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Mitchell Hamline Law Review Mitchell Hamline Law Review
Volume 45 Issue 5 Sua Sponte Article 3
2019
Fenrich v. The Blake School and Minnesota Tort Law: A Road Map Fenrich v. The Blake School and Minnesota Tort Law: A Road Map
Through Special Relationships, Misfeasance/Nonfeasance, and Through Special Relationships, Misfeasance/Nonfeasance, and
Duty Duty
Mike K. Steenson Mitchell Hamline School of Law, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/mhlr
Part of the Torts Commons
Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Steenson, Mike K. (2019) "Fenrich v. The Blake School and Minnesota Tort Law: A Road Map Through Special Relationships, Misfeasance/Nonfeasance, and Duty," Mitchell Hamline Law Review: Vol. 45 : Iss. 5 , Article 3. Available at: https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/mhlr/vol45/iss5/3
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Reviews and Journals at Mitchell Hamline Open Access. It has been accepted for inclusion in Mitchell Hamline Law Review by an authorized administrator of Mitchell Hamline Open Access. For more information, please contact [email protected]. © Mitchell Hamline School of Law
Steenson:ARoadMapThroughSpecialRelationships,Misfeasance/Nonfeasance,andDuty
78
FENRICHV.THEBLAKESCHOOLANDMINNESOTATORTLAW:AROADMAPTHROUGHSPECIALRELATIONSHIPS,
MISFEASANCE/NONFEASANCE,ANDDUTY
MikeSteenson†
I. THE FACTS ............................................................................................ 79 II. DUTY AND SPECIAL RELATIONSHIPS .................................................. 80
A.SpecialRelationships ............................................................... 81 B.SpecialRelationshipsandFenrich .......................................... 89
1.InLocoParentis ................................................................ 91 2.CommonCarrier ............................................................... 93
III. DUTY AND FORESEEABLE RISKS ....................................................... 94 A.AssumptionofSupervisionandControlandthe
Misfeasance/NonfeasanceIssue .......................................... 94 IV. DUTY AND FORESEEABILITY ............................................................. 98
A.TheRecentCases ...................................................................... 99 B.ForeseeabilityinFenrich ....................................................... 101
V. THE TRIAL ......................................................................................... 102 A.Foreseeability ......................................................................... 103
VI. CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 110 TheMinnesotaSupremeCourt’srecentdecisioninFenrichv.The
BlakeSchoolisashortcourseonMinnesotatortlaw.1Arisingoutofanaccidentinvolvingastudent-drivencaronthewaytoapost-seasonathletic event, the case required the court to considerwhether theschool owed a duty to the two passengers in the other car, one ofwhomdiedintheaccident.2Therewerethreeinterrelateddutyissuesin the case.3 First the court assessedwhether the school was in a †MikeSteenson,BellDistinguishedProfessorofLaw,MitchellHamlineSchoolofLaw.TheauthorwishestothankMichelleGibbonsforherexcellentre-searchassistanceinpreparationofthisarticle. 1. 920N.W.2d195(Minn.2018). 2. Id.at200–01. 3. Id.at201–06.
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specialrelationshipwiththestudent,sufficienttotriggeradutytotheFenrichs.4Thecourtheldthattherewasnospecialrelationshipbe-tweentheschoolandstudentthatwouldextendtoathirdpartyin-jured by the student’s negligence.5 Second, the court determinedwhethertheschool’sroleasthefacilitatorinsendingstudentstothemeetconstitutedmisfeasanceornonfeasance.6Thecourtheldthattheissuehadtoberesolvedattrial.7Finally,thecourtassessedwhethertheaccidentwasforeseeable.8Thecourtheldthattheforeseeabilityissuepresenteda closecase thathad tobe resolvedby the trieroffact.9Thecourt’sremandraisesimportantquestionsconcerningtherelationshipofjudgeandjuryintheresolutionofthekeyissuesinthecase.10
The special relationship issue,misfeasance/nonfeasance issue,andforeseeabilityissuesrecurinMinnesotatortlaw.Thepurposeofthisarticleistoputtheissuesinabroadercontextandevaluatethesupremecourt’streatmentoftheminFenrich.Followingashortstate-mentoffacts,thisarticleconsidersthedutyissuesinorder.
I.THEFACTS
Thecasearoseoutofanaccident that resulted in thedeathofGaryFenrichandseriousinjuriestohiswife,JeanAnnFenrich.T.M.,asixteen-year-old student from the Blake School, who were drivingwithavolunteercoachandtwoteammatestoanout-of-seasonNikecross-countrymeet.TheMinnesotaStateHighSchoolLeagueseasonhad ended, and coaches were not permitted to participate in themeet.11However,theheadandassistantcoachesassistedthestudentsinpreparingforthemeet.12Afterexchangingemailswiththecoaches,
4. Id.at202–03. 5. Id. 6. Id.at203. 7. Id.at215n.4(holdingthatthedistinctionbetween“misfeasance[and]non-feasanceisaquestionoflaw”and“whentherearegenuineissuesaboutwhatthede-fendantdidortheresponsibilitiesitassumed,acourtmaynotbeabletodecidethequestionbysummaryjudgmentonapaperrecord”). 8. Id. 9. Id.at206–07. 10. Id.at205. 11. Id. 12. Id.
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T.M.’s parents agreed to let their son drive.13 The student’s carcrossedthecenterlineandhittheFenrichs’car.14
Fenrich, individually and as her husband’s trustee, sued theschool,headcoach,assistantcoach,andvolunteercoach.15Followingthedistrictcourt’sgrantofsummaryjudgmentforthedefendants,theMinnesota Court of Appeals affirmed—although on differentgrounds—and theMinnesotaSupremeCourtgrantedreview.16Thesupremecourtagreedwiththedistrictcourtandcourtofappealscon-cluding,“thattheschoolwentbeyondpassiveinactionbyassumingsupervisionandcontroloveritsathleticteam’striptoSiouxFalls.”17
Thedistrictcourtconcludedtheschooldidnotoweadutytothegeneralpublic tocontrol theconductof itsstudents.18Thecourtofappealsaffirmedonthebasisthattherewasinsufficientevidencetoestablishthatinjurytothirdpartieswasforeseeable.19Thesupremecourtreversed,holdingthatforeseeabilitywasaclosecaseandoneforthetrieroffacttoresolve.20Togettothatissue,thecourtfirstcon-sideredwhethertherewasaspecialrelationshipthatwouldimposeon the school an affirmativeduty to act.21The court next assessedwhethertheschoolaffirmativelycreatedariskofinjury.22Andfinally,thecourtdeterminedwhethertheschool’sconductcreatedaforesee-ableriskofinjury.23
II.DUTYANDSPECIALRELATIONSHIPS
Thecourtfirstfocusedonwhethertherewasadutybasedonaspecialrelationshipbetweentheschoolandplaintiff.24
Thecourtbegan itsanalysisbynoting that there isnogeneraldutytocontroltheconductofathirdpersonunlessthereisaspecialrelationshipbetweenthedefendantandtheplaintiff,andtheharmthe 13. Id.at199. 14. Id.at198. 15. Id.at200. 16. Id.at200–01. 17. Id.at203. 18. Id.at200. 19. Id.at201. 20. Id.at205–07. 21. Id.at202–03. 22. Id.at203–05. 23. Id.at205–07. 24. Id.at202–03.Whilethecourtbeganitsanalysiswiththespecialrelationshipissue,thatproblemwouldhavebeenavoidedhadthecourtfirstconsideredwhethertheschoolaffirmativelycreatedariskofinjurytothirdpersons.Seeid.
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plaintiffsuffersisforeseeable,25orwhere“thedefendant’sowncon-ductcreatesaforeseeableriskofinjurytoaforeseeableplaintiff.”26
Theissueofmisfeasance/nonfeasanceiskeytodeterminingifaduty is owed. If there is nonfeasance, there is no duty to the thirdparty,absentaruletriggeringadutytoact.Aspecialrelationshipbe-tweenthedefendantandplaintiff27orthedefendantandthepersonwhocausestheinjury28actsasatrigger.
A.SpecialRelationships
Afindingthataspecialrelationshipexistsisnotconclusiveontheduty issue,however.Rather, thedutyrequirement isaspecialrela-tionshipplus.JusticeSimonettexplainedthisinEricksonv.CurtisIn-vestmentCo.29Thecourt inErickson stated, “Whetheraduty is im-poseddepends,therefore,ontherelationshipofthepartiesandtheforeseeableriskinvolved.Ultimately,thequestionisoneofpolicy.”30Thespecialrelationshipinquiryiscompoundnotsingular.
Thecourt’s listofspecialrelationships includes thosebetweenparentsandtheirchildren,mastersandservants,possessorsofland
25. Id.(quotingDoe169v.Brandon,845N.W.2d174,178(Minn.2014));seealsoLundgrenv.Fultz,354N.W.2d25,27(Minn.1984);Delgadov.Lohmar,289N.W.2d479,483(Minn.1979).Adutymayalsoarisewherethedefendantandpersoncausingthe injury are in a special relationship.RESTATEMENT (THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITY FORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§41(AM.LAWINST.2010). 26. Domagalav.Rolland,805N.W.2d14,23(Minn.2011).The“foreseeableriskofinjurytoaforeseeableplaintiff”appearsforthefirsttimeintheDomagalacase.Seeid. 27. SeeDelgado,289N.W.2dat483. 28. SeeLundgren,354N.W.2dat27. 29. 447N.W.2d165,168–69(Minn.1989). 30. Id.InErickson,thecourtconsideredtheissueofwhethertheownerandop-eratorofaparkingrampwasliabletoarampcustomerwhowascriminallyassaultedintheramp.Id.at168;seealsoFunchessv.CecilNewmanCorp.,632N.W.2d666,673(Minn.2001)(discussingthataspecialrelationshipbetweenlandlordandtenantisnotrecognized).InFunchess,thecourtreiteratedthepolicyconsiderationsnotedinErickson:
[C]rime prevention is essentially a government function, not a privateduty; criminals are unpredictable and bent on defeating securitymeasures;andbecausetheissueariseswhereexistingsecurityprecau-tionshave failed, thequestionwill alwaysbewhether further securitymeasureswererequiredandapropertyownerwillhavelittleideawhatisexpectedofhimorher.
Id.at673n.4(citingErickson,447N.W.2dat169).
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whoholdtheirpropertyopentothepublic,andcommoncarriersandtheircustomers.31
InBjerkev.Johnson,thesupremecourtsawspecialrelationshipsasexisting“underanyoneofthreedistinctscenarios.”32Thefirstsce-nario isbasedonthestatusof theparties.33Thesecond iswhereaperson,“whethervoluntarilyorasrequiredbylaw,”takescustodyofanotherundercircumstanceswheretheotherperson“isdeprivedofnormal opportunities of self-protection.”34 And the third involvescaseswhereapersonassumesresponsibilityforadutythatisowedbyonepersontoathirdparty.Inthosecases,adutyariseswhenthepersondoesthefollowing:
“[U]ndertakes,gratuitouslyor forconsideration, torenderservicestoanotherwhichheshouldrecognizeasnecessaryfortheprotectionofathirdpersonorhisthings,”andliabil-itywillbeimposedif(1)hisfailuretoactincreasestheriskofharm;(2)heundertookadutyowedbytheothertothethirdparty;or(3)theharmissufferedbecausetheotherorthethirdpersonreliedontheundertaking.35WhileBjerkeisastandardstatementoftherecognizedspecialre-
lationshipsinMinnesota,thelistisnotexclusive.Thesupremecourt’sfinal“specialrelationship,”theundertakingofaduty,isreallyasepa-ratedutytriggerthatisdistinctfromtheotherspecialrelationshipsrecognizedbythecourt.Thedutydoesnotdependontherelationshipoftheparties,asdotheotherspecialrelationships;but,rather,onanagreementtoassumeadutythatworkstothebenefitoftheplaintiff.
