plant spacing between the rows should be reduced to dilute the effect of sun heat.

BRANCHING OR FORKING IN CARROT

Symptoms : The carrot roots are produced with multiple roots. The carrots become thick and fibrous which cannot be sent for market for sale as the roots loose their shine and develop

improper colour. (Pic.170).

Conditions for disease development : Major cause of this disorder is the application of un-decomposed farm yard manure to the crop as the manure contains uric acid which causes forking. Wrong selection of the variety is another reason which leads to forking of roots. Remedial measures : It is better not to apply farm yard manure to carrot crop. If needed then apply well decomposed farm yard manure, or apply manure to the preceding crop grown in rotation with carrot. Get the seed or selected variety form reliable source.

BLOSSOM END ROT IN TOMATO

Symptoms : Fruits at the blossom end show brown discolouration. The spots enlarge and become darker till they cover one third to half of total portion of the fruit. The tissue shrinks and skin becomes dark and leathery. After sometimes soft rot develops but it develops only when the spots are invaded by bacteria causing soft rot (Pic. 171).

Conditions for disease development : The disorder is brought about by unfavourable weather conditions and is followed by dry spell. Under such conditions, a water deficit develops inside the plant and cells at the blossom end fail to receive sufficient water for their growth and breakdown of tissues occur. The trouble can also occur under periods of abundant rainfall, when soil remains saturated for considerable time. In such cases rootlets are killed and uptake of water is reduced. In case of calcium deficiency the cells of the blossom end fail to receive sufficient calcium as a result of which breakdown of tissues occurs. Remedial measures :

1. Any cultural practice that conserves soil moisture and maintains uniform soil moisture supply helps in control of blossom end rot.

2. Application of calcium sulphate at the rate of 400 gram per acre in the form of foliar spray helps check the problem of this disorder.

CRACKING IN POTATO

Symptoms : The tubers of potato under high fertility conditions loose their integrity and (Pic. 172) show cracks. The cracks are few in number and are attacked by fungal organisms if stored in refrigerated stores. These tubers are unfit for human consumption.

Conditions for disease development : The major cause of this problem is the choice of variety. Variety Kufri Jyoti is more prone to such cracks if grown under high fertility conditions. High fertility of the soil is another factor which leads to abrupt increase in the size of the tubers which causes cracks in the tubers. Remedial measures :

1. Do proper selection of the variety. Always choose crack resistant variety.2. Over irrigation of the tubers should be avoided.3. Dig the potatoes before they ripe fully.

KNOBINESS IN POTATO

Symptoms : The developing tubers become uneven in shape. Tumours are visible on the surface of the tuber (Pic. 173). Sometimes these tumours are several in number, as a result the tubers are unattractive and thus unfit for market.

Conditions for disease development : The problem is more prevalent if the crop is raised in uneven soil. The presence of concrete and clods present in the soil develop conditions more favourable for the formation of off shaped tuber. Potatoes grown in heavy soil are more likely to be affected by this disorder. Uneven soil moisture in the field also contributes to knobbiness. Remedial measures :

1. The soil particularly heavy soil should be well prepared with pre sowing tillage operations. Deep ploughing of the soil is usually recommended.

2. Always prefer to raise potato in light soil.3. Maintain proper and even soil moisture.

RODENTS Most of the vegetables are highly preferred food of rodents and suffer extensive damage by their burrowing, gnawing and feeding activities. Moreover, during lean periods when there is little crop in the surrounding fields, vegetable crops are attacked for shelter and food. Rodent problem in vegetable crops can not be solved by taking it in isolation because some of the vegetables and melons are so preferred by rodents that they completely avoid rodenticide baits. Waves of rodent attack from the adjoining fields increase the problem many fold. Often such immigration of rodents form surrounding fields, specially at the maturing stage, result in complete failure of melon crop.