TheRestatement(Third)ofTorts:LiabilityforPhysicalandEmo-tionalHarmprovidesausefulparallellistfororganizingspecialrela-tionships.TheRestatementbreaksspecialrelationshipsintotwocat-egories,withsomeoverlap.Section40liststhespecialrelationships
31. SeeH.B.v.Whittemore,552N.W.2d705,708(Minn.1996)(citationomit-ted);Donaldsonv.YoungWomen’sChristianAss’nofDuluth,539N.W.2d789,792(Minn.1995);Harperv.Herman,499N.W.2d472,474(Minn.1993). 32. 742N.W.2d660,665(Minn.2007).Bjerkeinvolvedacustodialrelationshipassumedbythedefendantoftheteenageplaintiff,whowassubjecttosexualadvancesbythedefendant’slive-inmalefriend.Seeid. 33. Id. (quoting Delgado v. Lohmar, 289 N.W.2d 479, 483–84 (Minn. 1979);RESTATEMENT(SECOND)OFTORTS§§314,315(AM.LAWINST.1965))(“The firstarisesfromthestatusoftheparties,suchas‘parentsandchildren,mastersandservants,possessorsoflandandlicensees,[and]commoncarriersandtheircustomers.’”). 34. Id.at665(quotingHarper,499N.W.2dat474). 35. Id.(quotingWalshv.PagraAirTaxi,Inc.,282N.W.2d567,571(Minn.1979);RESTATEMENT(SECOND)OFTORTS§324A(AM.LAWINST.1965)).
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betweenthedefendantandthevictimthatwillcreateaduty.36Section41liststherelationshipsbetweenthedefendantandthepersonwhocausestheinjurythatwillimposeadutyonthedefendant.37
Section40’slistofnon-exclusive38specialrelationshipsincludes:(1) acommoncarrierwithitspassengers,(2) aninnkeeperwithitsguests,(3) abusinessorotherpossessoroflandthatholdsitsprem-
isesopentothepublicwiththosewhoarelawfullyonthepremises,
(4) anemployerwithitsemployeeswho,whileatworkare:(a)inimminentdanger;or(b)injuredorillandtherebyrenderedhelpless,
(5) aschoolwithitsstudents,(6) alandlordwithitstenants,and(7) acustodianwiththoseinitscustody,if:
(a)thecustodianisrequiredbylawtotakecustodyorvol-untarilytakescustodyoftheother;and(b)the custodian has a superior ability to protect theother.39
TheRestatementtakesthepositionthatthedefendantwhoisinaspecialrelationshipwiththeplaintiffowesadutyofreasonablecareastorisksarisingwithinthescopeofthatrelationship.40
The Third Restatement expands on the special relationshipslistedinthemorefamiliarsection314AoftheSecondRestatementofTorts,41 which recognized the first, second, third, and seventh 36. Restatement(Third)ofTorts:LiabilityforPhysicalandEmotionalHarm§40(Am.LawInst.2010). 37. Id.§41. 38. Id.§40cmt.o. 39. Id.§40(b).Thelistisnotintendedtobeexclusive.Thecommentsnote,forexample,thatfamilyrelationshipsarelikelytobecategorizedasaspecialrelation-ship.Id.§40cmt.o. 40. Id.§40(a). 41. Restatement(Second)ofTorts§314A(Am.LawInst.1965).Section314Astates:
(1) Acommoncarrierisunderadutytoitspassengerstotakereasonableaction(a)toprotectthemagainstunreasonableriskofphysicalharm,and
(b)togivethemfirstaidafteritknowsorhasreasontoknowthattheyareillorinjured,andtocareforthemuntiltheycanbecaredforbyothers.
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relationshipsonthelist,andinsection314BoftheSecondRestate-mentofTorts42whichrecognized thespecial relationshipbetweenemployerandemployee.Section40alsoreplacessection344,whichoverlappedwithsection314Aandimposedadutyofreasonablecareonapossessoroflandwhohelditopentothepublictoavoidinjuriestoentrantscausedbytheconductofthirdpersons.43
Thespecialrelationshipsimposeadutyonthedefendanttousereasonablecarewithrespecttotherisksthatarisewithinthescopeofthatrelationship.Thatdutyincludesthedutytoguardagainsttheconductofthirdpersons.44
Section41coverscaseswheretheactorisinaspecialrelation-shipwith the personwho causes harm to the injured person. The“[s]pecialrelationshipsgivingrisetotheduty...include:(1)aparentwithdependentchildren,(2)acustodianwiththoseinitscustody,(3)an employer with employees when the employment facilitates theemployee’scausingharmtothirdparties,and(4)amental-healthpro-fessionalwithpatients.”45
Thespecial relationshipsnoted in theThirdRestatementalignwiththespecialrelationshipsrecognizedbytheMinnesotaSupremeCourt.Thecourthasrecognizedallofthespecialrelationshipsnotedinsections40and41oftheThirdRestatement,withtheexceptionof
(2) Aninnkeeperisunderasimilardutytohisguests.(3) Apossessoroflandwhoholdsitopentothepublicisunderasimilar
dutytomembersofthepublicwhoenterinresponsetohisinvitation.(4) Onewhoisrequiredbylawtotakeorwhovoluntarilytakesthecustody
ofanotherundercircumstancessuchastodeprivetheotherofhisnor-malopportunitiesforprotectionisunderasimilardutytotheother.
Id. 42. Id.§314B. 43. RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§40CMT.A(AM.LAWINST.2010). 44. Id.§40cmt.g. 45. Id.§41.Aswithsection40,thecommentsnotethelistisnotintendedtobeexclusive.Id.§41cmt.i.Section41replacesseveralsectionsoftheRestatement(Sec-ond)ofTorts,includingsection315(a)(nodutytocontrolconductofathirdpersonabsentaspecialrelationship);section316(dutyofparenttocontrolconductofchild);section317(dutyofmastertocontrolconductofservant);andsection319(dutyofthoseinchargeofpersonshavingdangerouspropensities).Id.§41cmt.a.However,itaddsanewprovisioncoveringmentalhealthprofessionalsandtheirpatients toreflectrecentdevelopmentsincaselaw.Seeid.
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the landlord-tenant relationship in section 40(b)(6).46 Fenrich in-volvedthestudent-schoolrelationship.47 46. Thisfootnoteexplainsinslightlymoredetailthesupremecourt’sstandardlistofrecognizedspecialrelationships.Thecourthasrecognizedthatdefendantsowedutiestoinjuredpersonsindifferentsettings,althoughthecourtdidnotspecificallylabelthoserelationshipsas“special”relationships.Thelabelisunimportant;theim-positionofadutyis.Fororganizationalpurposes,thisfootnotefollowstheThirdRe-statement’sspecialrelationshiplist.
(1) acommoncarrierwithitspassengers The supreme court has been consistent in holding that common carriershaveadutytoexercisetheutmostorhighestdegreeofcarefortheirpassengers.See,e.g.,Georgev.EstateofBaker,724N.W.2d1,9–10(Minn.2006);Lindstromv.YellowTaxiCo.ofMinneapolis,298Minn.224,226,214N.W.2d672,674–75(1974);Fordv.Stevens,280Minn.16,19,157N.W.2d510,513(1968);Fievev.Emmeck,248Minn.122,126–28,78N.W.2d343,346–48(1956);McKellarv.YellowCabCo.,148Minn.247,250,181N.W.348,349(1921).
(2) aninnkeeperwithitsguests InAlholmv.Wilt,394N.W.2d488,490(Minn.1986),thecourtrecognizedthat“[t]avernownersinMinnesotahavethedutytoexercisereasonablecareunderthecircumstancestoprotecttheirpatronsfrominjury.”Thesupremecourtapprovedthetrialcourt’sjuryinstructionsthatrequiredashowingthattheproprietorwasonnotice of the offending party’s vicious or dangerous propensities by some act orthreat,thattheproprietorhadanadequateopportunitytoactfortheprotectionofthepatronwhowasinjured,failedtoactreasonablytoprotectthepatron,andfinally,thattheinjurywasforeseeable.Id.at489n.3.Asthelawevolved,ajuryinstructionthatwasapprovedinrecognitionofthelatitudedistrictcourtshaveinframingin-structionsseemedtohardenintoelements.SeeBoonev.Martinez,567N.W.2d508,510(Minn.1997)(citingAlholm,394N.W.2dat489n.3). InHensonv.UptownDrink,LLC.,922N.W.2d185(Minn.2019),thecourtsug-gesteda lessrestrictivestandard forresolving innkeeper liabilitycases.Thecourtnotedthat“whenthetotalityofthefactsandcircumstancesputtheinnkeeperonno-tice,”ithas“heldthatthere[is]adutybasedonforeseeability,”and,atleastinthatcase,theforeseeabilitywasaquestionforthetrieroffact.Id.at192.Thecourt’sref-erencetoKlingbeilv.Truesdell,256Minn.360,363,98N.W.2d134,138(1959),inwhichthecourtheldthat“thereisampleevidenceintherecordfromwhichthejurycouldfindthat[thepatrons]wereintoxicatedtothepointwheretheproprietororhisservantshouldhavebeenawareofthefactthattheirconductwouldleadtotrouble,”andMettlingv.Mulligan, 303Minn.8,11n.3,225N.W.2d825,828n.3 (1975), inwhichthecourtnotedthatithas“foundliabilityintavernownerspredicateduponintoxicationoftheoffendingpatron,”frametheinnkeeper’sdutymorebroadlythanBoone’sAlholm-basedformulation.SeeHenson,922N.W.2dat192.
(3) abusinessorotherpossessoroflandthatholdsitspremisesopentothepublicwiththosewhoarelawfullyonthepremises
TheMinnesotacourtshaveconsistentlyrecognizedthisasaspecialrelation-ship.Thecourts’decisionsrelyonsection314A(3)oftheSecondRestatement.See,e.g.,Bjerkev. Johnson,742N.W.2d660,665(Minn.2007).Section40(b)(3)of theThirdRestatementreplacessection314A(3).RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITY
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FORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§40cmt.a(AM.LAWINST.2010).Itisimportanttounderstandthereachofsection40(b)(3).It“imposesanaffirmativedutyonasubsetoflandpossessorsforcertainrisksthatdonotarisefromconditionsoractivitiesontheland.”Id.§40cmt.j.Itapplies,forexample,incaseswhereacustomer’sincapac-itationisnotrelatedtoaconditionontheland.Id.§40illus.4.TheMinnesotaSupremeCourthasrecognizedthedistinction.InLouisv.Louis,636N.W.2d314(Minn.2001),acaseinvolvingaswimming-pool-slide-accident,thesu-premecourtdrewacleardistinctionbetweenpremises-liabilitycasesandcasesin-volvingpossessors’dutiesarisingoutofaspecialrelationship.Thedefendantsoughttotieitsdutytowarnofthedangersinvolvedinusingthepoolslidetoaspecialrela-tionship,arguingthatbecausetherewasnospecialrelationship,therewasnodutytotheplaintiff.Id.at317,320.Thecourt,however,rejectedtheargument.Id.Incasesinvolvingpremisesliability,thereisnoneedtoestablishaspecialrelationship.Id.at320–21.Thecourtemphasizedthatithas“consistentlyrecognizedthatadutybasedonaspecialrelationshiptheoryisseparateanddistinctfromadutybasedonaprem-isesliabilitytheory.”Id.at320.
(4) anemployerwithitsemployees Section 40(b)(4) replaces section 314B of the Second Restatement.RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§40cmt.k(AM.LAWINST.2010).Liabilityinthesecasesrequiresashowingthattheemployeeisin “imminent danger” or is “injured or ill and thereby rendered helpless.” Id. §40(b)(4).TheMinnesotaCourtofAppealscommentedonsection314BinSchmitzv.U.S.SteelCorp.andnotedthataspecialrelationshipbetweenemployerandemployeeexistsonlyincaseswhere“anemployee,‘actingwithinthescopeofhisemployment,comes intoapositionof imminentdangerofseriousharm.’”831N.W.2d656,679(Minn.Ct.App.2013),aff’dinpartandrev’dinpart,852N.W.2d669(Minn.2014)(quotingRESTATEMENT(SECOND)OFTORTS§314B(AM.LAWINST.1965)).However,thetheorywillhavelimitedreachbecauseworkers’compensationwillreachmostcasesinvolvingoccupationalinjuries.TheRestatementcommentsnotetheselimitations:
ThecircumstancesinwhichtheaffirmativedutyimposedinthisSubsec-tionmightapplyhavebeenlargelylimitedtotherisktoanemployeeofacriminalattackbyathirdpartythatoccursattheplaceofemployment,anillnessorinjurysufferedbyanemployeewhileatwork(butnotresultingfrom employment) that renders the employee helpless and in need ofemergencycareorassistance,andtheoccasionalcasethatfallsthroughthecracksofworkers’-compensationcoverageandimplicatesanaffirma-tivedutyasopposedtotheordinarydutyimposedby§7.Thecasesthatfallthroughthecracksarequitevariedbecauseofthevariationsthatexistindifferentstates’workers’-compensationstatutes.
RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§40cmt.k(AM.LAWINST.2010).
(5) aschoolwithitsstudents Seeinfranotes63–76andaccompanyingtext.
(6) alandlordwithitstenants Klinev.1500Mass.Av.ApartmentCorp. is thekeycaseconcerninga land-lord’s duty to its tenants and tenants’ guests.See439F.2d477, 487–88 (D.C. Cir.1970) (holding a landlord liable for the assault and robbery of tenant when the
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landlordknewofsimilarincidentsofcrimeincommonareasinthepastduetofaultyornonexistentsecurity,renderingsuchcrimeforeseeable).Itstartedanationaltrendtoward recognition of the landlord-tenant relationship as a special relationship.RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§40cmt.m(AM.LAWINST.2010).NotwithstandingKline,Minnesotalawhasneverrecognizedaspecialrelationshipbetweenalandlordandtenantthatgivesrisetoalandlord’sdutytoprotectatenantfromthirdparties.InFunchessv.CecilNewmanCorp.,632N.W.2d666,668(Minn.2001),alandlordwasaccusedofbreachingsuchadutywhenintrud-ersgainedaccesstoatenant’sapartmentthroughanunsecuredexteriordoorandmurderedthetenant.Thecourtacknowledgedthepossibilitythatthelandlordcouldbeheldliableforundertakingadutyundersection323oftheSecondRestatementofTortsbyinstallingasecuritysysteminthebuildingbutthecourtheldthatthefactsdidnotsupportthistheory.Funchess,632N.W.2dat674–75.(7)acustodianwiththoseinitscustody,if:a)thecustodianisrequiredbylawtotakecustodyorvoluntarilytakescustodyoftheother;andb)thecustodianhasasuperiorabilitytoprotecttheother. Section40(b)(7)replacessection314A(4)oftheSecondRestatement,whichhasbeenfrequentlycitedbythesupremecourtasoneof thespecialrelationshipsrecognizedinMinnesotalaw.See,e.g.,H.B.v.Whittemore,552N.W.2d705,708(Minn.1996);Donaldsonv.YoungWomen’sChristianAss’nofDuluth,539N.W.2d789,792(Minn.1995);Harperv.Herman,499N.W.2d472,474(Minn.1993).Thecourt, inBjerke v. Johnson, 742N.W.2d660, 665–67 (Minn. 2007), applied section314A inholdingthatacustodialrelationshipwasestablishedbetweenplaintiff,aminoratthetime,andthehorsefarmownershestayedwithwhenshewassexuallyabusedbyanotheradultresidentatthefarm. Adutymayalsobebasedonthedefendant’srelationshipwiththepersoncausingharm.Section41oftheThirdRestatementcoverscaseswheretheactorisinaspecialrelationshipwiththepersonwhocausesharmtotheinjuredperson.The“[s]pecialrelationshipsgivingrisetotheduty...include:(1)aparentwithdependentchildren,(2)acustodianwiththoseinitscustody,(3)anemployerwithemployeeswhentheemploymentfacilitatestheemployee’scausingharmtothirdparties,and(4) a mental-health professional with patients.” RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF TORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§41(AM.LAWINST.2010).
(1) parentwithdependentchildren Section316oftheRestatement(Second)ofTorts,providesthatparentsareunderadutytousereasonablecaretocontroltheirminorchildrentopreventthemfromcausingharmtoothers,intentionallyornegligently,incaseswhere(a)thepar-entsknoworhavereasontoknowtheyhavetheabilitytocontroltheirchildren,and(b)knoworshouldknowoftheneedandopportunitytocontrolthem.RESTATEMENT(SECOND)OFTORTS§316(AM.LAWINST.1965).Section41oftheRestatement(Third)ofTorts,whichsupersedessection316,providesthat“[a]nactorinaspecialrelation-shipwithanotherowesadutyofreasonablecaretothirdpartieswithregardtorisksposedbytheotherthatarisewithinthescopeoftherelationship,”andidentifiesoneof those special relationships as “a parentwith dependent children.”RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§41(AM.LAWINST.2010). TheMinnesotaCourtofAppealshasrecognizedthespecialrelationshipbe-tweenparentandchildasarelationshipthatwillimposeadutyonparentstoprevent
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certaininjuriescausedbytheirchildren.See,e.g.,Jaramillov.Weaver,No.A06-2343,2007WL4303775,at*5(Minn.Ct.App.Dec.11,2007)(holdingfactsinsufficienttoestablishspecialrelationshipbetweenparentsandadultchild);Sarauv.Oliver,No.C1-00-223,2000WL1052143,at*2(Minn.Ct.App.Aug.1,2000)(refusingtoapplysection316toparentoftwenty-year-oldson);Kohnv.Ross,No.C0-97-198,1997WL423579,at*4(Minn.Ct.App.July29,1997)(recognizingparent-childspecialrela-tionshipbutconcludingthatinjurytoplaintiffatpartyhostedbyfifteen-year-oldsonwasunforeseeable);Hansenv.C.H.,No.C2-91-1808,1992WL67513,at*2(Minn.Ct.App.Apr.7,1992)(applyingsection316butholdingthatparentsdidnothavesuffi-cient knowledge of their children’s dangerous propensities); Silberstein v. Cordie,474N.W.2d850,855–56(Minn.Ct.App.1991)(applyingsection316toparentswhofailedtopreventinjurycausedbymentallyilltwenty-seven-year-oldson).
(2) Acustodianwiththoseinitscustody Thisisalong-standingbutlimitedspecialrelationship.TheThirdRestate-mentnotesthat“[t]heclassiccustodianunderthisSectionisajailerofadangerouscriminal,”andthat“[o]therwell-establishedcustodialrelationshipsincludehospitalsforthementallyillandforthosewithcontagiousdiseases.”RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§41cmt.f(AM.LAWINST.2010).Min-nesotacourtshaveconsideredthistheory,includingundersection319oftheSecondRestatementofTorts,whichwasreplacedbysection41.See Johnsonv.State,553N.W.2d40,49–50(Minn.1996)(acknowledgingsection319,butfindingthehalfwayhouseowednodutytoplaintiffsforparoleeathalfwayhousewhocommittedrapeandmurderofathirdperson);RumRiverLumberCo.v.State,282N.W.2d882,886(Minn.1979)(holdingtherewasadutyimposedonAnokaStateHospitalforpropertydamagecausedbyescapedpatient);Sylvesterv.Nw.Hosp.ofMinneapolis,236Minn.384,387–88,53N.W.2d17,19–20(1952)(holdingthereisadutyimposedonthehospital to other patients when it accepts patients with mental disorders);Stuedemanv.Nose,713N.W.2d79,84(Minn.Ct.App.2009)(holdingthegroupfosterhomehadadutywithrespecttooneofitsviolentresidents).
(3) Employer-employee TheMinnesota SupremeCourt has analyzednegligent supervision claimsbothunderRestatement(Second)ofAgency§213(Am.LawInst.1958)andRestate-ment(Second)ofTorts§317(Am.LawInst.1965).SeeSemradv.EdinaRealty,Inc.,493N.W.2d528,533–34(Minn.1992). Thecourtadopted the tortofnegligenthiring inPonticasv.K.M.S. Invest-ments,331N.W.2d907,910–11(Minn.1983),relyingonRestatement(Second)ofAgency§213.Liabilityisbasedontheemployer’snegligence“inplacingapersonwithknownpropensities,orpropensitieswhichshouldhavebeendiscoveredbyreasona-bleinvestigation,inanemploymentpositioninwhich,becauseofthecircumstancesoftheemployment,itshouldhavebeenforeseeablethatthehiredindividualposedathreatofinjurytoothers.”Ponticas,331N.W.2dat911. NegligentretentionwasfirstrecognizedinDeanv.St.PaulUnionDepotCo.,41Minn.360,362–63,43N.W.54,54(1889).Anemployer’sliabilityforretaininganemployeewithapropensitytocauseharmtoothersisbasedontheemployer’s“per-sonalfaultinexposingotherstounreasonableriskofinjuryinviolationofthe[em-ployer’s]dutytoexerciseduecarefortheirprotection.”Porterv.GrennanBakeries,219Minn.14,22,16N.W.2d906,910(1944).Ingeneral,“[a]nemployerhastheduty
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B.SpecialRelationshipsandFenrich
InFenrichv.BlakeSchool,theschoolurgedthecourttoadoptacategoricalrulethat“aschoolneverowesadutyofcaretonon-stu-dentthirdpartiesforinjuriesresultingfromstudentconduct.”48Thecourtdeclined.49Whilerecognizingtheimportanceofschoolsinaciv-ilizedsociety,whichasamatterofpolicymightsuggestamorere-strictiveliabilityrule,thelackofprecedentfortheno-dutyproposi-tionarguedbytheschoolpromptedthecourttoconcludethatthereisno justification forexemptingschools frombasic tort lawprinci-ples.50‘to refrain from retaining employees with known dangerous proclivities.’” J.M. v.Minn.Dist.CouncilofAssembliesofGod,658N.W.2d589,597(Minn.Ct.App.2003)(quotingYunkerv.Honeywell,Inc.,496N.W.2d419,423(Minn.Ct.App.1993),rev.denied(Minn.Apr.20,1993));seealsoOlsonv.FirstChurchofNazarene,661N.W.2d254,264(Minn.Ct.App.2003)(quotingYunker,496N.W.2dat423). Minnesota,however,doesnotrecognizetheclaimofnegligenttraining.See,e.g.,Sotov.Shealey,331F.Supp.3d879,884n.1(D.Minn.2018)(citationomitted);Petersonv.BankersLifeandCas.Co.,734N.W.2d275,277(Minn.Ct.App.2007)(ci-tationomitted);M.L.v.Magnuson,531N.W.2d849,856(Minn.Ct.App.1995)(cita-tionomitted).
(4) Mentalhealthprofessionalswiththeirpatients Tarasoffv.RegentsofUniv.ofCal.,551P.2d334(Cal.1976),istheseminalcaseinwhichtheCaliforniaSupremeCourtimposedadutyonapsychotherapisttowarnathirdpersonofdeaththreatsmadetowardthethirdpersonbythepsycho-therapist’spatient.Id.at340.Minnesotacourtshaveconsideredtheroleofamentalhealthprofessionaltoactfortheprotectionofthirdpersonsinahandfulofcases.Forexample, inLundgren v. Fultz, the court recognized that a special relationshipbe-tweenapsychiatristandpatientcouldbethebasisforalimiteddutygivingrisetothepsychiatrist’sallegednegligenceinaidingthepatienttogetaccesstoagun,whichthepatientusedtokillathirdperson.354N.W.2d25,27–28(Minn.1984).ThecourtinLundgrenemphasizedthatanyduty towarnpotentialvictimswouldbe limitedtocaseswherethepatienthasmade“specificthreatsagainstidentifiablepersons.”Id.at29(citingCairlv.State,323N.W.2d20,25–26(Minn.1982)). Section148.975ofthe2018MinnesotaStatutesimposesadutyonthelim-itedcategoryof“licensee[s],”definedinsubdivision1(d)toinclude“practicumpsy-chologystudents,predoctoralpsychologyinterns,andindividualswhohaveearnedadoctoraldegreeinpsychologyandareintheprocessofcompletingtheirpostdoctoralsupervisedpsychologicalemploymentinordertoqualifyforlicensure,”tomake“rea-sonableefforts”towarnpotentialvictimsofspecificthreatstothatvictim.Subdivi-sion2requires“aspecific,seriousthreatofphysicalviolenceagainstaspecific,clearlyidentifiedoridentifiablepotentialvictim.”MINN.STAT.§148.975,subdiv.2(2018). 47. Fenrichv.BlakeSch.,920N.W.2d195,201–02(Minn.2018). 48. Id.at202. 49. Id. 50. Id.