Species and distribution : The species of rodents inhabiting or attacking vegetable crops in Punjab are the lesser

bandicoot rat, (Bandicota bengalensis), the Indian gerbil, (Tatera indica), the soft furred field rat, (Rattus meltada), the house mouse, Mus musculus, the field mous. Mus booduga, the brown spiny mouse, Mus platythrix and the striped palm squirrel, Funambulus pennanti. The lesser bandicoot rat, has become predominant in almost all the vegetable crops representing more than 80% of the total rodent population Indian gerbil is restricted to sandy soil and often attack vegetable crop from surrounding sandy uncultivated land and road side forestry. Problem of striped palm sequirrel is restricted to the fields near trees and kitchen gardens. Important features : Sense of smell, taste, touch and hearing are highly developed in rodents. The hair on muzzle and the body serve as structures of touch. Rodents can perceive even faintest sound and can distinguish unusual notes. They are good swimmers and divers which enable them cope with the temporary water flooding during irrigation and rains. They are capable of making complex burrows with the help of limbs and chisel-shaped cutting incisors. Incisors of rodents are made up of so hard material that they gnaw even hard material coming in their way. Striped palm sequirrel is well adapted for arborial life and make nests on the branches of trees and crevice of the buildings. Rodents are omnivorous as they eat grains, vegetables, fruits, weeds, insects, fish, meat etc. Although they like fresh food material but in unfacourable conditions they can subsist on decaying material, spoiled food and even garbage, they are prolific breeders having extremely high reproductive potential. The high re-build up rate of their population defeats all efforts of their control. Rodents on an average have a gestation period of 21-28 days, a litter size of 3-15 and maturation period of 8-12 weeks. Damage : Rodents cause considerable damage to vegetable crops, through the intensity of the problem depends upon their population density. They cause damage to a variety of vegetables such as bottlegourd (Pic. 174a, b), long-melon (Pic. 175), cucumber, pumpkin, ridge-gourd, muskmelon, squashmelon, tomatoes and peas. Damage is caused from seedling to ripening stages. Among vegetables, the cucurbits suffer severe rodent damage. Even a small cut on vegetable leads to spoilage. Rodents are fond of peas causing severe damage to seedlings. They damage and hoard their pods in their burrows. The lesser bandicoot rat by its extensive soil digging activity often damage the root system of vegetable crops. Often seedlings and saplings get buried under soil. Methods of control Since performance of different control methods vary in different situations and often single method is not sufficient to give desirable results, adopt the integrated approach using a combination or sequence of several methods. Vegetable crops cover comparatively small areas, therefore, control operations must be extended to adjoining cultivated and uncultivated fields and road side forestry covering large areas.

A. Chemical Control :There rodenticide concentrates, zinc phosphide (80% black powder), Bromadiolone (0.25% white powder) and Racumin (0.75% sky blue powder) have been

recommended for the control of field rodents in Punjab.

Bait preparation : The acceptance of rodenticide baits by rodents depends upon the qyality, texture, taste and odour of the baiting materials. It has been found that good quality cereal baits are most suitable for baiting rodents in field conditions.

1. Zinc phosphide bait : Smer 1 kg of bajra or sorghum or cracked wheat or their mixture with 20 grams of vegetable oil and mix it throughouly with 25 grams of zinc phosphide. Never add water in zinc phosphide bait. Always use freshly prepared bait.

2. Bromadiolone bait : Mix 20 g of 0.25% bromadiolone powder, 20 grams of vegetable oil and 20 grams of powder sugar in 1 kg of any cereal flour.

3. Racumin bait : Mix 50 g of 0.75% racumin powder, 20 grams of vegetable oil and 20 grams of powdered sugar in 1 kg of cracked wheat of bajara.

Bait placement : When fields are vacant or crop is small the rodent burrows can easily be located in the fields, on bunds and water channels. Close all the burrows in the evening and on the next day insert a paper boat containing about 10 g of poison bait of zinc phosphide or bromadiolone or 20 g bait of racumin about 6 inches deep in each live burrow. In case of lesser bandicoot rat remove the fresh soil from the burrow opening with the help of a spade to locate the tunnel and then put the rodenticide bait deep inside it. When the crop is dense and it is difficult to locate rodent burrows, place about 10 grams of zinc phosphide or bromadiolone bait or 20 grams of racumin bait at 40 baiting points per acre on dry sites and inside the crop throughout the field covering run way and activity sites of rats.