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The school’s argumentwas based onGylten v. Swalboski,51 anEighth Circuit case applyingMinnesota law. In that case, a studentfootballplayeronacooperativefootballteamsponsoredbytwosep-arateschooldistrictscausedanaccidentwhiledrivingfromhisschool,Climax,totheotherschool,Fisher,whichwaswherepracticewastobe held that day.52 Pursuant to the cooperative agreement, eachschoolwasresponsible for the transportationof its students to theotherschool forpractices.53Theschoolsusedbusesfortransporta-tion,butbecauseofamix-upastowhichschoolwassupposedtobehostingthepracticeonthedayoftheaccident,TimothySwalboski,Jr.,ajunior,drovehimselfandanotherteammatetopracticeattheotherschool,withtheknowledgeofhiscoach.54Theplaintiffsarguedthatthe school districts “negligently breached their duty of supervisionandcontrolofthestudentswhileintransporttofootballpractice.”55
Thedefendantschooldistrictsmovedforsummaryjudgment,ar-guingthattheydidnotoweadutytonon-studentswhomightbein-juredby thenegligenceofastudentwhowasdriving toanactivitysponsoredbytheschools.56TheEighthCircuitconcludedthattherewasnospecialrelationshipbetweentheschoolandtheplaintiffs,andthattheschoolcouldnot,underthefacts,anticipatethattheywouldbeinjured.57Therewasnoindicationthattheschoolhadknowledgethattherewouldbeariskofinjurytothethirdpartiesunderthesecircumstances,promptingthecourtto“believethattheMinnesotaSu-preme Court would likely reach the conclusion of not extending aschool district’s liability to non-student third partieswho lack anyconnectiontotheschool.”58
TheMinnesotaSupremeCourt, inFenrichv.BlakeSchool, readGyltenasconsideringonly the issueofwhether therewasaspecialrelationshipbetweentheschoolandthegeneralpublicthatwouldim-pose a duty on the school.59 According to the supreme court, the
51. 246F.3d1139(8thCir.2001). 52. Id.at1141. 53. Id.at1140. 54. Id.at1140–41. 55. Id.at1141. 56. Id. 57. Id.at1142,1144. 58. Id.at1144. 59. 920N.W.2d195,202(Minn.2018)(citingGylten,246F.3dat1143).
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EighthCircuitdidnotconsiderthe“ownconduct”exceptionanditdidnotcreateacategoricalexclusionforschoolsfromtortliability.60
TheplaintiffinFenricharguedthattherewasaspecialrelation-shipbetweentheFenrichsandschoolunderinloco-parentisandcom-mon-carrier theories.61 The supreme court rejected both argu-ments.62
1.InLocoParentis
As the Third Restatement notes, the relationship between aschoolandstudentisbasedontheschool’sstatusasapossessoroflandthathasopeneditspremisestoasubstantialportionofthepublicpopulation,asacustodianofitsstudents,andbecauseitactspartiallyintheplaceofthestudents’parents.63Thedutiesareoverlapping.
Thesupremecourt,inFenrich,rejectedtheargumentthatthereis a special relationship based on an in loco-parentis theory.64 Thecourtexplainedthatithas“neverheldthataschoolgenerallystandsinlocoparentiswithitsstudents”anddeclinedtodosoinFenrich.65However,Minnesotacasesmaynotmakeitquitethatclear.Thereareacknowledgementsoftheinloco-parentistheoryintheschoolsetting,and, in somecases,whispersof the conceptwithout theuseof theterm.66
60. Id. 61. Id. 62. Id. 63. RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS§40CMT.L(AM.LAWINST.2010). 64. 920N.W.2dat202–03. 65. Id. (citingHollingsworthv. State,No.A14-1874,2015WL4877725,at *4(Minn.Ct.App.Aug.17,2015))(“Hollingsworthconcedesthatschoolsgenerallydonotoweadutyofcareinlocoparentistoprotectstudents.”).Thecourt,citingLondonGuarantee&Acc.Co.v.Smith,242Minn.211,64N.W.2d781,784(1954),notedthat“[i]nlocoparentis...‘referstoapersonwhohasputhimselfinthesituationofalawfulparentbyassumingtheobligations incidenttotheparentalrelationwithoutgoingthroughtheformalitiesnecessarytolegaladoption.’”Fenrich,920N.W.2dat202. 66. Anotherunpublishedcourt-of-appealsopinion,Vistadv.Board.ofRegentsofthe University of Minnesota, acknowledges the concept. No. A04-2161, 2005 WL1514633,at*2n.1(Minn.Ct.App.June28,2005)(“Becauseaschooldistrictordinar-ilyisinlocoparentiswithitsminorstudents,itsdutyisgreaterthanthatofauniver-sitytoitsadultstudents.”).TheMinnesotaSupremeCourthasacknowledgedtherule,althoughitdidnotusetheterm“inlocoparentis.”See,e.g.,Verhelv.Indep.Sch.Dist.No.709,359N.W.2d579,593(Minn.1984)(Simonett,J.,dissentinginpart)(citationsomitted)(“Ordinarily,aschooldistrict’sdutytosuperviseisbasedonthefactthatparentshaverelinquishedcustodyoftheirchildrentotheschoolforschoolactivities
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Sheehanv.St.Peter’sCatholicSchool67isakeycaseinthedevel-opmentofaschool’sobligationtoprotectitsstudents.68InSheehan,aneighthgraderlostthesightinherrighteyeasaresultofathree-to-four-minute pebble-throwing incident during recess.69 At theteacher’sdirection,shewassittingwithagroupoftwentygirlsonthesideofanathleticfieldbeingusedbyeighth-gradeboyswhothrewpebblesatthegirls.Thetrialcourtinstructedthejurythat:
Itisthedutyofaschooltouseordinarycareandtoprotectitsstudentsfrominjuryresultingfromtheconductofotherstudents under circumstanceswhere such conductwouldreasonably have been foreseen and could have been pre-ventedbytheuseofordinarycare.Thereisnorequirementofconstantsupervisionofallthemovementsofpupilsatalltimes.70Thejuryfoundfortheplaintiffandawardedher$50,000indam-
ages.71Thesupremecourtaffirmed.72Aftersurveyingdecisionsfromseveralotherjurisdictions,73the
courtdistilledthefollowingstandard:
and,consequently,theschoolischargedwiththedutyofprotectingthechildrenwhileinitscharge.”). 67. 291Minn.1,188N.W.2d868(1971). 68. SeeS.W.v.SpringLakeParkSch.Dist.No.16,592N.W.2d870,874(Minn.1999) (callingSheehan v. St. Peter’s Catholic School, 291Minn. 1, 188N.W.2d868(1971),“theseminalschooldutycase”). 69. Sheehan,291Minn.at3,188N.W.2dat870. 70. Id. 71. Id.at869. 72. Id.at871. 73. The defendant, in Sheehan, relied onWoodsmall v. Mount Diablo UnifiedSchoolDistrict,10Cal.Rptr.447(Cal.Ct.App.1961);Wilberv.CityofBinghamton,66N.Y.S.2d250(N.Y.App.Div.1946),aff’d,73N.E.2d263(N.Y.1947);Ohmanv.Board.ofEducation,90N.E.2d474(N.Y.1949);andNestorv.CityofNewYork,211N.Y.S.2d975(N.Y.Sup.Ct.1961).291Minn.at3,188N.W.2dat870.TheMinnesotaSupremeCourt distinguished those cases because “the injurieswere inflicted suddenly andwithoutwarningand insuchamannerthecourts feltsupervisionwouldnothavepreventedthem.”Id.ThecourtalsocontrastedChristofidesv.HellenicEasternOrtho-doxChristianChurch,227N.Y.S.2d946(N.Y.Mun.Ct.1962),whereliabilitywasim-posedwhenstudentwasstabbedbyanotherstudentinaclassroomthatwasunsu-pervisedfortwenty-fiveminutes,withNashv.RapidesParishSchoolBoard.,188So.2d508(La.Ct.App.1966),wherenoliabilityattachedwhenteachercouldnothavean-ticipatedorpreventedonechildstrikinganotherintheeye.Sheehan,291Minn.at5,188N.W.2dat871.However,thecourtstatedthatitsubscribedtothepositiontakenbytheCaliforniaCourtofAppealsinZieglerv.SantaCruzCityHighSchoolDistrict.,335P.2d709(Cal.Ct.App.1959),“whichheldthat inordertorecoverdamagesa
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Weareoftheopinionthatthebetterreasonedcasespermitrecovery if there isevidence fromwhicha jurycould findthat supervisionwouldprobablyhaveprevented theacci-dent.Weneednotdecidewhethertheremayberecoveryforlackofsupervisionwhereachildisinjuredbysudden,un-anticipatedactionofafellowstudent.Thisisnotsuchacase.Here,thepebblethrowingcontinuedfor3or4minutesbe-foreplaintiffwasinjured.Undersuchcircumstances,ajurycouldproperly findthathadtheteacherbeenpresentshewould have put a stop to this dangerous activity beforeplaintiffwasstruck.74Thecourtalsoheldthataplaintiffisonlyrequiredtoprovethat
“ageneraldangerwasforeseeableandthatsupervisionwouldhavepreventedtheaccident”thatoccurred.75Proofthattheparticularac-cidentwasforeseeableisunnecessary.76
Thetakeawayfromthecourt’sdecisionsisthataspecialrelation-shipexistsbetweenaschoolanditsstudentsthatjustifiesimposingliabilityontheschoolforinadequatesupervisionthatresultsininjurytoanotherstudent.Thatdutydoesnotextendtothirdpersons.
2.CommonCarrier
Thecommoncarrier theory inFenrichwasbasedon theargu-mentthatT.M.’scarwas,ineffect,a“schoolbus,”whichmadeitacom-moncarrier.77However, thestatutorydefinitionof“schoolbus”ex-cludesmotorvehiclesofthetypeT.M.wasdriving;78thecourtquicklydisposedoftheclaimonstatutorygrounds.79
studentneedonlyprovethatageneraldangerwasforeseeableandthatsupervisionwouldhavepreventedtheaccident”andthat“[i]twasnotnecessarytoprovethattheparticularaccidentwhichoccurredwasforeseeable.”Sheehan,291Minn.at4–5,188N.W.2dat871. 74. Id.at871. 75. Id. 76. Id. 77. 920N.W.2dat203(Minn.2018). 78. Id. (citing MINN. STAT. § 169.011, subdiv. 71(a) (2016)) (explaining that“schoolbus”excluded“avehicle...qualifyingasatypeIIIvehicleunderparagraph(h),”andthusexcludedpassengercarsofthetypeT.M.wasdriving). 79. Id.
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III.DUTYANDFORESEEABLERISKS
Theremayalsobeadutywhere“thedefendant’sownconductcreatesa foreseeableriskof injury toa foreseeableplaintiff.”80Thesupremecourtagreedwiththedistrictcourtandthecourtofappealsin concluding that “the schoolwentbeyondpassive inactionbyas-sumingsupervisionandcontroloveritsathleticteam’striptoSiouxFalls.”81 The first step in the supreme court’s determination ofwhethertheschoolowedadutytotheFenrichswasfindingthattheschoolassumedsupervisionandcontroloverthetrip.82Thesecondstepturnedontheforeseeabilityofrisk.83
A.AssumptionofSupervisionandControlandtheMisfeasance/NonfeasanceIssue
Theissueofsupervisionandcontrolinthecasewaslinkedtotheissueofwhethertheschool’sactionconstitutedmisfeasancesufficienttoimposeadutytousereasonablecareontheschool.Tobetterun-derstandthecourt’sapproachtotheprobleminFenrich,itishelpfultofirsttakeabroaderlookatthemisfeasance/nonfeasanceissue.
Intortlaw,thereisordinarilynodutytoactunlessthedefendanthascreatedariskof injury.84RecentMinnesotadecisionsholdthatthereisadutyifthedefendantcreatesaforeseeableriskofinjurytoa foreseeableplaintiff.85There isnoduty if thedefendantdoesnotcreateariskof injury,86unlesstheplaintiffcanestablishoneofthe
80. Id.at202(quotingDomagalav.Rolland,805N.W.2d14,23(Minn.2011)).The“foreseeableriskofinjurytoaforeseeableplaintiff”appearedforthefirsttimeintheDomagalacase.805N.W.2dat23.UnderDomagala,dutyturnsonthecreationofaforeseeableriskofinjury.Seeid. 81. Id.at203. 82. Seeid.at203–05. 83. Seeid.at205–07. 84. RESTATEMENT (THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITY FORPHYSICAL ANDEMOTIONALHARM§7(a)(AM.LAWINST.2010)(“Anactorordinarilyhasadutytoexercisereasonablecarewhentheactor’sconductcreatesariskofphysicalharm.”).Thereare,however,limi-tationsonduty.Section7alsostatesthat“[i]nexceptionalcases,whenanarticulatedcountervailingprincipleorpolicywarrantsdenyingorlimitingliabilityinaparticularclassofcases,acourtmaydecidethatthedefendanthasnodutyorthattheordinarydutyofreasonablecarerequiresmodification.”Id.§7(b). 85. See,e.g.,Doe169v.Brandon,845N.W.2d174,178(Minn.2014);Domagala,805N.W.2dat23. 86. Restatement(Third)ofTorts:LiabilityforPhysicalandEmotionalHarm§37(Am.LawInst.2010).
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exceptions to thegeneral rule that there isnoduty innonfeasancecases.
Thelinebetweenmisfeasanceandnonfeasancemayseemclear.Ifthedefendantdoesn’tact(nonfeasance)thereisnoduty.Ifthede-fendantdoesact and creates a (foreseeable) riskof injury (misfea-sance), there isaduty toact.The line isn’tsobright inapplication,however,andfocusingjustonwhetherthereismisfeasanceornon-feasancecanbemisleading.Theissueisnotwhether
reasonablecareentailsthecommissionoromissionofaspe-cificact....Forexample,afailuretoemployanautomobile’sbrakesora failure towarnabouta latentdanger inone’sproductisnotacaseofnonfeasancegovernedbytherulesinthisChapter,becauseinthesecasestheentiretyoftheac-tor’s conduct (drivinganautomobileor sellingaproduct)createdariskofharm.This issoeventhoughthespecificconductallegedtobeabreachofthedutyofreasonablecarewasitselfanomission.87Thesupremecourt’sdecisioninHarperv.Herman88isagoodex-
ampleoftheimpactofanarrowfocusononlythefailuretoact.Theplaintiff in thecasewas injuredwhenhedoveoffaboatownedbyHermanintoshallowwateroffalakeisland.89Harperwasunawarethatthewaterwasshallow,butHerman,anexperiencedboater,knewthatitwas.90Harperwasoneoffourguestsontheboat.91Hewasin-vitedbyanotherguest,butnotbyHerman.92ThedistrictcourtheldthatHermanowednodutytowarnHarperthatthewaterwasshal-low.93Thecourtofappealsreversed,holdingthatHerman“voluntar-ilyassumedadutytoexercisereasonablecarewhenheallowed[Har-per]toembarkonhisboat,”andthathe“owedadutyofcaretowarn[Harper]not todive fromtheboatbecauseheknewthewaterwasdangerouslyshallow.”94
TheMinnesotaSupremeCourtreversed.95Thecourtframedtheissueas“whetheraboatownerwhoisasocialhostowesadutyofcare towarn a guest on the boat that thewater is too shallow for 87. Id.§37cmt.c. 88. 499N.W.2d472(Minn.1993). 89. Id.at474. 90. Id.at473. 91. Id. 92. Id. 93. Id.at474. 94. Harperv.Herman,487N.W.2d908,910(Minn.Ct.App.1992). 95. Herman,499N.W.2dat475.
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diving.”96HarperarguedthatHermanowedhimadutytowarnthatthewaterwasshallowbecauseofHarper’sinexperienceasaswim-meranddiverandHerman’sasaveteranboater.97Harperarguedthatunderthosecircumstances,HermanshouldhaveknownthatHarperneededhisprotection.98
The supremecourtbeganwith theassumption that thiswasanonfeasancecaseandthattheonlywaytoimposeadutyonHermanwastoestablishaspecialrelationshipbetweenHermanandHarper.99ThecourtheldthattherewasnorecognizedspecialrelationshipandthatHerman,therefore,didnotoweadutytowarnHarper.100Her-man’sknowledgeofthedangerousconditionalonewasinsufficienttoestablishliability.101
Thecourt’sfocusonthefailure-to-warnissueimmediatelyfore-closedanyanalysisofthesurroundingcircumstances.102HermandidnotwarnHarper of the danger of diving at the spotwhere he hadmooredtheboat.103Hadhebeenoneoftheotherpassengers,itseemsclearthathewouldnothaveowedaduty,buthewasanexperiencedboaterandhemooredtheboatinanareawherethewaterwasshal-low.104Viewingthefactsintheirentirety,itisarguablethatHermancreatedariskofinjurywhenheputtheboatinthatpositionandknewthatHarperwouldbeswimmingthere.Inthatview,hefacilitatedtheinjuryratherthansimplyfailingtopreventit.105
Focusingonthefactsintheirentiretyprovidesaclearerwayofviewingtheissue.ThesupremecourtdidthatinFenrich,usingVerhel
96. Id.at474. 97. Id. 98. Id. 99. Id. 100. Id. 101. Id.at475. 102. Seeid. 103. Id.at474. 104. Id. 105. Thisisarecurringproblem.Thetake-homeasbestoscasesaregoodexam-plesofhowtheissueshouldberesolved.Inthosecases,aworkerbringshomecloth-ingembeddedwithasbestosfibers.Anothermemberofthehouseholdcontractsas-bestosisormesotheliomabecauseofexposuretotheasbestos.Theissueiswhetherthecompanyemployingtheworkerhasadutytowarnfamilymembersofthedanger.Failuretodosoisnonfeasance,orsotheargumentgoes,butthecompanyhasaffirm-ativelycreatedariskofinjuryinexposingthefamilymemberstotheasbestos.SeeFlintv.LangerTransp.Corp.,762F.Supp.2d735(D.N.J.2011);Satterfieldv.BreedingInsulationCo.,266S.W.3d347(Tenn.2008).
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v.IndependentSchoolDist.No.709106asitstemplatefortheanalysisof the supervision issue.107 The plaintiff in Verhel, a Denfeld HighSchoolcheerleader,wasinjuredinamotorvehicleaccidentwhilerid-inginavanwithseveralothercheerleadersthatwasdrivenbyoneofthe cheerleaders.108 At the time of the accident, one week beforeschoolstarted,thecheerleaderswereputtingupbannersintheearlymorninghoursonhomesoftheschool’sfootballplayersinanticipa-tion of the first game of the season.109 Verhel sued another cheer-leaderwhowasdrivingavaninwhichVerhelandseveralothercheer-leaderswerepassengers.110
Thekeyissueinthecasewaswhethertheschooldistricthadas-sumedsupervisionandcontrolovercheerleadingatthehighschool,whichwouldthenrequireittoprovideregulationsandsupervisionformembersofthecheerleadingsquadwhiletheywereengagedincheerleadingactivities.111Followingajuryverdictfortheplaintiff,thecourtheldonappealthatthefactsweresufficienttojustifythever-dict.112
ThecourtinFenrichsawthefactsinVerhelas“strikinglysimilar”totheFenrichfacts,concludingthat“viewedinalightmostfavorable
106. 359N.W.2d579(Minn.1984). 107. Fenrich,920N.W.2dat203.ThecourtinVerhelinturnusedRaleighv.Inde-pendentSchoolDistrictNo.625,275N.W.2d572(Minn.1978),asitstemplate.Verhel,359N.W.2dat589–90.TheminorplaintiffinRaleigh,astudentatCentralHighSchoolinSt.Paul,wasslashedbyanotherstudentafteranoff-campusshowingofthefilm“KING,AFilmedRecord,MontgomerytoMemphis,”duringBlackHistoryMonthandatatimeofracialtensionattheschool.Raleigh,275N.W.2dat573.Ajuryfoundtheschooldistrict liablefornegligentlysupervisingandorganizingthestudents.Inaf-firming,thesupremecourtconcludedthat“althoughtheschooldistrictmightnotbeliableforsudden,unanticipatedmisconductoffellowstudents,itisliableforsudden,foreseeablemisconductwhichprobablycouldhavebeenpreventedbytheexerciseofordinarycare.”Id.at576.Thecourtthoughtthatthefactsofthecasemadeit“ex-tremelyclose,”butthattheevidenceshowingtheschooldistrict’sawarenessoftheracialtensionattheschoolandthelackofsupervisionandorganizationofthestu-dents,thecourtdecidedthatitcouldnotholdasamatteroflawthatthejurywasnotjustifiedinfindingabreachofdutyandinfindingcausation.Id.Hadtherebeenrea-sonablesupervision,thesuddeninjuriesmighthavebeenpreventedbyeitherinter-ruptingitordeterringitfromhappeningatall.Id. 108. Verhel,359N.W.2dat583. 109. Id. 110. Id. 111. Id.at586–87. 112. Id.at588–90.
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to Fenrich, a reasonable fact-finder could find that they constitutemisfeasance.”113
Inanalyzingtheissueofwhethertherewasmisfeasancebytheschool,thecourtfocusedonalistofspecificfactsinthecasethatsug-gestedaffirmativeactionbytheschool:
Theheadcoachstronglyencouragedtheentireteamtopar-ticipateintheNikemeetand14teammembersregistered.The assistant coach paid the bulk registration fee. Thecoacheswereactiveinpreparationforthemeet, includingthe assistant coach attending one of thepractices and re-cruitingavolunteercoachtorunthem.The assistant coach also took active responsibility forcoordinating transportation to, and lodging at, the Nikemeet.Asheput it, “weall drovedownas a team.”Heex-presslyapprovedtheplantohaveT.M.—andnotT.M.’sfa-theroranotheradult—driveteammembersandthevolun-teercoachmorethan200milestoSiouxFalls.Theassistantcoachdecidedthat thevolunteercoach,a teenager,wouldridewithT.M.Buthedidnotgivethevolunteercoachanysafety instructions—suchastosit inthefrontseat, topayattention(ratherthanbedistractedbyelectronicdevices),andtomakesurethatT.M.droveresponsibly.NordidtheassistantcoachgiveanyinstructionstoT.M.,except,duringabreak,to“keepitsafeandkeeprolling.”114TheFenrichcourtborrowedVerhel’sconclusionthatthissortof
driving“behavior,ormisbehavior,byunsupervisedstudentsistobeexpectedandispreciselytheharmtobeguardedagainstbytheexer-ciseoftheschooldistrict’ssupervision,”andrejectedthedissent’sar-gumentthattheschool’sdutyshouldbelimitedonlytoitsownstu-dents.115 The court concluded that, on those facts, “a reasonablefactfindercouldconcludethattheschool’sownconductwasmisfea-sant.”116
IV.DUTYANDFORESEEABILITY
Misfeasance—creatingariskofinjury—providespartoftheba-sis forthedutydeterminationunderMinnesota law,buttheriskof
113. Fenrich,920N.W.2dat204. 114. Id.at199–200. 115. Id.at205. 116. Id.at204.
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injury has to be foreseeable. The foreseeability issue, includingwhetherthejudgeorjurydecidesit,iscriticaltothatdetermination.