Pre-baiting : Pre-baiting is essential when zinc phosphide baiting is to be done. Bajra or sorghum or cracked wheat or their mixture smeared with vegetable oil be laid on pieces of paper at 40 baiting points per acre and about 10 grams of bait at each point for 2-3 days.

Safety measures : Since the rodenticides are highly toxic to humans, domestic animals, pets and birds, the following safety measures must be adopted.1. Keep the rodenticides and their baits away from the reach of children, domestic

animals and pets.2. Mixing of rodenticides in the baiting material should be done with a stick, spade

or by wearing rubber gloves. Avoid inhaling of poison. Wash exposed skin and hands after mixing.

3. Collect and burry the left over poison bait and dead rats from the fields.4. Zinc phosphide is an acute poison and there is no antidote for it. In case of its

accidental ingestion induce vomiting by inserting fingers in the throat and then rush to a doctor. Vitamin K is the antidote for bromadiolone and racumin which can be given to the patient under medical supervision.

B. Mechanical control :

a. During the irrigation of vacant harvested fields rat coming out of flooded burrows should be killed with sticks.

b. Use double chambered multi-catch trap with runnel type entrance. Before use wash the traps. Before setting the traps for trapping do pre-baiting by placing 10-15 grams of plain millet or cracked wheat containing 2 % sugar and 2 % vegetable oil for 2-3 days and leave the door of the trap open. After pre-baiting close the traps by placing 10-15 g of the plan bait on a piece of paper in the main chamber and a pinch of bait on a smaller piece of paper in the tunnel. Trap the rats for 3 consecutive days. Kill the trapped rats by drowning in water and the interval between two trappings in the same location should not be less than 30 days.

C. Environmental control :Weeds, grasses and bushes should be removed as these provide shelter and food to rodents. Highly infested bunds, water channels and field pavements should periodically be rebuilt to destroy permanent rodent burrows.

D. Biological controlOwls, kitcs, hawks, falcons, eagles, snakes, cats, mongoose, jackals and monitor lizards are the natural predators of rodents. These should be protected.

BIRDS Birds are important component of out agroecosystem and play multivariate role such as pollination, predation of insects and rodents and some species tends to be pests of vegetable crops. Bird species inflicting losses to vegetable crops include mainly house crow (Corvus splendens), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), blue rock pigeon (Columba livia) and rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri). Common myna (Acridotheres tristis) is both useful and harmful as in addition to causing damage it also eat insects. Besides these some useful birds like bank myna (Acridotheres ginginianus), pied myna (Sturnus contra), red vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafter), Purple sun bird (Nectarina asiatica), Indian robin (Saxicoloides fulicata), common babbler (Turdoides caudate), red wattled lapwings (Venellus indicus) are also seen frequently venturing and feeding on insects in vegetable fields. Rich vegetative cover of the vegetable fields some time results in rodents infestation which often are seen picked away by predatory birds like kites hawks, owls etc. Purple sun bird and Indian Robin help in cross pollination of flowers of vegetable crops. Birds visit vegetable crop fields during the morning and evening burs. They make their nests on trees and are seen resting and perching on poles and overhead electricity cables. The vegetable fields situated near dense tree plantations and below overhead cables are more prone to bird damage.

Breeding and population : The rose-ringed parakeet make nests in natural holes in old trees, crevices in walls, earthen mounds etc. and breed in the month of March to June with clutch size of 3-5 eggs. The house crow makes nests in upper canopy of trees using twigs, rag and wire pieces. It breeds from April to August with clutch size of 4-5 eggs. Sparrows make nests using grass, straw, twigs, rags, feathers etc. in middle canopy of trees, crevices in wall,

ceilings, terraces of buildings and breed twice first in the months of February to May and from September to October with clutch size of 2-5 eggs. Pigeons make loose nests using few straw pieces on terraces, poles, branches of trees of lower canopy and breed twice first during April to June and second during September to December with clutch size of 3-5 eggs.