A.TheRecentCases
Montemayorv.SebrightProducts,Inc.,117andSenoglesv.Carl-son,118arekeyrecentcasesaddressingthatissue,andtheyarefoun-dationalforthecourt’sconsiderationoftheissueinFenrich.Ineachcase,oneinvolvingtheforeseeabilityissueinaproductsliabilitycaseandtheotheracaseinvolvingalandowner’sduty,thesupremecourtconcludedthat,viewingtheevidenceandinferencestobedrawnfromitinfavorofthenon-movingparties,summaryjudgmentbasedontheconclusionthattheinjurieswerenotforeseeableasamatteroflawwasinappropriate.119
It seems clear that the court isnot establishinganew rule forsummary judgment cases involving the foreseeability issue,120 but 117. 898N.W.2d623(Minn.2017). 118. 902N.W.2d38(Minn.2017).ForananalysisofMontemayorandSenoglesandtheforeseeabilityissue,seeMikeSteenson,Duty,Foreseeability,andMontemayorv.SebrightProductsInc.,39MITCHELLHAMLINEL.J.PUB.POL’Y&PRAC.31,44–47(2018).InWarrenv.Dinter,No.A17-0555,2019WL1646469(Minn.Apr.17,2019),amedicalnegligencecasethesupremecourtheld,inacaseoffirstimpression,thattheallegeddecisionofahospitalisttodenyadmissionofapatienttoahospitalcouldconstituteprofessional negligence, even absent a physician-patient relationship between thehospitalist and theperson forwhomanurse-practitioner in adifferent clinicwasseekingadmission.Thecourtnotedthatithas“neverheldthatsucharelationshipisnecessarytomaintainamalpracticeactionunderMinnesotalaw,”andthat“[t]othecontrary:whenthereisnoexpressphysician-patientrelationship,wehaveturnedtothetraditionalinquiryofwhetheratortdutyhasbeencreatedbyforeseeabilityofharm.”Id.at*4.Thecourtbracketeditsanalysiswithtwocasesdecidedeighty-fiveyearsapart,Skillingsv.Allen,143Minn.323,173N.W.663(1919)(parentsofdaugh-terwithscarletfeverweretoldthatshewasnotcontagiousandthattheycouldvisitherinthehospital),andMolloyv.Meier,679N.W.2d711,717(Minn.2004)(physi-cians’failuretodisclosethatakeytesttodeterminegeneticdisorderwasnotper-formedondaughterwithgeneticdisorder).Thosecases,saidthecourt,“teachusthatadutyarisesbetweenaphysicianandanidentifiedthirdpartywhenthephysicianprovidesmedicaladviceanditisforeseeablethatthethirdpartywillrelyonthatad-vice.”2019WL1646469,at*5. 119. Senogles,902N.W.2dat48;Montemayor,898N.W.2dat633. 120. TheMinnesota cases are sprinkledwith the “close cases” rubric.See, e.g.,Bjerke v. Johnson, 742N.W.2d 660, 667–68 (Minn. 2007); Lundgren v. Fultz, 354N.W.2d25,28(Minn.1984).Butevenwithouttheterm“closecases,”acarefulsiftingofthefactsisnothingnew.SeeIll.FarmersIns.Co.v.TapemarkCo.,273N.W.2d630,637–38(Minn.1978).Attimes,theMinnesotaSupremeCourthasexpressedconcernaboutleavingtheforeseeabilityissuetojuries.See,e.g.,Cooneyv.Hooks,535N.W.2d
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ratheranapproachthatmoreclearlygivesthebenefitofthedoubttothe injured plaintiff in cases that are on the fence. The court’s ap-proachinMontemayorandSenogleswasreinforcedinarecentdeci-sion,Hensonv.UptownDrink,LLC.121
Hensonaroseoutofthedeathofanoff-dutybaremployeewhoslippedandhithisheadonthesidewalkwhileaidingthebarmanagerinescortinganintoxicatedanddisruptivepatronfromthebar.122Theplaintiff asserted innkeeper’s liabilityandCivilDamagesAct claimsagainstthebar.123Theinnkeeper’sliabilityclaimrequiredproofthattheinjurywasforeseeable,124whichthedistrictcourtheldinvolvedaclosequestionoffact.125Thesupremecourtaffirmedthatholding.126The evidence was clear that the disruptive patrons had been industupswithotherpatronsandbaremployeesbeforethealtercationthatledtoHenson’sdeath.127Thecourtconcludedthatthe“evidenceisenoughtocreateadisputedissueofmaterialfactordisputedrea-sonableinferencesfromundisputedfacts.”128
609,612(Minn.1995);Alholmv.Wilt,394N.W.2d488,491n.5(Minn.1986).Thatshipseemstohavesailed,however. 121. 922N.W.2d185(Minn.2019). 122. Id.at188–89. 123. Id.at190. 124. Id. 125. Id.at192.Thecourtofappealsaffirmedthedistrictcourt’sfindingbutre-versedthecourt’sconclusionthattheplaintiffassumedtheriskbecausetheissueofwhetherthedefendantenlargedtherisktotheplaintiffpresentedafactquestionforthefact-finder.Hensonv.UptownDrink,LLC,906N.W.2d533,540(Minn.Ct.App.2017). The supreme court reversed that determination, holding that primary as-sumptionofriskdidnotapplyininnkeeperliabilitycases.Henson,922N.W.2dat191.Coupledwithitssame-daydecisionintheskiingaccidentcaseofSoderbergv.Ander-son,922N.W.2d200(Minn.2019),thecourtnarrowlyconfinedthedoctrineofpri-maryassumptionofrisktocasesinvolvinginherentlydangeroussportingactivities.Seeid.at206. 126. Henson,922N.W.2dat192.Thecourtexplainedthattheinnkeeperliabilitytheoryrequiresproofoffourelements:“(1)noticeoftheoffendingparty’s‘viciousordangerouspropensities’by‘someactorthreat,’(2)adequateopportunityfortheinn-keepertoprotecttheinjuredpatron,(3)failureonthepartoftheinnkeepertotakereasonablesteps todoso,and(4) foreseeable injury. Id. at190(quotingBoonev.Martinez,567N.W.2d508,510(Minn.1997)). 127. Id.at192–93. 128. Id.at193.
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B.ForeseeabilityinFenrich
TheMinnesotaCourtofAppealsinFenrichdrewthelineincon-cludingthattheschooldidnotoweadutytotheplaintiffsbecausetheaccidentwasnotforeseeableasamatteroflaw.129TheMinnesotaSu-premeCourtdrewthelineinadifferentplaceandreversed.130
Thecourtlauncheditsdiscussionoftheforeseeabilityissuewithanodtothefamiliarstandardsthecourthasusedinothercases.ThecourtlookedtoFossv.Kincadeforthepropositionthatin“determin-ingwhetheradanger is foreseeable, [thecourt] ‘look[s]atwhetherthespecificdangerwasobjectivelyreasonabletoexpect,notsimplywhether itwaswithin the realmofanyconceivablepossibility.’”131Thekeyquestioniswhetherforeseeabilityisaquestionforthecourtorforthejury.132Thecourthasconsistentlytakenthepositionthat,whiledutyisaquestionoflawforthecourt,foreseeabilityisaques-tionforthetrieroffactinclosecases.133
Because summary judgmentwasgranted for thedefendantontheforeseeabilityissue,thecourtviewedtheevidenceandreasonableinferencestobedrawnfromtheevidenceintheplaintiff’sfavor.134
Thecourtlistedthekeyfacts,onbothsidesoftheissue:• T.M.’sparentssaidthattheywerecomfortableinhaving
T.M.,alicenseddriver,drivetothemeet.• TherewasnoevidencethatT.M.hadanyhistoryofim-
properdriving.• T.M. was following the vehicle driven by the assistant
coach.• TherewasnoindicationthatT.M.wastired.135
Thefactsalsoindicatedthat:• T.M. was only sixteen and had been licensed for six
months, and was not legally entitled to drive multiplepassengersundertheageof20.
129. Fenrichv.BlakeSch.,901N.W.2d223,234(Minn.Ct.App.2017). 130. Fenrichv.BlakeSch.,920N.W.2d195,207(Minn.2018). 131. Id.at 205 (quoting Foss v. Kincade, 766N.W.2d 317, 322 (Minn. 2009)).However,thereareotherformulations. 132. Foss,766N.W.2dat322–23. 133. SeeSenoglesv. Carlson,902N.W.2d38,44 (Minn.2017);Montemayorv.SebrightProds.,Inc.,898N.W.2d623,629(Minn.2017);Domagalav.Rolland,805N.W.2d 14, 27 (Minn. 2011); Bjerke v. Johnson, 742 N.W.2d 660, 667–68 (Minn.2007). 134. Fenrich,920N.W.2dat205. 135. Id.
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• Theassistantcoachdidnotprovidehimwithanydirec-tionsinpreparationforthedrive,otherthanto“keepitsafeandkeeprolling.”
• TheassistantcoachtoldthevolunteercoachtoridewithT.M.,butdidnotgivehimanyspecificdirectionstomon-itorT.M.’sdriving,norwasthevolunteercoachtoldtositinthefrontseatwherehecouldhavebettermonitoredT.M.’sdriving.
• Absentadultsupervision,therecordindicatedthatT.M.wasdistractedbyanelectronicdevicewhiledriving,andthatmayhavebeenthecauseoftheaccident.136
Thecourtsummedup:“Areasonablefactfindercouldconcludethat, under these circumstances, it was foreseeable that a teenagedriveronalongtrip,inacarwiththreeotherteenagers,couldgetdis-tractedandcollidewithanotherdriver.”137Thecourtsawitasa“closecall,”138butthattheissuehadtoberesolvedattrial.
V.THETRIAL
ThelastparagraphoftheFenrichopinionprovidesguidepostsfortrialofthecase:
Aswedidintworecentcasesinvolvingtheissueofdutyofcareinthecontextofsummaryjudgment,wedecidetodaythatforeseeabilityisatleastaclosecall,meaningthatsum-maryjudgmentontheelementofdutywasnotappropriateandthecaseshouldhavebeentried.Nothinginourdecisionprevents thedistrict court fromdecidingby trialwhetherthefactsshowmisfeasanceornonfeasance.Andnothinginourdecisionprevents the school fromarguingat trial thespecificelementsofnegligence:thattheschoolhadnodutybecauseitsconductdidnotcreateaforeseeableriskofin-jurytoFenrich;thattheschooldidnotbreachaduty;andthattheschool’sconductwasnotthedirectandproximatecauseoftheinjuries.139First,“foreseeabilityisatleastaclosecall,”makingitanissuefor
trial.140Second,nothinginthesupremecourt’sdecisionpreventsthe
136. Id.at206. 137. Id.at206(citingBjerke,742N.W.2dat667). 138. Id.at205(citingSenogles,902N.W.2dat48;Montemayor,898N.W.2dat633). 139. Id.at206–07(citationsomitted). 140. Id.at207.
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districtcourtfromdeciding“bytrialwhetherthefactsshowmisfea-sanceornonfeasance.”141Third,thereisnothinginthecourt’sopinionthat“preventstheschoolfromarguingattrialthespecificelementsofnegligence.”142That includes thearguments that theschooldidnotoweadutytotheFenrichsbecausetherewasnoforeseeableriskofinjury;thattheschooldidnotbreachitsduty;and“thattheschool’sconductwasnot thedirectandproximatecauseof the injuries.”143Theissuesareeitherfortrial,toberesolvedattrial,orbytrial.Sum-mary judgment is inappropriate,but thatonlymeansthereare factissuestoberesolvedattrial.Theplaintiffmayormaynotprevail,buttheplaintiffmadeenoughofashowingtogetthecasetotrial.144Butwhodecidestheissues,judgeorjury?Andwhataretheguidelinesiftheissuesareforjuryresolution?
A.Foreseeability
Theissueofdutyisaquestionoflawforthecourt.145Acourtmaydecidethatthere isnodutyforreasonsofprincipleorpolicy,146or 141. Id.(emphasisadded). 142. Id.(emphasisadded). 143. Id.TherearefourelementstoanegligenceclaiminMinnesota:duty,breachofduty,proximatecause,anddamages.See,e.g.,Bjerkev.Johnson,742N.W.2d660,664(Minn.2007);Gradjelickv.Hance,646N.W.2d225,230(Minn.2002);Funchessv.CecilNewmanCorp.,632N.W.2d666,672(Minn.2001);Lubbersv.Anderson,539N.W.2d398,401(Minn.1995). 144. Onmotionsforsummaryjudgment,courtsweightheevidence,determinewitnesscredibility,resolvefactualdisputes,ordecidethemeritsofthecase.Foleyv.WCCOTelevision,Inc.,449N.W.2d497,506(Minn.Ct.App.1989).AsthesupremecourtnotedinLundgrenv.Fultz,theissueofwhethertheshootingwasforeseeablepresentedaclosequestionthatshouldberesolvedbyajury.354N.W.2d25,28(Minn.1984).LundgreninvolvedtheallegednegligenceofaUniversityofMinnesotapsychi-atristforrecommendingtoUniversitypolicethattheyreturnhandgunstooneofhispatients,whothenusedoneofthegunsinarandomshooting.Id.at26–27.Thecourtnotedthat“[i]tmaybethatplaintiffwillbeunabletoproveacase,eithertothetrialcourtorthejury,butenoughofashowinghasbeenmadetoescapeasummaryjudg-mentmotion.”Id.at29. 145. SeeDomagalav.Rolland,805N.W.2d14,22(Minn.2011). 146. PolicyissuesrelatingtodutypermeatetheMinnesotacases.Seee.g.,Funch-ess,632N.W.2dat673(discussinglandlord’sdutytotenant);K.A.C.v.Benson,527N.W.2d553,561(Minn.1995)(discussingnegligentexposuretoAIDS);M.H.v.Cari-tasFam.Serv.,488N.W.2d282,287–88(Minn.1992)(discussingnegligentmisrepre-sentationbyanadoptionagency);Lundgren,354N.W.2dat27(discussingpsychia-trist’sdutytocontrolconductofapatient);Stadlerv.Cross,295N.W.2d552,554-55(Minn.1980)(discussingnegligentinflictionofemotionaldistress).Stadlerisagoodexampleofacasewheretheemotionalharmwasinflictedupontheparentswhowere
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that an injury or accident is not foreseeable as amatter of law.147However,evenifpolicyhurdlesarecleared,theremaybefactualdis-putesthathavetoberesolvedbeforeliabilitycanbeimposed.148Fore-seeabilityisoneofthoseissues.
Foreseeabilitybecomesa jury issue in closecases.This canbehandledinoneofthreeways.First,therecouldbeaspecificjuryin-struction and correlative special verdict question on the issue thatwouldprecedeajury’sconsiderationofthebreachissue.Second,theforeseeabilityissuecouldbeaspecificfactorforthejurytodecideinconsideringthebreachissue.Third, the jurycouldbe instructedonthegeneralnegligence issueandasked to simplyconsiderwhetherthedefendantusedreasonablecare,withoutspecificmentionoffore-seeability.
Ifthefirstapproachisfollowed,afindingthataninjuryoracci-dentwasunforeseeablemightbeconclusiveonthedutyissue,butafindingthattheinjuryoraccidentisforeseeablewouldnotbeconclu-sive on the breach issue. The jury would still have to determinewhether the defendant used reasonable care under the circum-stances.149
neartheirchildwhenthechildwashitbyatruck.295N.W.2dat553.Theissueinthecasewaswhetherthesupremecourtshouldadoptbystanderrecoverytheory inanegligent inflictionofemotionaldistresscase. Id.Whiletheemotionalharmtothebystander parents, whowere nearby when their five-year-old child was hit by apickup truck, may have been foreseeable, the supreme court held that recoveryshouldbelimitedtothezone-of-dangerrule,whichhadbeentheruleinMinnesotasincePurcellv.St.PaulCityRy.Co.,48Minn.134,50N.W.1034(1892).Stadler,295N.W.2dat553. 147. SeeFossv.Kincade,766N.W.2d317,323(Minn.2009)(holdingitisunfore-seeablethatachildwouldattempttoclimbabookcaseinaneighbor’shome). 148. See,e.g.,Huberv.NiagaraMach.andToolWorks,430N.W.2d465,467(Minn.1988)(citationsomitted)(holdingamanufacturer’sdutytowarnisaquestionoflawforresolutionbythecourt,but if there isaspecific factualdisputeconcerningthemanufacturer’s awareness of a risk, the issue should be resolved by the jury);RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§40cmt.e(AM.LAWINST.2010)(“Ifdisputedhistoricalfactsbearonwhethertherelationshipexists,aswithadisputeoverwhetheraplaintiffwasapayingguestinahotelorwasatrespasser,thejuryshouldresolvethefactualdisputewithappropriatealternativeinstructions.”).Asanotherexample,theremaybeafactquestionastowhetheranentrantonlandisatrespasser.Theentrant’sstatuswillbedeterminativeofthedutyissue.Id.§50cmt.e,Reporters’Note. 149. See4MNPRACCIVJIG25.10(6thed.2014).CIVJIG25.10isthestandardjuryinstructiononnegligence.Seeid.“Negligence”isdefinedas“thefailuretousereason-ablecare.” Id.The instructiongoeson toprovide that there isnegligence “whena
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Thesecondapproachwouldrequireamodificationofthestand-ardjuryinstructiontoincludethestandardfactorsrelatingtobreach.TheThirdRestatementofTortsprovidesthat:
Apersonactsnegligentlyifthepersondoesnotexerciserea-sonablecareunderallthecircumstances.Primaryfactorstoconsiderinascertainingwhethertheperson’sconductlacksreasonablecarearetheforeseeablelikelihoodthattheper-son’sconductwillresultinharm,theforeseeableseverityofanyharmthatmayensue,andtheburdenofprecautionstoeliminateorreducetheriskofharm.150Includingthosefactorsinajuryinstructionwouldbeconsistent
withexistingMinnesotacase law.Forexample, inEricksonv.CurtisInvestmentCo., the supremecourt concluded inaparking-ramp-as-saultcasethatthenegligenceissuewasforthejury,butthecourtalsoheldthatthejuryinstructioninthecaseshouldincludetheforeseea-bilityissue:
Weholdthatthedutyshouldbedefinedandexplainedtothejuryalongthe following lines:Theoperatororownerofaparkingrampfacilityhasaduty tousereasonablecare todetercriminalactivityonitspremiseswhichmaycauseper-sonal harm to customers. The care to be provided is thatcarewhichareasonablyprudentoperatororownerwouldprovideunderlikecircumstances.Amongthecircumstancesto be considered are the location and construction of theramp, thepractical feasibility and cost of various securitymeasures,andtheriskofpersonalharmtocustomerswhichtheowneroroperatorknows,orintheexerciseofduecareshouldknow,presentsareasonablelikelihoodofhappening.Inthisconnection,theowneroroperatorisnotaninsurerorguarantorofthesafetyofitspremisesandcannotbeex-pectedtopreventallcriminalactivity.Thefactthatacrimi-nalassaultoccursonthepremises,standingalone,isnotev-idence that the duty to deter criminal acts has beenbreached.151
person ... [d]oessomethinga reasonablepersonwouldnotdo;or ... [f]ails todosomethingareasonablepersonwoulddo.”Id. 150. Restatement(Third)ofTorts:LiabilityforPhysicalandEmotionalHarm§3(Am.LawInst.2010). 151. 447N.W.2d165,169–70(Minn.1989).Thereareotherexamples.InBilottav.KelleyCo.,JusticeSimonettsuggestedthatajurymightbeinstructedondesignde-fectasfollows:Aproductisunsafelydesignedif,byreasonofitsdesign,theproductisinadefectiveconditionunreasonablydangeroustotheuser.Themanufacturerhasadutytouse
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Justice Simonett’s proposed instruction inBilotta v. Kelley Co.specifically includes the foreseeability issue.152 Short of that, how-ever,thegeneraljuryinstructionencompassesforeseeability,justasitencompasses theother factors involved indeterminingbreachofduty.153
Thethirdalternativeistosimplyusethestandardinstructiononnegligencewithoutanyspecificmentionofforeseeability.Thecourt’sconcerninits“closecases”istobesuretheissueisresolvedattrial.154Foreseeabilitywillbethesubjectofproofandargument.Survivingamotionforsummaryjudgmentontheissuedoesnotmeanthatfore-seeabilitywillnotbethesubjectofproofandargumentattrial.Ade-fendantmaymove for judgmentasamatterof law if theplaintiff’sproofisdeficient,andiftheplaintiffsurvivesthatmotion,thedefend-antmayarguethattheinjuryissounanticipatedthatthedefendantshouldnotbeconsiderednegligentforfailuretoguardagainstit.
Asecondquestioniswhethertherehastobeaspecificjuryin-structiononthemisfeasance/nonfeasanceissue.Here,thekeyissueiswhetherthedefendantactedaffirmativelyincreatingariskofin-jury.InFenrich,thefactsatthesummaryjudgmentstageweresuffi-cient to justify resolving the misfeasance/nonfeasance issue at
duecaretodesignaproductthatdoesnotcreateanunreasonableriskofharmtoanyonewhoislikelytobeexposedtothedangerwhentheproductisputtoitsin-tendeduseortoanyunintendedyetreasonablyforeseeableuse.346N.W.2d616,626n.2(Minn.1984)(Simonett,J.,concurringspecially).InPetersonv.Balach,294Minn.161,174,199N.W.2d639,648n.7(1972),thecourtsuggestedthatajurymightbeinstructedonvariousfactorstodeterminetheliabilityoflandownersincasesinvolvinginjuriestoentrantsonland:“Amongthefactorstobeconsideredmightbethecircumstancesunderwhichtheentrantenterstheland(licenseeorinvitee);foreseeabilityorpossibilityofharm;dutytoinspect,repair,orwarn;reasonablenessofinspectionorrepair;andopportunityandeaseofrepairorcorrection.” 152. 346N.W.2dat626n.2. 153. TheThirdRestatementofTortsprovidesthat:Apersonactsnegligentlyifthepersondoesnotexercisereasonablecareunderallthecircumstances.Primaryfactorstoconsiderinascertainingwhethertheperson’scon-ductlacksreasonablecarearetheforeseeablelikelihoodthattheperson’sconductwillresultinharm,theforeseeableseverityofanyharmthatmayensue,andthebur-denofprecautionstoeliminateorreducetheriskofharm.Restatement(Third)ofTorts:LiabilityforPhysicalandEmotionalHarm§3(Am.LawInst.2010). 154. See,e.g.,Bjerkev.Johnson,742N.W.2d660,667–68(Minn.2007);Lundgrenv.Fultz,354N.W.2d25,28(Minn.1984).
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trial.155Giventhenecessityofconsideringthetotalityofthecircum-stancesinresolvingtheissue,156themostlogicalassumptionisthatthe issueofwhether there ismisfeasanceornonfeasancehas tobetestedbyamotionforjudgmentasamatteroflaw.
Thefactualcausationissueisforthetrieroffactpursuanttothestandard instructions defining direct cause,157 but the proximate
155. Fenrichv.BlakeSch.,920N.W.2d195,207(Minn.2018). 156. Satterfieldv.BreedingInsulationCompany,266S.W.3d347(Tenn.2008),isagoodexampleofwhyitisnecessarytoconsiderthetotalityofthecircumstancesindetermining whether the case involvesmisfeasance or nonfeasance. The case in-volvedasuitbytheestateofadaughterwhoallegedthatshehadcontractedmeso-theliomafromrepeatedexposuretoherfather’sasbestos-contaminatedworkclothesoveranextendedperiodoftime.Id.at351–52.Thedefendant-employerarguedthatithadnodutytohertopreventherexposure.Id.at352.Thecourtsummarizedtheessentialissue:Theunderlyingdisputeinthiscaseisfundamentallyoneofcharacterizationandclas-sification.HasAlcoaengagedinanaffirmativeactthatcreatedanunreasonableandforeseeableriskofharmtoMs.Satterfield?IfAlcoadidcreatesuchariskofharm,aretherecountervailinglegalprinciplesorpolicyconsiderationsthatwarrantdetermin-ingthatAlcoaneverthelessowednodutyMs.Satterfield?Or,alternatively,doesthiscaseinvolveanomissionbyAlcoainfailingtocontroltheactionsofMr.Satterfield,itsemployee?Id.at355.TheTennesseeSupremeCourtreliedonProsserandKeeton’sdistinctionbetweenmisfeasanceandnonfeasance:Inthedeterminationoftheexistenceofaduty,thererunsthroughmuchofthelawadistinctionbetweenactionandinaction....[T]herearoseveryearlyadifference,stilldeeplyrootedinthelawofnegligence,between“misfeasance”and“nonfeasance”—thatistosay,betweenactivemisconductworkingpositiveinjurytoothersandpas-siveinactionorafailuretotakestepstoprotectthemfromharm.Thereasonforthedistinctionmaybesaidtolieinthefactthatby‘misfeasance’thedefendanthascre-atedanewriskofharmtotheplaintiff,whileby‘nonfeasance’hehasatleastmadehissituationnoworse,andhasmerelyfailedtobenefithimbyinterferinginhisaf-fairs.Id.at356(quotingW.PageKeeton,ProsserandKeetonontheLawofTorts§56,at373(5thed.1984)).Thecourtusedtheclassicexampleofadriverwhoseesapedestrianinacrosswalkbutfailstobrakeintimetoavoidinjuringher.Id.at357.Whilethefailuretoapplythebrakesisanomission,thedriverdrovethecarnegligently.Seeid.It’smisfeasanceratherthannonfeasance.Id.(citingJohnC.P.Goldberg&BenjaminC.Zipursky,TheRestatement(Third)andthePlaceofDutyinNegligenceLaw,54VAND.L.REV.657,691(2001)).Thecourtconcludedthat“AlcoaengagedinmisfeasancethatsetinmotionariskofharmtoMs.Satterfield.”Id.at364. 157. Thepatterninstructionsdefine“directcause”as“acausethathadasubstan-tial part in bringing about the (collision) (accident) (event) (harm) (injury).” 4MNPRACCIVJIG27.10(6thed.2014).