Damage : The pattern of damage to vegetable crops by birds is variable. Sparrows, piegeons and parakeets attack the crop in flocks which occasionally inflict severe damages. Whereas, the crows may attack singly or in groups. Parakeets cause damage by pecking, cutting, tearing and puncturing the vegetables like chillies, peas and bell pepper (Pic. 176). Crows and sparrows uproot the seedlings and at maturity peck and nibble fruits and eat seeds of vegetables like peas, musk melon, water-melon (Pic. 177), bitter-gourd and tomatoes (Pic. 178 a, b). Piegeons generally cause damage to pods of peas and beans at maturity stages.

Management of harmful birds

(A) Mechanical control : 1. Scare away birds by sling shots, drum beating or gun fires. 2. Hanging of dead crow or dummy of crow on a stick is effective in scaring the birds from the damaging sites. The height of stick should be at least one meter above from the crop height and the position should be changed after a gap of 7 days to increase its effectiveness.

3 . Fixing of scare crows i.e. a discarded earthen pot painted to stimulate like head supported with wooden sticks and clothed in human dress to give a human like appearance is one of the most effective technique to keep birds away. Position, direction and the dress of the scare crow should be changed atleast at 10 days interval. The height of the scare crow should be at least one meter above from the crop height.

4. Use automatic bird scarer (Pyrivox) by shifting its position periodically. Use crackers by tying them at different gaps on a rope and igniting the rope on the end so that the crakers fire at different intervals. It is cheaper and equally effective in scaring away the birds. Tie rope crackers on a stick and fix it in the centre of the nursery beds or in the fields with growing vegetable crops whereas in the maturing crop fix it in the periphery of the field.

(B) Cultural practices :i) Prepare the nurseries of vegetable crops at right and recommended times and keep it covered with thorny bushes or nylon net.ii) The tree in the vicinity of vegetable nursery and crop should be pruned so that birds may not perch or establish their nests on them.iii) Prevent the birds from establishing the nests on the nearby trees. Destroy the already established nests before the start of breeding season of the birds.iv) The vegetable crops and their nurseries can be covered with nylon nets with mesh size of 2.5 to 5.8 cms to prevent birds damage.

v) Grow the less costly crops like Daincha or Millet in two or three lines around the vegetable fields particularly those which are isolated or scattered ones. These boundary crops are most preferred by the birds and even prevent them from sitting in the inner vegetable crop due to the fear of predators.vi) Preferably select the sites of vegetable crop fields away from the trees or cluster of trees and no electricity wire should pass above the fields which serve as perching sites for birds from where they attack the vegetable crops.

C. Reflective tape Use reflective tape to scare the birds from vegetable nursery beds and vegetable fields. Tie the ribbon with poles erected around the field and inside the fields with a gap of 10 meter each. The ribbon should be loosely tied with the sticks with 4-5 twists to ensure maximum reflection of sunlight and its wavering effects. The height of the ribbon should be at least 1-3 feet high from the crop. By using the ribbon in this way, the rays of rising sun from east and setting sun from west fall on the ribbon, due to which, the ribbon reflects the light and produces wavering voice with the blowing wind. The reflected light appears as fire which terrifies the birds and scare them.

D. Alarming calls Playing of cassettes of recorded distress and flock calls of parakeets and crows respectively in a tape-recorded at peak volume for ½ hrs. twice each in the morning between 7.00 to 9.00 a.m. and in the evening at 5.00 to 7.00 p.m., respectively, with a pause of 1 hours, scare the birds or halt their activities for full-day in the vegetable nursery or crop fields. Use of distress or flock calls remain effective for 15-20 days. Better results can be obtained by using this technique in sequence or in combination with other methods as integrated pest management. For covering larger area amplifier and additional speakers as per requirements can be used. The recorded cassettes are available from Communication Centre At PAU, Ludhiana.

Conservation of useful birds Predatory birds like owls, falcons, hawks, eagles, kites, etc. eat a large number of rats and mice. A single owl normally eats 4-5 rats a day. Insect eating birds like drongos, babblers, shrikes, lapwings, mynas and many other small birds eat away numerous insect pests. Even granivourous birds like sparrows and weaver birds feed a large number of insects to their youngs. A single pair of house sparrow feed insects to their youngs about 150 times a day. Therefore, useful birds should not be killed.