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causeissuedoespresentproblemsifitisafactissueforthetrieroffact.Theproximate cause issuepresents someproblems, given thelack of consistency in the proximate-cause standards the supremecourthasusedinitsdecisions.Forexample,in1896,JusticeMitchellframeditthiswayinChristianson:
What amanmay reasonably anticipate is important, andmaybedecisive,indeterminingwhetheranactisnegligent,butisnotatalldecisiveindeterminingwhetherthatactistheproximatecauseofaninjurywhichensues.Ifapersonhadnoreasonablegroundtoanticipatethataparticularactwould or might result in any injury to anybody, then, ofcourse,theactwouldnotbenegligentatall;but,iftheactitselfisnegligent,thenthepersonguiltyofitisequallyliableforallitsnaturalandproximateconsequences,whetherhecouldhaveforeseenthemornot.Otherwiseexpressed,thelawisthatiftheactisonewhichthepartyought,intheex-erciseofordinarycare,tohaveanticipatedwasliabletore-sultininjurytoothers,thenheisliableforanyinjuryproxi-mately resulting from it, although he could not haveanticipatedtheparticularinjurywhichdidhappen.Conse-quenceswhichfollowinunbrokensequence,withoutanin-terveningefficientcause,fromtheoriginalnegligentact,arenaturalandproximate;andforsuchconsequencestheorig-inal wrongdoer is responsible, even though he could nothaveforeseentheparticularresultswhichdidfollow.158But,inLubbersv.Anderson,a1995case,theMinnesotaSupreme
Courtframedtheproximatecausetestasrequiringforesight:Wehavesaidthatinorderforaparty’snegligencetobetheproximatecauseofaninjury“theact[mustbe]onewhichthepartyought,intheexerciseofordinarycare,tohavean-ticipatedwaslikelytoresultininjurytoothers, ...thoughhecouldnothaveanticipatedtheparticularinjurywhichdidhappen.”159InGeorgev.EstateofBaker, thesupremecourt recentlystated
thatproximatecausemeansthatthenegligentactmusthavebeen“a
158. Christiansonv.Chicago,St.P.,M.&O.Ry.Co.,67Minn.94,97,69N.W.640,641(1896).Thesupremecourthasreaffirmedthestandardseveraltimes.See,e.g.,Kronzerv.FirstNat.BankofMinneapolis,305Minn.415,426,235N.W.2d187,194(1975);Orwickv.Belshan,304Minn.338,349,231N.W.2d90,97(1975);Hilligossv.CrossCos.,304Minn.546,547,228N.W.2d585,586(1975);Dellwov.Pearson,259Minn.452,454–56,107N.W.2d859,861–62(1961). 159. Lubbersv.Anderson,539N.W.2d398,401(Minn.1995).
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substantialfactorintheharm’soccurrence.”160Thatisthestandardusedinthepatternjuryinstructionsonproximatecause,althoughthepattern instruction uses the term “direct cause.”161 The court inGeorgerejectedthe“butfor”standardastheproximatecausestand-ard“because‘[i]naphilosophicalsense,thecausesofanaccidentgobacktothebirthofthepartiesandthediscoveryofAmerica.’”162Thecourt said, however, that while the defendant’s negligent conductmusthavebeena“substantialfactor”intheinjury,italsohadto,ataminimum,havebeena“but-for”causeoftheplaintiff’sinjury.163But-forcausationbecomesanecessarybutnotsufficientconditionforcau-sation.164Therelationshipofthe“substantialfactor”standardtode-terminationsconcerningthescopeofadefendant’sresponsibilityfortheconsequencesofnegligentconductisnotclear.
Thatleavesthelawwiththreeembeddedstandards.Sometimes,thecourts,concernedabouttheproximatecauseissue,willconcludethatanobviousbut-forcauseofaninjuryisnotacause,butan“occa-sion”fortheinjury.165TherealdifficultyisthatMinnesotalawlacksamechanismforresolvingissuesconcerningscopeofliability.Perhapsthesimplestviewistofocusonthenegligentactsthatmadethede-fendant’sacts tortious,and thenaskingwhether the injury thatoc-curred is similar enough for thedefendant tobe responsible for it.ThatisthepositiontakenintheThirdRestatementofTorts.166
160. 724N.W.2d1,10(Minn.2006).TheMinnesotaSupremeCourtreaffirmedthisasthetestforproximatecauseincaseinvolvingCivilDamagesActclaims.SeeOsbornev.TwinTownBowl,Inc.,749N.W.2d367,372(Minn.2008). 161. 4MNPRACCIVJIG27.10(6thed.2014). 162. George,724N.W.2dat10–11(citationomitted). 163. Id. 164. Id. 165. See Kryzer v. ChamplinAmer. LegionNo. 600, 494N.W.2d 35, 37 (Minn.1992)(intoxicationofpatronwhowasinjuredwhilebeingejectedfromthelegionclubwasnotthecauseofherinjury,butonlythe“occasion”). 166. TheThirdRestatement’sprovisiongoverningthescopeofliabilityprovides,simply,that“[a]nactor’sliabilityislimitedtothoseharmsthatresultfromtherisksthatmadetheactor’sconducttortious.”RESTATEMENT(THIRD)OFTORTS:LIABILITYFORPHYSICALANDEMOTIONALHARM§29(AM.LAWINST.2010).TheRestatementrejectstheterm“proximatecause”becauseoftheconfusionitcauses.Id.§29cmt.b.Theconceptisstraightforward.Firstdeterminewhatrisksledtotheconclusionthatthedefendantactednegligently. Second, determinewhether the injury sustainedby theplaintifffallswithinthescopeofthenegligentlycreatedrisks.TheReporters’Notestocom-ment(b)ofsection29offeredthefouralternativeinstructions:
(1) Youmustdecidewhethertheharmtotheplaintiffiswithinthescope of the defendant’s liability. To do that, you must first
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VI.CONCLUSION
Fenrichv.BlakeSchoolhighlightsrecurringissuesinMinnesotatort law, including the special relationship issue, the misfea-sance/nonfeasanceproblem,andtheissueofwhenforeseeabilitybe-comesaquestionforthetrieroffactandnotthejudge.Italsoinvitesinquiryintotheappropriatemethodofresolvingthoseissuesattrial,alongwiththeotherbasicissuesinanegligencecase.
TheessentialquestioninFenrichconcernedaschool’sresponsi-bilityfortheactionsofoneofitsstudentsincausinganaccidentwhile
considerwhyyoufoundthedefendantnegligent[orsomeotherbasisfortortliability].Youshouldconsiderallofthedangersthatthedefendantshouldhavetakenreasonablesteps[orothertortobligation] to avoid. The defendant is liable for the plaintiff’sharmifyoufindthattheplaintiff’sharmarosefromthesamegen-eral type of danger that was one of those that the defendantshouldhavetakenreasonablesteps[orothertortobligation]toavoid.Iftheplaintiff’sharm,however,didnotarisefromthesamegeneral dangers that the defendant failed to take reasonablesteps[orothertortobligation]toavoid,thenyoumustfindthatthedefendantisnotliablefortheplaintiff’sharm.
(2) Youmustdecidewhethertheharmtotheplaintiffiswithinthescopeof thedefendant’s liability.Theplaintiff’sharm iswithinthescopeofdefendant’sliabilityifthatharmarosefromthesamegeneraltypeofdangerthatwasamongthedangersthatthede-fendantshouldhavetakenreasonablesteps[orothertortobliga-tion]toavoid.Ifyoufindthattheplaintiff’sharmarosefromsuchadanger,youshallfindthedefendantliableforthatharm.Ifyoufindtheplaintiff’sharmarosefromsomeotherdanger,thenyoushallfindforthedefendant.
(3) Todecideifthedefendantisliablefortheplaintiff’sharm,thinkaboutthedangersyouconsideredwhenyoufoundthedefendantnegligent [orotherwise subject to tort liability].Thenconsidertheplaintiff’sharm.Youmust find thedefendant liable for theplaintiff’sharmifitarosefromoneofthedangersthatmadethedefendantnegligent [orotherwisesubject to tort liability].Youmustfindthedefendantnotliableforharmthatarosefromdif-ferentdangers.
(4) Youmustdecidewhetherthseplaintiff’sharmwasofthesamegeneral type of harm that the defendant should have acted toavoid.Ifyoufindthatitis,youshallfindfortheplaintiff.Ifyoufindthatitisnotthesamegeneraltype,youmustfindforthede-fendant.
Id.§29cmt.b,Reporters’Note.Thefourthalternativeisthesimplest.Seeid.Thescopeofliabilityconceptiscapturedinthefirstsentence.Seeid.Thesecondwouldnotbeusedwhenthecaseissubmittedonaspecialverdict.Seeid.
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onatripwithotherstudentsandanassistantandvolunteercoachtoanout-of-seasoncrosscountrymeetinanotherstate.167Theschool’sliabilityturnedonwhethertherewasaspecialrelationshipbetweentheschoolandthestudentthatwouldimposeadutyontheschooltousereasonablecarefortheprotectionofathirdperson,and, ifnot,whethertheschoolcreatedanaffirmativeriskofinjurybecauseofitsinvolvementincoordinatingarrangementstosendthestudentstothemeet,and,ifitdid,whetheritwasforeseeabletotheschoolthatanaccidentinvolvingastudentdriverwouldoccur.168
Themicroviewisthatsummaryjudgmentwasinappropriateandthatthekeyissueshadtoberesolvedattrial.169Butdecisionsrever-berate.Fenrichstandsforbroaderpropositions.Oneisthatthecourtrejectedanycategoricalrulethatschoolscouldnotbeliableforinju-riescausedbystudentstothirdparties.170Althoughthatmayappeartocreatethepossibilityforapotentiallyunlimitedexpansionofliabil-ity,171thecourt’sfact-specificanalysisofthecaseanddisinclinationto find a special relationship between the school and student thatwouldimposeadutyontheschoolfortheprotectionofthirdpersonsbeliesthatconcern.
Incasesinvolvingclosecallsontheforeseeabilityissue,thesu-premecourtcontinuestorequireresolutionoftheissuebythetrieroffactwherethereareconflictedinferencesthatcanbedrawnfromthe facts.Thecourt’scontinuedcautionsonthat issuearecertainlyconsistentwithpastdecisions,buttheimpactisthatthecourt’sfoot-printinitsrecentdecisionsisclearinrequiringcarefulconsiderationofsummaryjudgmentmotionsinvolvingtheforeseeabilityissue.
167. Fenrichv.BlakeSch.,920N.W.2d195,198(Minn.2018). 168. Id.at201–02. 169. Id.at205. 170. Id.at202. 171. Id.at207(Anderson,J.,dissenting).
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